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remained fairly constant, the present pattern being that of the
remained fairly constant, the present pattern being that of the

... female to copulate. Consequently male colour-pattern is particularly conservative, as demonstrated by the rarity of polymorphism in male butterflies as compared with females. For the reasons given, it seems likely that the male colour-pattern is older than the races of P. dardanus. This does not tel ...
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Natural selection and the maximization of fitness
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... exacerbated by small population size. Founder effects are essentially the same process, but occur when new populations are found by just a small number of individuals from an originally large population. Challenge Questions 1. In Trinidadian guppies a combination of elegant laboratory and field expe ...
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Group selection



Group selection is a proposed mechanism of evolution in which natural selection is imagined to act at the level of the group, instead of at the more conventional level of the individual.Early authors such as V. C. Wynne-Edwards and Konrad Lorenz argued that the behavior of animals could affect their survival and reproduction as groups.From the mid 1960s, evolutionary biologists such as John Maynard Smith argued that natural selection acted primarily at the level of the individual. They argued on the basis of mathematical models that individuals would not altruistically sacrifice fitness for the sake of a group. They persuaded the majority of biologists that group selection did not occur, other than in special situations such as the haplodiploid social insects like honeybees (in the Hymenoptera), where kin selection was possible.In 1994 David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, on the grounds that groups, like individuals, could compete. In 2010 three authors including E. O. Wilson, known for his work on ants, again revisited the arguments for group selection, provoking a strong rebuttal from a large group of evolutionary biologists. As of yet, there is no clear consensus among biologists regarding the importance of group selection.
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