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CC_3_24.7.2013

... Atkins and Jones. Chemical principals: The quest for insight. 3rd Ed. Chapter 1, The Quantum World Atkins and de Paula. Physical Chemistry. Chapter 8. Quantum Theory: introduction and principles Classical physics provides a good description of macroscopic objects. However it became apparent in the 1 ...
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... as a result of entanglement measure such as “entanglement sudden death” (ESD) and “entanglement sudden birth” (ESB) [6] [25] is the creation of entanglement where the initial unentangled qubits can be entangled after a finite evolution time. The coherent field is a kind of the electromagnetic field ...
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Unit 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry

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Observation of a resonant four-body interaction in cold cesium

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... the lowest attainable average kinetic energy < EK > of the atoms is given by Γ/4. This result can not be valid in all conditions since it implies that < EK >→ 0 as Γ → 0. This physically unsound result is due to the assumption that the photon momentum is negligible with respect to the atomic one. Th ...
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... example, when methane is burned not all of it reacts to form carbon dioxide because other reactions make carbon monoxide or carbon (soot) instead. When you bake a cake, some of the ingredients get left in the bowl or on the cake tin. The same sort of thing happens in a chemical reaction. ...
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Atom

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is made up of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are very small; typical sizes are around 100 pm (a ten-billionth of a meter, in the short scale). However, atoms do not have well defined boundaries, and there are different ways to define their size which give different but close values.Atoms are small enough that classical physics give noticeably incorrect results. Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior.Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons (none in hydrogen-1). Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. Over 99.94% of the atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an ion.Electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force, the nuclear force, which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind a different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation.The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature, and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.Not all the matter of the universe is composed of atoms. Dark matter comprises more of the Universe than matter, and is composed not of atoms, but of particles of a currently unknown type.
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