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Chapter 8
Learning
Learning: A relatively permanent
change in behavior due to experience or
practice

What words are important in that definition?



Relatively permanent
Change in behavior
Practice
How Do We Learn

How Do We Learn

Associative Learning



Learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and it’s
consequence (as in operant conditioning)
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
(A.K.A. Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)
A type of learning in which an organism comes
to associated two previously unrelated stimuli. A
neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned
stimulus begins to produce a response that
anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned
stimulus
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Signals Unconditioned
Stimulus
Produces a
response
Classical Conditioning

Behaviorism
 A perspective of psychology
associated with John B. Watson, it is
the view that psychology should be an
objective science that studies only
observable events
Pavlov’s Experiment

Ivan Pavlov: (1849-1906) Pavlov was a
Russian physiologist whose pioneering
studies of the digestive system led to decades
of research to identify the principles of
classical conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiment

Labeling the parts of classical
conditioning

Unconditioned Response: A simple
unlearned response. A reflex
Examples:
Pavlov’s Experiment

Labeling the parts of classical
conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that
triggers a response reflexively or
automatically
Examples:
Pavlov’s Experiment

Labeling the parts of classical
conditioning

Neutral Stimulus: Does not elicit (bring
about) the unconditioned response
Pavlov’s Experiment
When has conditioning occurred?
Conditioning has occurred when the
neutral stimulus ALONE elicits (causes)
the unconditioned response
Pavlov’s Experiment

Labeling the parts of classical
conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus: The conditioned
stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus
that, through conditioning (learning) gains
the power to cause the response
Pavlov’s Experiment

Labeling the parts of classical
conditioning

Conditioned Response: The conditioned
response is the previously unconditioned
response. It is elicited by (caused by) the
conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov’s Experiment
Practice
UCS
UCR
(Before Conditioning)
NS + UCS
UCR
(Acquisition Phase)
CS
CR
(After Conditioning)
Pavlov’s Experiment

Forward Pairing


The CS is presented BEFORE the UCS
Backward Pairing

The CS is presented AFTER the UCS
(due to the fact that classical conditioning usually prepares the organism
for an event, backward conditioning is generally ineffective)

Simultaneous Pairing

The CS and UCS occur at exact the same time
Acquisition

Acquisition



The initial stage in classical conditioning; the
phase when the organism begins to associate the
neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus
so that eventually the neutral stimulus comes to
elicit a conditioned response
Research reveals that acquisition occurs best
when the time between the NS and the UCS is
about ½ second
Acquisition will occur more readily between cues
that insure our survival (Examples?)
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Extinction

After repeated presentation of the
conditioned stimulus (CS) without the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) the
conditioned response (CR) fades away and
eventually stops.
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Extinction

Reconditioning: if the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) are paired after extinction
has occurred, the conditioned response
(CR) return to its original strength very
quickly, often after one or two trial
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Extinction

Reconditioning: if the CS and the UCS
are paired after extinction has occurred, the
CR returns to its original strength very
quickly, often after one or two trials
(What does this tell you about extinction?)
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction,
and a lapse of time, the conditioned
response reappears
The two factors needed for spontaneous
recovery to occur are:
1. extinction
2. rest period (lapse of time)
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Stimulus Generalization: The
organism responds NOT ONLY to the
conditioned stimulus (CS) but also to
similar stimuli
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

Stimulus Generalization Example:
(Little Albert)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FKZAYt77ZM
Discrimination

Discrimination :
 In classical conditioning when an
organism responds differently to
different stimuli
Cognitive Processes

Rescorla believes that whether or not a
conditioned response is learned is dependent on
the following factors:






Timing
Predictability
Signal Strength
Attention
Second-Order Conditioning (Higher Order Conditioning)
Biopreparedness (Garcia)
Cognitive Processes

Timing:


Forward Conditioning is better than either
backward or simultaneous conditioning.
Furthermore research shows that forward
conditioning works best when the delay
between the CS and the UCS is only a half
a second to full second
Cognitive Processes

Predictability

Classical Conditioning occurs most quickly when
the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ALWAYS and
ONLY signals the Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS)
Cognitive Processes

Signal Strength

A Conditioned Response (CR) will be
greater and will be established more quickly
if the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is
strong and distinct. This is also true if the
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is strong.
Cognitive Processes

Attention:

The stimulus that is being most closely
attended to, and most fully perceived at that
moment is the stimulus that is most likely
to become the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Cognitive Processes

Second-Order Conditioning
(Higher Order Conditioning)
A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were
an unconditioned stimulus. In other words, an
already established Conditioned Stimulus
(CS) can serve as an Unconditioned Stimulus.
Cognitive Processes

Biopreparedness (Garcia):
Being biologically prepared or
genetically tuned to develop certain
conditioned associations

Example: Taste Aversions (a.k.a. bait
shyness)
Recognizing Basic Processes in
Classical Conditioning
1. Lucy has flunked algebra twice. Now whenever she sees
any kind of math book, she begins to get that same old
sick feeling in the pit of her stomach.
2. Little Suzy is experiencing her first thunderstorm. A bolt
of lightning flashes across the sky, but this doesn’t bother
her; she thinks it’s pretty. A second later, however, she
just about jumps out of her skin when a tremendous crash
of thunder shakes the room.
Recognizing Basic Processes in
Classical Conditioning
3.
Otto has gotten A’s on all of his quizzes in history, so he
likes Professor Olden quite a bit. But he’s not too crazy
about professor Datum, because Otto’s received nothing but
C’s and D’s in his research methods class.
4. Glenda tried sushi for the first time when she visited her
cousin in San Francisco, and she love it. Back home in
Kansas City she eagerly searched until she found a
restaurant that served sushi, but the fish wasn’t fresh, so she
didn’t like it much. On a visit to St. Louis she tried again,
but she was disappointed once more. Glenda no longer gets
excited by the prospect of eating sushi, unless it’s San
Francisco sushi, which still makes her mouth water.
Recognizing Basic Processes in
Classical Conditioning
5. On his first day at work at the Joy Ice Cream Shop, Arnold
helped himself and overdid it. He got sick and swore he’d
never eat ice cream again. True to his word, he stayed off
the stuff for the rest of the summer, though he continued
working at the shop. For a while it was hard, because the
sight and smell of the ice cream made him feel nauseous, but
eventually those feelings faded. The following summer
Arnold decided to visit his old employer, but as soon as he
walked in the door, he felt so sick he had to turn around and
leave immediately.
6.
Little Timmy used to get so excited whenever Grandpa
would come to visit, because Grandpa always brought
Timmy some neat new toy. As Grandpa got older, however,
he became forgetful. He no longer brings toys when he
visits. Now Grandpa’s visits don’t excite Timmy as much.
Biological Predispositions
The early behaviorists view that any natural
response could be conditioned to any neutral
stimulus has given way to the understanding that
each species is biologically prepared to learn
associations that enhance its survival. Therefore
humans more easily learn to fear snakes and
spiders than to fear flowers. Rats develop
aversions to tastes but not to sights or sounds
Biological Predispositions

Taste Aversion
 Taste Aversion is unusual because


it often only takes a single trial
The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) does not
need to immediately follow the Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) for learning to occur
We seemed primed for this learning because from an
evolutionary perspective it ensures our survival.
Pavlov’s Legacy

Pavlov taught us that principles of learning
apply across species and that classical
conditioning is one way that virtually all
organisms learn to adapt to their environment.
Pavlov also demonstrated that significant
psychological phenomena can be studied
objectively. Finally, Pavlov taught us that
conditioning principles have important
applications such as how to treat fear.
Applications of Classical Conditioning

Learned Immune Response: Classical
conditioning has been used to help simulate
the effects of drugs that suppress the immune
system
drugs
smell
UCS
NS + UCS
smell CS
suppression of immune system
UCR
UCR
CR Suppression of immune system
Applications of Classical Conditioning

Phobias: Through classical conditioning
and then Stimulus Generalization, a person
may learn a phobia
Applications of Classical Conditioning

Predator Control: Classical Conditioning
(specifically taste aversion) has been used to
alleviate the problem of animal predators
eating/killing ranchers’ sheep
Lithium chloride
sheep
UCS
NS + UCS
sheep CS
nausea
UCR
UCR
CR
nausea
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning
1. Bhvr is voluntary
2. Learns to associate
a bhvr w/the consequence
3. Organism is active
4. R+ comes AFTER
1. Bhvr. is involuntary
2. Learns to associate
2 stimuli
3. Organism is passive
4. R+ comes BEFORE
Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: The basic learning process
(proposed by B.F. Skinner) that involves changing the
probability of a response by manipulating the
consequences of that response

Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an
automatic response to some stimulus (Skinner’s term for
behavior learned through classical conditioning)

Operant Behavior: Behavior that operated on
the environment, producing consequences
Operant Conditioning

Laws of Effect (E.L. Thorndike):
 Positive Law of Effect:
If a behavior is followed by a satisfying
state of affairs, the likelihood of the
behavior occurring again increases.
 Negative Law of Effect:
If a behavior is followed by an unpleasant
state of affairs, the likelihood of the
behavior occurring again decreases
Operant Conditioning

Operant Chamber (Skinner box): An
apparatus used by Skinner (developed in the
1930s) to study behavior. Generally, it provides
a relatively small and plain
environment that blocks
out extraneous stimuli
and measures behavior
Shaping

Shaping: Reinforcing behaviors that move
closer and closer to the target behavior
When is shaping used?
Shaping is used when
trying to teach a
complex or difficult
task
Human example?
Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement:
Reinforcement ALWAYS increases the
likelihood of a behavior
Types of Reinforcers

Positive Reinforcement: Something
pleasant is added in order to increase a
response
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=guroaQRFsX4
Types of Reinforcers

Negative Reinforcement:
Something unpleasant
is removed in order to
increase a response
…
Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcement: something that
is naturally rewarding, such as food (if you
are hungry), warmth (if you are cold), and
water (if you are thirsty). Primary reinforcers
are inherently valued. They return the body to
homeostasis
2) Operant Conditioning

Secondary (Conditioned)
Reinforcement: something you have
learned is rewarding because it’s been paired
with a primary reinforcer. Examples are
Types of Reinforcers

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

Immediate: Offer immediate payback


Example: the nicotine addict’s cigarette
Delayed: require the ability to delay gratification

A weekly paycheck
In general, operant conditioning is stronger when
the delivery of the reinforcement is immediate.
The size of the reinforcement matters too
Your turn, provide an original example of

Positive Reinforcer:

Negative Reinforcer:

Primary Reinforcer:

Secondary Reinforcer

Immediate Reinforcer:

Delayed Reinforcer:
Reinforcement Schedules

Schedules of Reinforcement: when and
how often the reinforcement occurs
 Continuous

Partial/Intermittent
Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules:
Each and every correct behavior is reinforced
(This is extremely rare in everyday life)
Examples:
Reinforcement Schedules

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:
Only some responses are rewarded
Fixed
Variable
Fixed: unchanging
Interval
Variable: changes
Interval: time
Ratio
Ratio: # of responses
Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed Interval: The time between
reinforcement is unchanging
Examples:

Fixed Ratio: The number of responses
needed for reinforcement is unchanging
Examples:
Reinforcement Schedules

Variable Interval: The time between reinforcement
changes. (Variable Interval Schedules produce a
steady, slow rate of responding)
Examples:

Variable Ratio: The number of responses needed
for reinforcement changes (This schedules produces
steady, high rates of responding and is extremely
resistant to extinction)
Examples:
__________1.
Sarah is paid on a commission basis for selling
computer systems. She gets a bonus for every third sale.
__________2. Artie’s parents let him earn some pocket money by doing
yard work approximately once a week.
__________3. Martha is fly-fishing. Think of each time that she casts her
line as the response that may be rewarded.
__________4. Mort, who is in the fourth grade, gets a gold star from his
teacher for every book he reads.
__________5. Skip, a professional baseball player, signs an agreement
that his salary increases will be renegotiated every third
year.
Is the reinforcement predictable?
Yes= fixed No=Variable
If the organism responds more often will it get more
reinforcement?
Yes=Ratio No=Interval
Or…
Is the reinforcement based on a passage of time?
Yes=Interval
Is the reinforcement based on doing a response?
Yes=Ratio
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules

Behaviors are learned most rapidly when
reinforced on a continuous reinforcement
schedules

However, behaviors extinguish the fastest
when reinforced on a continuous schedule
Reinforcement Schedules

Behaviors reinforced on partial
schedules of reinforcement (especially
variable schedules) are the most difficult
to extinguish because it takes the
organism a long time to figure out the
reinforcement has stopped
Reinforcement Schedules
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Guided Practice
Being rewarded for every third correct answer.
Giving a rat a pellet of food for pressing a bar on the
AVERAGE of every two minutes.
Giving a student a blow pop every time he/she provides
a correct answer.
Paying telemarketers a bonus for every 5 sales he/she
makes in excess of the company’s quota.
Trying to reach a friend by telephone when you get a
busy signal.
RECOGNIZING SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Check your understanding of schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning by
indicating the type of schedule that would be in effect in each of the examples below.
In the spaces on the left, fill in CR for continuous reinforcement, FR for fixed-ratio,
VR for variable-ratio, FI for fixed-interval, and VI for variable-interval.
__________1.
__________2.
__________3.
__________4.
__________5.
Sarah is paid on a commission basis for selling computer systems. She
gets a bonus for every third sale.
Artie’s parents let him earn some pocket money by doing yard work
approximately once a week.
Martha is fly-fishing. Think of each time that she casts her line as the
response that may be rewarded.
Mort, who is in the fourth grade, gets a gold star from his teacher for
every book he reads.
Skip, a professional baseball player, signs an agreement that his salary
increases will be renegotiated every third year.
Punishment

Punishment: Always decreases the
likelihood of a response

Something that decreases the likelihood of
a response
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=guroaQRFsX4
Punishment

Positive Punishment (Punishment I):

Behavior is decreased by presenting an
unpleasant stimulus

Examples: Fine for an overdue book.
Spanking for swearing.
A burn on your finger
when you touch a hot iron.
Punishment

Negative Punishment
(Punishment II or Penalty)

Behavior is decreased by removing a pleasant
stimulus

Example: You’re careless with your ice cream cone
and the cones falls on the ground
Punishment

Some disadvantages of using punishment:





The undesirable behavior is not “erased” it is
merely suppressed
Punishment doesn’t teach acceptable behavior
Punishment can create anger and hostility
Punishment is ineffective unless it is administered
immediately after the undesired event
Punishment can only work when it is guaranteed
Definition
Discriminative
Stimulus
Operant
Response
Consequence
Effect on Future
Behavior
The
environmental
stimulus that
precedes an
operant
response
The actively
emitted or
voluntary
behavior
The environmental
stimulus or event
that follows the
operant response
Reinforcement increases the
likelihood of operant being
repeated; punishment or
lack of reinforcement
decreases the likelihood of
operant being repeated
Talk to neighbor
Pleasant
conversation
Positive reinforcement:
More likely to talk to neighbor
in the future when he is out in
the yard
Red oil light
Shut off car
engine
Avoid engine
damage
Negative reinforcement:
More likely to shut off car in
the future when red oil light is
present
Poison ivy plant
Touch plant
Painful, itchy rash
on hand
Punishment: Less likely to
touch poison ivy plant in the
future
Examples Neighbor in yard
Recognizing Components of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Josh studies to avoid the aversive or unpleasant consequence of bad grades. His
studying behavior is maintained by:
A. Positive Reinforcement
C. Punishment
B. Negative Reinforcement
D. Primary Reinforcement
2. Katie’s room is a mess. Her parents agree to increase her allowance by $5 each week if
she cleans her room every Tuesday.
A. Positive Reinforcement
C. Punishment by Application
B. Negative Reinforcement
D. Punishment by Removal
3. Judy’s dog, Murphy, will roll over, beg, and do other tricks for a food reward.
However, when offered a $10 bill, he won’t do any of these tricks. It appears that
Murphy is more responsive to _________________ than to _______________
A. Positve Reinforcers; Negative Reinforcers
B. Bribery; Corruption
C. Primary Reinforcers; Conditioned Reinforcers
D. Punishment; Positive Reinforcement
4. Zachary works on a cattle ranch. When the chuck wagon comes around, the cook
rings a big metal bell to signal that the food is ready. Whenever Zak and the other
cowhands hear the sound of the bell, they head straight for the chuck wagon. In this
example, the sound of the bell is a(n):
A. Primary Reinforcer
C. Unconditioned Stimulus
B. Negative Reinforcer
D. Discriminative Stimulus
5. Seeing a stranded motorist, Dean stopped to see if he could help. The stranded
motorist robbed Dean and stole his car. Dean no longer stops to help strangers. This
is an example of:
A. Positive Reinforcement
C. Punishment
B. Primary Reinforcement
D. Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Something unpleasant is
REMOVED
Something unpleasant
PRESENTED
Behavior INCREASES in
likelihood
Behavior DECREASES
in likelihood
Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Latent Learning

Cognitive Map: A mental representation or picture of the
layout of one’s environment


Rats were put in a learning maze. 1 group were reinforced every
trial. They made few errors. 1 group got no reinforcement, they
continued to make errors. The 3rd group received no reinforcement
for the first 10 trials. On the 11th trial the rats in the 3rd group were
reinforced. These rats were as good as the rats that were reinforced
for each trial showing that the 3rd group had a cognitive map of the
maze
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Intrinsic Motivation:


A desire to perform a behavior for its own
sake
Extrinsic Motivation:

A desire to perform a behavior due to
promised rewards or threats of punishment
Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner has been criticized for repeatedly insisting
that external influences, not internal thoughts and
feelings, shape behavior and for urging the use of
operant principles to control people’s behavior.
Critics argue that he dehumanized people by
neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking
to control their actions. Skinner countered:
People’s behavior is already controlled by
external reinforcers, so why not administer those
consequences for human betterment.
Applications of Operant Conditioning

At School


In Sports


Coaches can build players’ skills & self-confidence by
rewarding small improvements
At Work


On-line testing systems & interactive student software
provide immediate reinforcement
Positive reinforcement for a job well done has boosted
employee productivity
At Home

Parents can reward behaviors that are desirable & not those
that are undesirable. To reach our own personal goals we
can monitor and reinforce our own desired behaviors
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Response
Involuntary, automatic
Voluntary, operates on the
environment
Acquisition
Associating events; CS
predicts UCS
Associating response with a
consequence (reinforcer
or punisher)
Extinction
CR decreases when CS is
repeatedly presented
alone
Responding decreases
when reinforcement
stops
Cognitive Process
Organism develop
expectation that CS
signals the arrival of the
UCS
Organisms develop
expectation that a
response will be
reinforced or punished;
they also exhibit latent
learning, without
reinforcement
Biological
Predisposition
Natural predispositions
constrain what stimuli
and responses can
easily be associated
Organisms best learn
behaviors similar to their
natural behaviors; unnatural
behaviors instinctively drift
back toward natural ones
Learning by Observation

Observational Learning: Learning by
watching others

Observational Learning is adaptive for both
humans and animals. Humans develop the
capacity for Observational Learning at a very
young age. Studies of 21 day old infants have
shown that they will imitate a variety of actions,
including opening their mouths, sticking out their
tongues, and making other facial expressions
Learning by Observation

Modeling: the process of observing and
imitating a specific behavior

Mirror Neurons: frontal lobe neurons that
fire when performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so. The brain’s
mirroring of another’s action may enable
imitation, language learning, and empathy
Learning by Observation

The factors that Bandura believed are
necessary for learning to take place are
1.
2.
3.
4.
Attention
Memory
Motor skills
Motivation
Bandura’s Experiments


Bobo Doll Experiments
You are more likely to imitate…







People who are rewarded for their behavior
Warm, nuturant people
People who have control or influence over you
People who are similar to you
Tasks that aren’t extremely easy or hard
Situations that are unfamiliar
If you’ve been rewarded for imitating
in the past
Bandura’s Experiments

Applications of Observational Learning

It is important to note that we not only imitate
positive models, we may also imitate antisocial
models (examples: Columbine, TV programs that
model casual sex or aggressive behavior)

Children may also learn through observation to be
abusive parents
Positive Observational Learning

Prosocial Behavior:

Prosocial models have prosocial effects. People
who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt
similar behavior in others. Models are most
effective when their actions and words are
consistent. Exposed to a hypocrite, children tend
to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the model
did and saying what the model says
Television and Observational Learning


What are you being asked to believe or accept?
Viewing violence on television causes violent
behavior in viewers
What evidence is available to support the
assertion?
There is some anecdotal evidence & case studies that
describe incidents of violence among children after
watching violence on TV. Many studies who a
positive correlation between watching & doing
violence. Controlled studies show increases in violent
behavior following violent visual stimulation
Television and Observational Learning

Are there alternative ways of interpreting
the evidence?
Anecdotal evidence and correlational
evidence do not prove causation. It may be
possible that the dependent variables used in
controlled studies are not similar enough to
violence in everyday life.
Television and Observational Learning

What additional evidence would help to
evaluate the alternative?
More controlled studies are needed to better
understand the relationship between viewing
violence and committing violent acts. However,
ethical considerations prohibit these types of
studies.
Television and Observational Learning

What conclusions are most reasonable?
The large number of studies done in this area
make it reasonable to conclude that watching
TV violence may be one cause of violent
behavior
Other Important Terms

Counter Conditioning
+
Other Important Terms

Escape Conditioning
Other Important Terms

Avoidance Conditioning
Other Important Terms

Learned Helplessness
Other Important Terms

Premack’s Principle
Other Important Terms

Disequilibrium Hypothesis
Other Important Terms

Overjustification Effect