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Welcome
to
E L 120
English Phonetics and Linguistics
Lecture 5
Unit 8:Word Classes
Unit 9:Syntax 1-What is
Syntax?
Unit 10: Syntax 2-Sentence
Types and Classes
Word Classes
• Word class refer to words that are grouped into
categories of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, pronouns, articles, demonstratives,
conjunctions, etc.
• Words that have same function or same meaning or
same form are grouped together as belonging to same
word class.
• Word classes are also called parts of speech.
Main word class categories:
• Nouns: refer to words that identify people, things,
places, animals or abstractions. Nouns are grouped into
2 major categories: Common nouns (eg: coffee, table,
rabbit etc) and Proper nouns (eg: Lebanon, The Red
Sea, Sara etc). Proper nouns start with capital letter.
• Verbs: refer to actions or events (eg: drive, play) or
state of affairs (eg: like, hate).
•
•
•
Pronouns: refer to words that replace a noun. (eg: he,
she, it, them, I etc)
Adjectives: refer to words used to describe
something or someone. (eg: The heavy bag, the bag is
heavy).
Adverbs: refer to words that describe a verb or add
information to other categories. The form of adverb
is distinguished by –ly ending (eg: hourly, slowly,
basically). Some adverbs of place adverbs of time do
not end with –ly (eg: now, often, here, there).
Adverbs of manner add information on manner or
how things are done. (eg: carefully, slowly).
Adverbs of place add in formation on place or where
things are. (eg: here, there, near)
Adverbs of time add information on time or when
things are done. (eg: now, then, before).
• Prepositions: refer to words that function to link
lexical words in the sentence. (eg: in, on, up, down,
under etc).
• Articles: refer to words used with nouns to show if
they are definite or indefinite. (eg: the, a, an)
• Demonstratives: refer to words which indicate the
distance of something or someone, from the speaker.
(eg: this, these, (near) that, those (far) etc).
• Conjunctions: also called connectives, refer to words
which connect words, phrases or sentences together.
(eg: and, but, because, however, as, or etc).
Criteria for classification
• Grammarians usually depend on 3 types of criteria in
grouping a word or a group of words to form a certain
class. These are:
(1) Semantic Criteria: means depending on meaning ,
classifying word classes or parts of speech. For eg: the
definitions of noun, verb etc. As these definitions are
criticized as inaccurate, semantic criteria are not
reliable.
(2) Morphological criteria: Morphology, the study of
internal structure of words, deals with ‘derivational’
and ‘inflectional’ affixes ( prefixes or suffixes).
Words that belong to a certain class have some
morphological properties in common.
(a) Most nouns in Eng take an inflectional suffix to
mark Number: most Eng nouns have 2 forms- singular
and plural. Plural form is derived from singular form
by adding the suffix “s” or “es” (eg: cats, boys,
matches).
(b) Eng nouns take some derivational affixes, which are
typical of nouns. (Eg: postage, information, teacher,
arrival, goodness, friendship).
Nouns have some morphological properties which
distinguish them from other word classes.
Although morphological criteria are revealing, they are
not wholly reliable.
(3) Syntactic criteria: Syntax refer to study of
sentence construction: the arrangement of words
and phrases in sentences or syntactic rules and
relations. Nouns possess certain syntactic
properties. They generally function in the same way
in sentences and phrases. (refer page: 85).
Lexical and Grammatical word classes
Word classes can be grouped into 2 main categories:
(a) Lexical words: are both meaningful and can be used on
their own. These are also called content words. 4 main
lexical word classes are: nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs.
(b) Grammatical words: have little or no lexical meaning on
their own. Word classes in this category are also called
function words. Words belonging to this category are:
pronouns, prepositions, articles, demonstratives and
conjunctions, interjections.
•
Words are also classified as :
(1) Open word classes: word classes that are open to the
addition/ creation of new items, through suffixing or
prefixing. Eg: friend- friendship.
(2) Closed word classes: word classes that are closed to
addition of new items. P. 86
What is Syntax?
•
Syntax- study of the ways in which sentences are
constructed from smaller units called constituents and
how they are related to each other.
•
Sentence constituents: sentences are made up of
smaller units, which combine in some specific ways to
convey meaning. The constituents are: subject,
predicate, clause, phrase and word.
•
Communicative function: we communicate with each
other by means of utterances. Such utterances may be
short or long, phrases or sentences, statements or
questions etc.
Orthographic criteria: when we speak our utterances
may be short and we may use incomplete sentences.
We convey meaning through intonation, pauses,
stress, facial expression and gestures.
In writing, these devices are not available and so our
sentences must be structured and punctuated
properly.
Word order: In English, the order of words is essential
to the meaning of the sentence. A change in word
order in English sentences brings with it a change in
meaning.
Subject and predicate: A sentence normally has a
subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence
represents either what the sentence is about
(theme/topic) or the doer of the action (agent).
The predicate is the part of the sentence that tells
something about the subject.
• The subject-verb agreement is called concord
• Transitive verbs require one or more objects where
as an intransitive verb does not require an object.(98)
• Monotransitive verb requires a direct object(Od).
• Ditransitive verb takes 2 objects, a direct object
(Od) and an indirect object(Oi).
• Complex transitive: It requires both a direct
object(Od) and an object complement(Co).
• Object complement may be defined as a
word/words that follows a direct object and
describes it.
Eg, They appointed Bill Chairman
• A linking verb is followed by a word or a phrase
that describes the subject. This word/phrase is
called a subject complement(Cs)
Eg, Some snakes are poisonous
Sometimes a linking verb is followed by an obligatory
adverbial(ADV). Eg, Bill is in London.
• Noun Phrase is a word/ group of words whose HEAD is
commonly a NOUN. The head noun may be preceded by
other elements, called pre-modifiers. Eg, The tall boy
is my nephew.
• The head noun (HN) may be followed by diff types of
elements called post modifiers.
Eg. The tall man in the corner speaks five languages (prd)
Sub verb premod HN post modifier
We regret the
fact that Bill has lost the position
Verb phrase
• Most regular English verbs have 5 distinct forms, each
having its function.
Form
Function
Examples
1. Base
a.
b.
I speak English
He wants to speak English
2.s-form
Simple present
He/She speaks English
3. Past
-ed
Simple past
Bill painted the house
4.-ingform:
In Progressive
tenses
Bill is speaking English
We are watching TV
Pr. participle
5.-en form:
Past
participle
a.
b.
Simple present
Infinitive form
In perfect tenses Bill has done his homework
In passive verb
I have finished my task.
phrases
The car has been repaired
Ali was given a present.
Lexical (full/main) verbs:
Eg, base: eat, listen, walk etc,
-s form: eats, listens, walks etc.
past: ate, listened, walked
present participle: eating, listening, walking
past participle: eaten, listened, walked
•
Auxiliaries are words that precede lexical verbs. They
are divided into 2 classes:
1.
2.
Basic (primary) auxiliaries: be, have and do
Secondary (modal) auxiliaries: can, could, will,
would, may , might, shall, should, must , ought to
etc
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Simple
I write letters
He writes letters
I wrote letters
I will write
letters
Perfect
have written
has written
had written
will have
written
was writing
were writing
will be writing
Progressive am writing
is writing
are writing
Perfect and have been writing had been
progressive has been writing writing
will have been
writing
• Transitive verbs with 2 objects
Bill gave Mary (Oi) an apple (Od)
Tense
Active
Passive
Present
1. Simple
2. Perfect
3. Progressive
write/writes
is/are written
has/have written has/have written
is/are/am writing is/are being
written
Past
was/were
wrote
written
had written
had been written
was/were writing was/were being
written
1. Simple
2. Perfect
3. Progressive
•
Sentences are divided acc to 3 parameters:
# complexity
#grammatical form
#communicative function
•
Acc to complexity, sentences are divided into 4 classes
1. Simple sentences- one and only independent clause, one
finite verb
Mary lives in London
Verb forms are customarily divided into 2 classes: finite(F)
and nonfinite(NF). It must show tense, has person and number
concord with
the Subject and can occur alone as the verb element in a
simple sentence.
Clause: a group of words that can be analyzed into S, V, O,
C, ADV
2. Complex sentences: more than one clause, an independent and a
dependent clause
I know [that Bill likes Mary]
He will give her the money (Independent Cl S+V+Od+Oi)
when she signs the contract (Dependent Cl S+V+ Od)
Adverbial indicates the time of the action expressed by the verb
in the main clause.
3. Compound sentences: two independent clauses coordinated by
means of the coordinator ‘and’.
You can wait here and [I will get the key]
4. Compound-complex sentences: at least two independent clauses
and one subordinate clause
He gave her everything and [she left him [as soon as she found a
new job]]
• Acc. to grammatical form, four sentence classes: declarative (the
lion is a strong animal), interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory.
• Four classes of sentence with four functions: declarativestatement, interrogative-question, imperative-command or order,
exclamatory-surprise, anger etc.
THANK YOU
[email protected]
Dr. Veena Vijaya