Download Central nervous system

REPUBLIC UZBEKISTAN MINISTRY OF HEALTH
THE CENTER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL EDUCATION
THE TASHKENT MEDICAL ACADEMY
Chair of histology and medical biology
Subject ______ histology ___
THEME: «THE СENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM»
Methodical recommendation
(For students of medical higher schools)
Tashkent - 2011
METHODICAL REFERENCES
FOR PRACTICAL LESSON ON THE THEME:
«THE CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM»
For medical-pedagogic and stomatological
faculty (Lesson № 13)
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Theme: «The Central Nerve system (CNS)»
1. Histology and Medical biology department.
Facilities: histologic preparations, microscopes, atlases, slides, computer.
2. Duration of studying of a theme – 4 hours
3. Aim:
 to know hystogenesis of the CNS;
 to know the structure of a spinal cord and functional features of its neurons;
 to know the structure of a cerebellum cortex and its interneuron contacts;
 to know the structure of the large hemisphere cortex and interneuron
connections;
 to obtain knowledge on a module;
 to be able to identify these parts/segments of the nervous system, their
structural components on micro-preparations.
PURPOSE
Students should know:
 morphologic organization of a spinal cord and various types of neurons;
 structure of the large hemisphere cortex and interneuron links;
 structure of a cerebellum, types of neurons and their interrelations.
A student should obtain to his (her) practical skills by identifying on micropreparations: a spinal cord, cortex of large hemispheres and cerebellum;
differentiate cortical layers of large hemispheres and cerebellum; find grey matter
in a spinal cord and indicate places of localization of main nuclei (a group of
neurons).
4. Motivation
The nervous system regulates all the vital processes in an organism and its
interactions with the environment. By its anatomy, the nervous system is divided
into the central (spinal cord and cerebrum) and the peripheral ones (nerve tracts,
ganglia and endings). By the physiologic or functional activity it is divided into
autonomic (vegetative), which regulates functions of the inner organs, and somatic
(cerebrospinal) ones regulating the functions of the rest parts of an organism.
The functions of the nervous system are based on the principles of reflex arch
constituted on the chain of neurons. Knowledge of the central and peripheral
nervous system histophysiology is necessary to understand its integration and
coordination functions, to diagnose properly the diseases that have developed as a
result of impairments in the functions of this system.
5. Intersubject and intrasubject correlations.
The obtained knowledge may be useful in studying histology of the organ
systems, normal physiology, pathologic anatomy and physiology, therapy of the
nervous system diseases, surgery and other clinic disciplines.
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6. Content of the lesson
6.1. Theory. Items for considerations.
1. General characteristics of the nervous system
1.1. Functions:
 It unites all parts of an organism in the whole system;
 Provides regulation of various processes and functioning of different organs
and tissues;
 Receives information from outer environment and inner organs, and
responds to them.
1.2. Morphologically, nervous system is subdivided into: the central nervous
system (CNS) – cerebrum and spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system –
peripheral nerve ganglia, nerve fibers and nerve endings. Physiologically it is
subdivided into somatic nervous system that regulates spontaneous movements,
and autonomic or vegetative nervous system that regulates functions of inner
organs and glands. The vegetative nervous system is further subdivided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic ones. Aggregations of neurons in the nervous
system are called nerve ganglia (nodules).
1.3. Sources of nervous system origination
The ectodermal derivatives:
1) Neural tube, from which brain, spinal cord, and ocular retina originate.
2) Ganglious plates, from which spinal and vegetative peripheral nerve
ganglia, and the chromatoffin tissue of suprarenal glands are developed.
Notion of brain bulbs. Three brain bulbs – anterior, middle and posterior –
originate from the anterior (cephalic) end of the nerve tube. Five brain bulbs are
derived from them: a) telenchephalon (cortex and white matter of large
hemispheres, central ganglia); b) diencephalon (globus pallidus, thalamus opticus
metathalamus, epithalamus and the posterior part of hypothalamic area; (c)
midbrain – mesoencephalon (lamina [tecti] quadrigemina) brain peduncles, silvien
aqueduct; (d) metencephalon (pons varolii and cerebellum); and (e)
myelencephalon (medullary brain, medulla oblongata).
1.4. Grey and white matter
The grey matter is made up of neuron body, nervous fibers, neuroglia, while the
white matter is made up of nervous fibers, neuroglia.
2. Meninges:
1) Dura mater is a regular fibrous dense connective tissue. It is accreted with
periosteum of cranial bones. A subdural space is between the dural and
arachnoidal meninges.
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2) Mater arachnoidalis is the loose connective tissue located between the dura
mater and pia mater in the arachnoidal space and contains thin bundles of
collagen and elastic fibers and cerebro-spinal fluid. It communicates with
cerebral ventricles.
3) Pia mater adjoins the cerebral tissue is made of loose connective tissue,
contains numerous blood vessels and nerve fibers.
3. Spinal cord
3.1.General structure. It consists of two symmetric halves divided by fissure on
the anterior side and sulcus on the posterior one. It is segmented. Each segment
contains two anterior and two posterior radiculi forming a nerve. In the central
part there is a spinal canal lined by ependimocytes. In the cross section, the grey
and white matters can be distinguished.
3.2. In the cross section, the grey substance is seen as H-shaped or butterflyshaped matter. One can see anterior, posterior and lateral horns (protrusions). Both
halves of grey substance are connected by grey commissures in its central part. The
grey substance contains: neurons, myelinated and myelin free nerve fibers,
neuroglia.
3.3. Types of neurons. Functionally neurons are divided in sensor and
motor ones, while structurally they are multipolar cells. By localization, the axons
are divided into: radicular (axons forming anterior radiculi), internal (axons lying
within the grey matter) and bundle (axons forming bundles in the white matter –
pathways).
3.4. Nuclei of grey matter. Are column shaped aggregations of neurons. In
the posterior horns there are propria and sternal nuclei. The propria (dorsal)
nucleus consists of internuncial neurons, the axons of which enter into the white
matter of the opposite side. The thoracic (Clarke's) nucleus is represented by large
intercallated neurons, the axons of which enter the white matter on the same side.
In the intermediary part there are medial (with axons in the white matter of
their side) and lateral nuclei located in the lateral horns, being more marked in the
thoracic and sacral segments. They reffer to the sympathetic nervous system.
Neurons of the lateral nuclei contain enkephalin, neurotensin, P-substance, and
somatostatin.
In the anterior horns there are medial (all the way along the spinal cord) and
lateral (the cervical and lumbal segments) motor nuclei. Motor neurons are alphamajor neurons (muscular motions), alpha-minor neurons (muscle tone) and
gamma-motoneurons (muscular spindle innervations).
3.5. White matter surrounds the grey one and consists of longitudinal nerve
fibers forming descending and ascending pathways being separated by thin layers
of connective tissue and astrocytes. The anterior and posterior radiculi divide the
white matters into anterior, lateral and posterior funiculi. The pathways provide
connections between various segments of the medulla and cerebrum.
4. A Cerebrum (encephalon) consists of the trunk, two hemispheres and a
cerebellum.
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4.1. The trunk part. It has numerous nuclei surrounded by white matter.
Ten pairs of cranial-cerebral nerves leave it. Functionally, nuclei are subdivided
into sensory, motor and associative ones. The motoric nuclei may be somatic and
vegetative.
The axons of neurons in the vegetative nuclei compose preganglionar fibers
within 3, 7, 9, 10th pairs of cranial-cerebral nerves.
The associative (selector) nuclei transmit nerve impulses going to the large
hemisphere cortex or from it to the cerebral trunk and the spinal cord centers.
The sensory nuclei analogic to those in the posterior horns of the spinal cord
receive impulses from the sensory pseudounipolar or bipolar neurons.
The white matter represents bundles of nerve fibers that connect different
parts of CNS.
4.2. The large hemisphere cortex.
A 3-5 mm thick layer of grey matter which contains neurons (10-15
billions), nerve fibers, neuroglia.
Cytoarchitectonics is a localization of neurons having various shapes in
layer.
Myeloarchitectonics is a localization of nerve fibers in layers.
According to the functional characteristics, 52 areas are distinguished in a
cortex..
4.3. Types of neurons: pyramidal and non—pyramidal.
The pyramidal cells accounts for over 50 percent of the total number. A
central dendrite, which branches from the cellular apex reaches the outer layer. 5 –
16 lateral dendrites give branches in various cortical layers. An axon branching off
from the cell basis passes to the white matter. There are gigantic, large, medium
and small sized cells.
Non-pyramidal cells are available in the various layers of cortex. Their
axons transmit impulses to the pyramidal cells.
Types: star-, horn-, basket-shaped, axo-axonal, ‘candelabrum’ cells, cells
with double bouquet of dendrites, Kakhal’s horizontal cells, Martinotti cells, etc.
The cortical layers
I.
Molecular: Small-sized Kakhal’s neurons, their axons and dendrites are
located in the same layer.
II.
External granular: Small pyramidal and star-shaped cells, their dendrites
penetrate the molecular layer and their axons passes to the white matter
and molecular layer.
III. Pyramidal: Here are small and medium-sized pyramidal cells. Their
central dendrites pass to the molecular layer, their lateral ones are located
in its own layer, the axons are in the grey matter and pass to the white
one.
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IV.
V.
VI.
The internal granular layer contains small pyramidal cells and starshaped cells. Their axons run to the upper and lower layers.
The ganglious one: the pyramidal cells are large and gigantic in size,
their central dendrites reach the molecular layer, while their lateral ones
are in the owen layer, axons run to the cerebral and spinal (anterior
horns) nuclei – projection efferent cells.
Polymorphic ones are spindle-like, star-shaped cells, Martinotti cells.
Their dendrites reach the molecular layer, and axons pass to the white
matter.
Myeloarchitectonics:
There are six layers as follows:
1) tangential – the fibers are horizontally directed;
2) band of Bechterev (disfibrotic)
3) epistrand lamina (lamina supra strata)
4) external band of Baiarje (fibers form the network and bundles)
5) internal band of Baiarje (fibers form the network and bundles)
6) infrastrand lamina and internal border band (lamina substriata and lamina
limitants interna) – densely located fibers.
Fibers lying in the cortex form three types of contacts:
 afferent radial (beams) lines in the 4, 5, 6th layers;
 associative and commissural ones in the 1, 2, 4, and 5th layers;
 efferent fibers connects the cortex with white subcortical areas.
4.6. Types of the cortex structure
Agranular one is in the motoric zone, the most developed in the III, V, and VI
layers.
Granular one is in the sensory centers and more marked in the second and fourth
layers.
4.7. The notion of module. It is a morpho-functional unit of columnar
shape being 200 – 300 μm in diameter. Each column contains about 5,000 neurons.
The column contains:
 afferent pathways;
 system of local contacts;
 efferent pathways.
Afferent pathways are in the column center and formed by cortico-cortical
fiber, the endings of which reach Martinotti cells, astrocytes, spine-like cells and
the lateral dendritis of pyramidal cells.
A system of local links (contacts) is composed of intercallated neurons. The
exiting effect on the pyramidal cells is produced by spine star-like neurons. The
inhibitory effect is produced by:
 ‘candelabrum’ cells in the inner layers;
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 basket-shaped cells in the II, III, IV, VI layers;
 cells having double set of dendrites in the II and III layers;
 cells having axonal penicillar brush are star-like cells of the second layers;
Efferent pathways are made of axons of pyramidal cells of the third and
fourth layers and provide connections with the neighbouring columns and the
subcortical centers.
4.8. White matter consists of ascending and descending bundles of nerve
fibers and neuroglia (all types of glial cells).
Boundary glial membranes are formed by flattened endings of the
astrocytes processes.
There are three types of glial membranes:
 perivascular ones surrounding hemocapillaries. They are components of a
hemato-encephalic barriers;
 superficial one is located beneath the pia mater and makes up the external
frontier of cerebrum and medulla;
 subependimal one is a component of the neuro-liquor barriers
(ependimoglia, basement membrane, processes of astrocytes).
Components of the hemato-encephalic barrier:
 endothelium of a hemocapillary;
 basement membrane;
 glial membrane formed by astrocyte processes.
5. Cerebellum is located above the oblongated medulla and pons (bridge) and
consists of two hemispheres having sulci and gyri and three pairs of pedicules.
Function: It is the balancing center, coordinating of movements, and
provides the muscular tension.
Its structure: grey matter forms cortex and nuclei in the white matter.
5.1. The cerebellum cortex has three layers: molecular, ganglious and
granular.
1) The molecular one consists of cells, which are not numerous. These are
basket-shaped cells, the axons of which surround bodies of the Purkinje cells;
astrocytes having short and long axons.
2) Ganglious layer is formed by one layer of pear-shaped Purkinje cells
surrounded by axons of basket-shaped cells and astrocytes having long axons.
Their dendrites are branching off within the molecular layer, and their axons
penetrating the white matter reach the nuclei of the cerebellum, their collaterals
returning to their own layer.
3) Granular layer consists of compact located cells – granules, the Golgi
star-shaped cells and spindle-like horizontal cells.
Granular cells. Their dendrites make up synapses with the mossy fibers
(exiting effect) and the Golgi cells of the second type (inhibitory effect).
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The Golgi cells of the I type have long axons reaching the white matter. The
Golgi cells of the II type have short axons, which reach the cerebellar glomeruli
and form synanses with dendrites of the granular cells (inhibitory effect). The
spindle-like cells are located between the ganglious and granular layers, have
horizontal dendrites, their axons passing to the white matter.
The cerebellar glomeruli in the granular layer form synaptic contact zones
among mossy fibers, dendrites of the granular – cells’ and axons of the Golgi cells
of the second type. They are surrounded by astrocytes processes.
5.2 Afferent fibers are mossing and crawling. The mossy ones are lying
within the spinal-cerebellar and pontis cerebellar pathways and end up in glomeruli
granular – cell dendrites (exiting effect).
Crawling (liana-like) ones are lying in the olive-cerebellar pathways; make
up synapses with the Purkinje cells. Collaterals make up synapses with all the other
cells.
5.3. Efferent fibers are made up of Purkinje cells axons, reach nuclei in a
cerebellum and vestibular nuclei (inhibitory effect).
6.2. Analytical part: Solving the situation tasks
1. Pathologic-anatomy studies of the human spinal cord have demonstrated
destruction and decrease in number of cells constituting nuclei in ventral
horns at the cervical and thoracic segments. What functions have been
damaged?
2. Poliomyelitis causes damage to the spinal cord and dysfunctions of the
skeletal muscles. Destruction of which neurons causes this disease? Which
part of the reflex arch has been damaged?
3. The pear-shaped cells are known to have numerous synapses. Which of the
afferent fibers of the cerebellum and axons of which neurons form these
synapses?
4. Major star-shaped neurons of the granular layer are inhibitory neurons, they
do not, however, directly inhibit the pear-shaped cells. Where the inhibitory
synapse originating from these cells is localized, and at which level does it
interupt off a nerve impulse going to the dendrites of pear-shaped cells?
5. There are given are two preparations of the cerebral cortex. One preparation
demonstrates the Vth layer containing gigantic pyramidal cells, its granular
layers are almost not developed. The second one does not show gigantic
pyramids, but the internal and external granular layers are developed well.
Which of these preparations demonstrates the associative zone, and which
one demonstrates the motor zone of the brain cortex?
6. Specimens taken from the brains of two victims have been prepared for the
intrinsic medical examination. Well-developed pyramidal neurons including
that of in the fifth layer are visible in the precentral gyrus on the preparation.
The second one obtained from the same area demonstrated small quantity of
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neurocytes, the neuroglial cells were more numerous. What function was
damaged in one of the victims?
7. The posterior radiculi of the spinal cord have been injured as a result of
trauma. Which cells and their processes have been impaired?
6.3. Practical part
Micro-preparation for independent studying.
Preparation 1. Spinal cord, a cross-cut at the thoracic segments. Stained:
impregnated with silver.
Studying of the preparation should start from visual examination of the
specimen using ocular and then under microscope at lower magnification. The
spinal cord has two symmetric halves separated from one another by the anterior
profound ventral medial fissure and the posterior connective tissue dorsal medial
septum.
At the organ periphery there is seen white matter and darker grey one in its
middle part, having a butterfly shape in the cross cut.
The grey matter has narrow dorsal (posterior) horns. The intermediate zone
of the gray matter and its lateral part (horn) are located between them. The largest
neurons of the spinal cord are located in the ventral horn. They form motor nuclei,
which are subdivided into lateral and medial groups.
In the intermediate zone there are found medial intermediate nucleus and
lateral intermediate one localized in the lateral horns. In the medial part of the
dorsal horn basis there is seen thoracic nucleus, while in the center of it there is
nucleus proprius of the dorsal horn. The right and left halves of the grey matter are
connected with commissure where the central spinal cord canal lined with
ependimal cells is located. Ventral, dorsal and lateral funiculi should be found in
the white substance. At higher magnifications myelin fibers of the white substance
are seen as follows: an axial cylinder seen as a dark spot; a myeline cover – as a
white ring being the result of myeline solution during the processing of fibers
before its embedding. Find, please, the anterior, posterior horns, all the above
described nuclei, the central canal of the spinal cord and multipolar neurons.
Draw and designate: 1) ventral medial fissure; 2) dorsal medial septum; 3)
the grey matter and a) dorsal, b)lateral, c) ventral horns; 4) the central channel; 5)
motor lateral nucleus; 6) motor medial nucleus; 7) thoracic nucleus; 8) nucleus
proprius; 9) lateral sympathetic nucleus; 10) white matter; 11) anterior and
posterior grey fusions; 12) pia mater. See Fiigure 1.
Preparation 2. The cortex of large hemispheria: Impregnated by the Kakhal
method.
The layers of the cortex are seen at lower magnifications. It is necessary to
choose a sulcus between two gyri with pia matter and blood vessels in it. On both
sides of the sulcus there is visible the cortical surface. The superficial layer, the
molecular one, is distinctly seen as light layer because it contains small quantity of
cells. The next layer – external granular one, contains small neurons of about 10
10
μm in size having round, angular or pyramidal shapes. Then, there are seen the
widest, external pyramidal layers. The internal granular layer containing smallsized neurons lies beneath it. This layer is seen more distinctly if to have a look on
the next internal layer containing gigantic pyramidal cell having 120 μm in height.
The sixth layer, the polymorphic one, contains neurons of various shapes and
spindle-like ones as well. Beneath the cortex there is seen the white matter
containing mainly myelinated fibers. The glyocytes defined by their nuclei are also
seen in the grey and white matters.
Draw up and designate: 1) cortex of the large hemisphere; 2) molecular layer; 3)
external granular layer; 4) external pyramidal neurons; 5) internal granular layer;
6) internal layer of pyramidal neurons (ganglionar); 7) polymorphous layer; and 8)
white matter. See Figure 2.
Preparation 3. Cerebellum. Impregnated with silver.
Use the lower magnification. A main mass of the grey matter is localized on
the organ surface forming its cortex. The cerebellar cortical gyri are more branched
and form a tree-like shape. Its white matter is localized within the gyri. Please, find
three layers in the cerebellar cortex: external – molecular; middle – piriform
neurons; internal – granular. The piriform neuron layer is more marked as its cells
are very large in size (Purkinje cells), their dendrites are branched, some of which
penetrating the molecular layer.
In the lower third of the molecular layer, near to the Pukinje cells, there are
seen small-sized cells – basket-shaped cells. Their long branched dendrites and
neurites lying parallel to the gyri surface are located above the piriform cell bodies.
The collateral branches of their axons descend to the Purkinje cells and form a net
of fibers. In the upper area of the molecular layer there are star-shaped neurons.
Under the piriform neuron layer there is the granular one. It is rich in starshaped cells, or granular cells having small sizes and on the preparation there are
seen only their nuclei.
Draw up and designate: 1) molecular layer; 2) ganglionar layer; 3) piriform
neurons (Purkinje’s cells); 4) granular layer; 5) white matter. See Figure 3.
Studying of schemes and electron microphotographs
1) Fig. 4. A scheme of the spinal cord structure. Localization of nuclei in
the spinal cord is demonstrated.
2) Fig. 5. The cortex of large hemispheres. The scheme illustrates cytoand myeloarchitectonics of the cortex.
3) Fig. 6. A scheme of the interneuronic contacts in the large
hemispheres. Notion of the module of structure-function units of the
cortex.
4) Fig. 7. A scheme of cerebellar cortex structure. Various types of
neurons in the cortex of cerebellum and interneuronic links in its
different layers are demonstrated.
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5) Fig. 8. A scheme demonstrating the interneuronic connections in the
cerebellar cortex, localization of fibers and contacts of mossy-like and
crawling fibers with cerebellar neurons.
6) Fig. 9, 10. The cerebellar gromerulus. A scheme illustrating all types
of synapses in the glomerulus and their structure in details.
7) Table 1. A scheme of neuron contacts in the cerebellar cortex.
8) Table 2. Classification of cells in the anterior horns of a spinal cord.
9) Table 3. Sources of the nerve system origination.
7. Types of checking levels of knowledge and obtained practical skills
- oral
- written
- solving the situation tasks
- checking the practice skills the ability to handle with histologic preparation
- drawing adequately the preparations in a sketch-book
8. Criteria for estimation of knowledge by current control
№
Mark
Level of knowledge
1
Advancement in %
and points
96-100 %
“5” excellent
2
91-95 %
“5” excellent
3
86-90 %
“5”
1. Answer is complete, logic knowledge is higher
the limits of the program. Practical skills are
perfect, there is ability to work creatively and can
render help to others.
2. Answer is sufficient enough, data were
obtained from various additional text-books,
practical skill is perfect, is able to give answer to
the additional questions can advocate his (her)
point of view.
3. Answer is sufficient enough, knowledge is
obtained from other publications and valid.
Practical skill is perfect. Active.
1.Answer is sufficient enough, but level of
knowledge is within the limits of the program.
Practical skills are perfect, a student is able to
explain the preparations correctly.
2.Answer is sufficient, information obtained from
various text-books, no private point of view about
the material, coped with practice fully and is able
to explain it.
3.Answer is within the limits of the material given
in the recommended text-book. Obtained full
practical skill. However, no answer to the
additional questions, he (she) could not give full
answer to additional questions, and was unable to
advocate his (her) own point of opinion.
1.Answer is sufficient and logic but within the
limits of the program. Coped with practical skill
fully. No sufficient answer to the additional
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4
81-85 %
“4”
5
76-80 %
“4” good
6
71-75%
7
66-70 %
“3” satisfactory
7
66-70 %
“3” satisfactory
questions and mistaken but sometimes is
inaccurate.
2.Answer is full but sometimes is not accurate or
mistaken. Knowledge is obtained from text-books
and partially from other sources. Practical skill is
complete.
3.Answer is full, practical skill is complete but
answer to the additional questions was not full.
Mental outlook is not broad enough.
1.Answer within the limits of the program.
Practical skill is not perfect enough. There are
some mistakes in answering to the additional
questions
2.Answer is sufficient within the limits of the
program. Practical skills are perfect. No full
answer to the additional questions, there are some
mistakes
3. Answer is sufficient within the limits of the
program. Practical skills are perfect. No answer to
the additional questions.
1.Answer is within the limits of the program,
practical skill is partially insufficient. Answer to
the additional questions is fragmentary there are
some mistakes.
2.Answer is sufficient, practical skill is partially
correct, there are some mistakes. Answer to the
additional questions is fragmentary, there are
some mistakes.
3.Answer is correct, but not complete. Practical
skill is not sufficient. No complete answer to the
additional questions.
1.Answer is not sufficient enough. Practical skill
is not complete enough. There are mistakes is
answering to the additional questions.
2.Answer is in the limits of the program. There
are mistakes in practical skill. Answer to the
additional questions is fragmentary and there are
mistakes.
3.Answer is in the limits of the program, but
fragmentary. Practical skill is not full enough,
there are mistakes. Answer to the additional
questions is almost not correct.
1.Answer is correct, obtained practical skill is
mastered partially, cannot answer to the
additional questions, a narrow-minded person.
2.Knowledge of the program makes up 70% of
the total volume. Practical skill is not complete.
Answer to the additional questions is almost
absent, there are many mistakes.
3.Knowledge of the program makes up 60%
practical skill is completely mastered.
Fragmentary answer is given to the additional
13
8
61-65 %
“3” satisfactory
9
55-60 %
“3”
satisfactory
10
54%
“2”
unsatisfactory
questions, a moderate active person.
1.Knowledge of the program makes up 60%.
Experienced in practical skill. No answer to the
additional questions.
2.Knowledge of the program makes up 60%.
Experienced partially in practical there are
mistakes in answering to the additional questions.
3.Knowledge of the program makes up about
50%. Practical skill is mastered. Almost no
answer to the additional questions.
1.Theory and practical skills make up 50%, there
are mistakes, Almost no answer to the additional
questions.
2.Knowledge of the program makes up about
50%. Practical skill also makes up 50%. No
answer to the additional questions, activity is
moderate.
3.Knowledge of the program makes up 40%.
Practical skill makes up 80%. No answer to the
additional questions.
1.Correct answer makes up 20-30%, no exact
answers of the theoretic material, practical skill is
mastered partially. No answer to the additional
questions.
2.No answer to the theory, practical skill is
obtained. No answer to the additional questions.
9. Chronologic schedule of class hours
№ Steps of the studies
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Introduction
Discussion of the theme of the lesson
studies and estimation of the initial
knowledge by students.
Summary of the discussion
Explanation by the given preparations,
electron micrographs, schemes and
drawings
Obtaining practical skills independently
Checking the level of the acquired
theoretic knowledge and practical skills
obtained at the practical classes,
estimation the students activity
Conclusion made by a tutor. Estimation of
the students knowledge according to 100
points system and announcement of the
results. Giving home task for the next
lesson
Kind of activity
Interrogatory
(inquest) explanation
Lasting period
135 min
5 min
30
5
20
Studying of electron
micrographs, schemes
Control implemented
of the obtained
practical skills
55
Information questions
for the self dependent
study
10
10
14
10. Control questions:
1. Spinal cord structure.
2. Describe the topography and functions of nuclei of the medullar grey matter.
3. Where to are there directed the neorocytes’ axons of the motor nuclei in the
ventral horns of spinal cord and what structure do they form?
4. What types of neurons are there found in the spinal cord?
5. What layers are there formed the cerebellar cortex of?
6. What types of neurons constitute the molecular layer of the cerebellar
cortex?
7. Describe the structure of the cerebellar cortical piriform cells.
8. Describe the general micro-functional characteristics of the cell-granules. In
which layer of the cerebellar cortex are they found?
9. Give the micro-functional characteristics of neurons of the large hemisphere
cortex.
10.Describe the peculiar characteristics of the structure and function of large
pyramidal neurons.
For independent studying
11.Development of the large hemispheres cortex of a human being and the
mammalians.
12.Hemoencephalic barrier, its morpho-functional characteristics.
13.Transmission of information from one neuron to another as a basis of the
brain functional activity.
14.Inhibitory system of neurons in the large hemispheric and cerebellar cortex.
11.The Recommended literature
The basic
1. Histology / under the editorship of J.I.Afanasiev, N.A.Jurina. М, Medicine,
1989.
2. Afanasiev J.I., Yurina N.A. Histology, М, 1989, 2004.
3. Almazov I.V., Sutulov L.S. The Atlas on histology and embryology. М,
1978.
4. Yeliseyev V. G, etc. The Atlas microscopic and ultramicroscopic structure
of cells, tissues and organs. М, Medicine, 1970.
5. The Practical work on histology, cytology and embryology. Under the
editorship of N.A.Jurina, A.I.Radostina. М, 1989.
6. Katsnelson Z.S., Richter I.D. Practical work on histology. М, 1963.
7. L.C.Junqueira, J.Carneiro, R.O.Kelley Basic Histology. 7-edition, London,
1992.
8. H.G.Burkitt, B.Young, J.W. Yeath Wheater’s Functional Histology. A Text
and Colour Atlas. 1993.
The supplementary
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1. The Atlas-textbook on histology. The computer program under the
editorship of S.L.Kuznetsov, etc. М. 1999.
2. Histology (introduction in a pathology) under the editorship of Ulumbekov
E.G., Chelyshev Yu.А. М, 1997.
3. Histology, cytology and a embryology. The atlas (under the editorship of
O.V.Volkova, J.K.Elezkiy). 1996.
4. The Management on histology. Under the editorship of R.K.Danilov,
I.L.Bykov and I.A.Odinzov. Т.1 and 2. S.-Peterburg, 2001.
5. Hem А, Kormak D. Gistologija in 5 volumes. Transfer with English М,
1982-1983.
6. Laboratory researches at the rate of histology, cytology and embryology.
Under the editorship of prof. J.I.Afanasiev. М, 1990.
7. Gartner L.P., Hiatt J.L. Color Atlas of Histology. - Baltimore. 1990.
8. Stevens A., Love J.S. Human Histology, 2nd edit - L.e.a.: Mosby, 1997.
9. Educational resources on histology on the Internet:
www.histol <http://www.histol> chuvashia. com.; don hist.from ru.com.;
medmir.ru; histology narod.ru; www.rezko.ru;
http://medic.med.uth.tmc.edu/Lecture/Main/Griff5.htm;
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