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Biochemistry http://www.brainpop.com/science/matterandchemistry/bodychemistry/ Chemistry of Carbon • Carbon can form covalent bonds with up to 4 other atoms • Hydrocarbonscompounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen Giant Molecules from Small Building Blocks • Macromolecules: Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Nucleic Acids • Structure: Polymers- large molecules made by stringing together many small molecules called monomers Basic building blocks a long train of box cars ? Monomer single building block unit Dimer Polymer >3 generally 100-1,000 monomers = Polymer 4 Carbohydrates C, H, O 2:1 ratio of H to O Monosaccharide –C6H12O6 = glucose, fructose Disaccharide = 2 mono’s: C12H22O11 –Sucrose, lactose Polysaccharide = 100’s to 1,000’s –Starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin 5 Polysaccharides: are the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere. Cellulose – most common polysaccharide – (estimate - over 1 trillion tons made – by plants/year) Starch (in plants) – is stored in plant cell vacuoles. Glycogen (in animals) – highly branched starch – glycogen. (In mammals, glycogen stored in liver and muscles provides a quick source of energy. – Excess glucose ? taken up from the blood - stored where ? 6 Monomer Polymer Dimer Dehydration Synthesis: Process in which cells link monomers together to form polymersResults in loss of water H H OH H2O H Hydrolysis: Digestion of macromolecules through the addition of water H2O H OH Check Point: 1. Draw the structural formula for C2H4. Remember that each carbon has 4 bonds; each hydrogen has 1. 2.When two molecules of glucose (C6H12O6) are joined together in a dehydration synthesis reaction, what are the formulas of the two products? Carbohydrates Sugars Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (monomers) Molecular formula: Multiple of CH2O Ex. Glucose and Fructose - C6H12O6 Isomers Isomers: Same molecular formula, different structure and therefore different properties Disaccharides: double sugar High Fructose Corn Syrup: Corn syrup producers developed a way to convert half of the glucose in corn syrup to fructose (sweeter) Table Sugar Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates- long chains of sugar units Starch: Form of stored sugars in plant roots and other plant organs **Potatoes, wheat, rice, and corn are high in starch Glycogen: Form of stored sugars in animals, found in liver and muscle cells. Cellulose: Structural component of plants, found in the cell walls. Unable to be digested by animals. (Fiber) bioweb.wku.edu Lipids (C, H, O) Nonpolar – don’t dissolve in water –hydrophobic- water fearing. High proportion of C-H bonds very little O (oxygen) Some lipids may contain P and N Not polymers 12 Lipids Glycerol Fats, Oils, and Waxes Stores energy (2x as much as carbs) Stored in adipose cells Fatty acid Fatty acid Fatty acid } Triglyceride 13 Lipids • Fats, Oils, and Waxes • Stores energy (2x as much as carbs) • Stored in adipose cells Fat = Triglyceride Composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules joined by dehydration synthesis Glycerol 3 Fatty Acid Chains Saturated v. Unsaturated Fats • • Saturated: When all 3 fatty acid chains are bonded to the maximum number of hydrogens (No Double Bonds) Unsaturated: When at least one fatty acid chain has less then the maximum number of hydrogens (At least one double bond) Monounsaturated Fat Molecule • • Steroids Anabolic Steroids: synthetic variants of testosterone Hydrophobic Cholesterol: Present in cell membrane and is base molecule for other steroids in the body such as testosterone and estrogen Cholesterol Used to build muscle quickly and increase performance Risks: - Increase cholesterol - Infertility http://www.muscleenhancers.com/s teroids/ Proteins • Types of Proteins: • • • • • • • Structural (hair, webs) Storage (seeds) Contractile (muscles) Transport (hemoglobin) Defensive (antibodies) Signal Enzymes (lactase) Monomers = Amino Acids http://www.aloeveraibs.com/aloe-vera-vitamins *** Each “R” group is unique and determines the chemical properties of the amino acid 20 different amino acids! http://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm • Protein Polymers A Polypeptide is formed when dehydration synthesis results in peptide bonds between many amino acids How do we make all of the tens of thousand different polypeptides in our bodies from only 20 different amino acids? Functions of Proteins Enzymes: regulate the rate of chemical reactions in cells. – eg: Catalysts - speed up or slow down Structural Proteins – – Viruses - outer coat, – keratin (hair, nails, hoofs, horns) – Collagen -extra cellular matrix (ex. tendons, cartilage) Hormones- (signaling) Oxytocin, Insulin, Vasopressin 20 Functions of Proteins • Contractile proteins – Actin, Myosin • Storage Proteins – Casein (nutrient storage in milk), Ferritin (iron storage in egg yolk and spleen) • Transport Proteins – Hemoglobin, serum albumin (carries fatty acids in blood) • Immunological Proteins – Gamma globulins (circulating antibodies) 21 Protein continued Shape important – “Hydrogen bonds”-help dictate shape – side groups (R) interact along the polypeptide chain • Causing: –coil = spiral staircase, phone cord –Folding = Pleated sheet –combo – The shape: coil, stretched out, or folded • Determines how a protein will act…(function) 22 Primary Structure: The amino acid sequence of a protein (Usually at least 100 amino acids long) nature.com Campbell isbbio2.wikispaces.com Secondary Structure: Hydrogen Bonds between amino acids groups lead to patterns. Patterns are either alpha helix or beta pleated sheets Tertiary Structure: The overall 3D shape of the protein www-3.unipv.it Quarternary Structure: When a protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain bonding with one another Ex: Hemoglobin yellowtang.org Campbell What determines protein structure? • The amino acids sequence determines the shape and therefore the function of each protein. • The shape of a protein allows it to carry on it’s specific function. If it loses it’s shape it will not work correctly. • Unfavorable pH and temperature can cause denaturation (unfolding) of a protein and cause it to cease functioning normally until pH or temperature returns to normal. ENZYMES (Proteins) • Metabolism: All of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism • ENZYMES: Specialized PROTEINS that allow reactions to occur • Enzymes speed up chemical reactions Activation Energy: Energy needed to activate reactants and trigger a chemical reaction For a chemical reaction to occur the bonds in the reactants must be broken which requires the molecules to absorb energy. Enzymes reduce the amount of activation energy required to break the bonds in the reactant molecules Enzymes bind to the reactants putting it under stress, making it easier to break their bonds Induced Fit * Enzymes can also be referred to as catalysts Each enzyme is specific as to which reactions it catalyzes Enzymes are proteins, and just like other proteins they need to be the correct shape to perform their function correctly. • Substrate: The reactant molecule that interacts with the protein • Active Site: The area of the enzyme that interacts with the substrate. The shape and chemistry of it allows it to interact with the substrate. • Induced fit: When the substrate slips into the active site the active site changes its shape slightly to allow a better fit. When the product is released the enzyme is free to work again. (Catalysts are not used up in reaction!) Enzyme Inhibitors • Inhibit metabolic reactions by binding to an enzyme and disrupting its function • 2 types 1. Bind to and plug up the active site so substrate can not access the active site 2. Bind to some place other than active site, changing the shape of the enzyme making active site no longer the correct shape to bind to the substrate Feedback Regulation: If metabolism produces more of a certain product than is needed the product may inhibit the enzyme required for its own production **Saves Resources Nucleic Acids Information storing molecules that hold instructions for protein building DNA and RNA (Genetic Material Nucleic Acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides Nucleotides: Made up of 3 parts 1. 5 Carbon Sugar (Deoxyribose or Ribose) 2. Phosphate Group 3. Nitrogenous Base - (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil msu.edu biologyjunction.com academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu