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Transcript
In This Lesson: Cell Organelles (Lesson 3 of 5) Today is Tuesday, th October 18 , 2016 Pre-Class: Scientists have put forth various estimates for the average number of cells in the human body. What would you guess? Today’s Agenda • • • • You know how you have “parts” called organs? Well cells do too. And we’re learning them today. An excerpt of a great bit o’ writing on cells. Perspective. – A “whoooooaaaa” moment. • Where is this in my book? – Chapter 6 By the end of this lesson… • You should be able to describe the anatomy of the cell. • You should be able to visually identify many of the cell’s parts from a diagram. • You should be able to differentiate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in terms of organelles. Perspective • You. • You are a giant pile of cells and stuff put in place by cells. • You are a giant pile of between 1 trillion and 100 trillion cells. • You are nothing more than a giant pile of cells. – No offense. • You are listening to another giant pile of cells right now. Perspective • This other giant pile of cells has written some things down to help you understand cells. • You are a giant, integrated network of cells, capable of thought, discovery, and emotion. • You are a giant pile of cells capable of hearing music in your head and recalling events that happened years ago, to cells that may not even be alive right now. • You are a giant pile of cells learning about yourself. Introductions • Bill Bryson – Cells • The Inner Life of the Cell Perspective (different kind) • How big are cells, exactly? • Well, the biggest single cell is an ostrich egg. • Your biggest cell (provided you’re not an ostrich) is your sciatic nerve. – Graphic photo in three slides. • For an average cell size, let’s go to The Scale of the Universe: – Scale of the Universe.lnk The Biggest Cell in the World • Ostrich egg http://aidanmoher.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/ostrich_egg_size.jpg Your Biggest Cell • Sciatic nerve WARNING: Graphic picture next slide… http://www.acticare.com/conditions/images/sciatic_nerve2.jpg Sciatic Nerve http://www.ilizarov.org/new1/upload/8142007102508AM3.JPG Historical Perspective Robert Hooke? • The term “cell” comes to us from Robert Hooke, who first observed what looked like tiny rooms within a piece of cork under an early microscope. Historical Perspective • Hooke gets (and deserves) his share of credit, but the first to observe living cells was Anton von Leeuwenhoek (“lay-venhoke”). – Leeuwenhoek observed blood cells, sperm cells, and single-celled organisms. http://www.teachersparadise.com/ency/en/media/5/5e/anton_van_leeuwenhoek.png Pushing forward… • After Leeuwenhoek, the beginnings of the Cell Theory began to take shape, much in the same “trial/error” way that we got the atomic model in chemistry: Robert Browning – 1824 – Henri Dutrochet: “The cell is the basic structural unit.” – 1831 – Robert Browning names the nucleus. • Same surly-lookin’ dude as Brownian motion. – 1838 – Matthias Schleiden: “Plants are made of cells.” Matthias Schleiden Pushing forward… • 1839 – Theodor Schwann: “Animals are made of cells.” • 1850 – Louis Pasteur invents pasteurization (for wine). Theodor Schwann – “Wait, cells are causing diseases?” • Notably, to this point many scientists had been proposing hypotheses for how cells came to be, many of whom had correctly realized all cells come from other cells, but none of whom got the process right. Louis Pasteur Pushing forward… • 1855 – Rudolf Virchow states that cells come from the division of previouslyexisting cells. Rudolf Virchow – Gold star for you, Dr. Virchow. • All of this research had finally gotten us to the Cell Theory: – All cells come from other cells. – The cell is the basic unit of structure and function. – All living things have one or more cells. • TED: Lauren Royal-Woods 2012 - The Wacky History of Cell Theory Microscopes • The microscope has gotten more powerful. • Advanced electron microscopes allow us to see amazingly small objects at the cost of being unable to see living things. – Tunneling microscopes now let us both view and manipulate atoms. – A Boy and His Atom – Willard Wigan – NOVA - Microscopes Scanning Electron Microscope • Ant Scanning Electron Microscope Scanning Electron Microscope • Spider silk. http://riki-lb1.vet.ohio-state.edu/background/echaff_empic.php Scanning Electron Microscope • Ehrlichia chaffeensis in cells – the cause of Human Monocytic Erhlichiosis. http://riki-lb1.vet.ohio-state.edu/background/echaff_empic.php Scanning Electron Microscope • Trichinosis spiralis (microscopic animal parasite from undercooked meat). http://riki-lb1.vet.ohio-state.edu/background/echaff_empic.php Scanning Electron Microscope • Flea http://www.photosfan.com/electron-microscope/ Scanning Electron Microscope • Bacterial chain on calcite rock from Spider Cave, Yosemite National Park. (10,000x!) http://www.caveslime.org/fmd/bacteria/ So…wait. • The fact that we have so many cells, yet they’re so small, begs a question… • Why aren’t cells bigger? – Why they’re not smaller is easier – they need to be big enough to at least have some necessary contents. • Discuss this with your neighbor. • It turns out the answer is related closely to two geometric calculations… Surface Area to Volume Ratio A Review Cube 1 2 cm 4 cm Cube 2 2 cm 2 cm 4 cm 4 cm Cube 1 Cube 2 Proportion Volume 8 cm3 64 cm3 8x more volume Surface Area 24 cm2 96 cm2 4x more surface Proportion 3x more surface 1.5x more surface SA to Volume Ratio • Observe how volume is the same, but surface area is quite different: Think of it this way… • If you buy a gallon of water in one bottle… • …and then you buy a gallon of water in many bottles… • …which option gets you more water? – Either choice. They’re the same. • But which option uses more packaging material? – The smaller bottles. • Key: Think of packaging material like surface area. https://pfiesterpfit.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/gallon_of_water.jpg http://www.exchange3d.com/images/uploads/aff4269/Arrowhead.jpg Surface Area to Volume Ratio • Diffusion prevents the growth of larger cells because things like CO2 and H2O simply take too long to diffuse into the center of the cell. • DNA prevents the growth of larger cells because it has to control cellular functions but can only do so from the nuclei. – The largest cells are often multi-nucleated. And speaking of controlling the cell… • It’s time we start discussing organelles. – The “little organs” of the cell. • But why even have organelles at all? • Organelles allow for: chloroplast – Specialized functions. • Like cilia and flagella. – Containers. Golgi mitochondria • In which pH can change or dangerous enzymes like those in the lysosome can be stored. ER – Membranes. • Many reactions take place in the membranes of cells. Your Cells Have Jobs • In order to keep on livin’, cells need to: – Make protein. • PROTEINS CONTROL EVERY CELL FUNCTION. – Make energy. • For maintenance and growth. – Make more cells. • For growth (of the organism), repair, and renewal. • Did I mention proteins do all the work? All Cells Have Jobs • It turns out that not all cells have all organelles. • Some, in fact, have very few indeed. • If you think in terms of the structures cells have, you can divide all the cells in the world into two categories: – Prokaryotic – Eukaryotic Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes (“before kernel”): – No nucleus, no membranebound organelles. – Simple and old. – Example: Bacteria and Archaea • Eukaryotes (“true kernel”): – Nucleus, membrane-bound organelles. – Relatively new and more complex. – Example: Eu! http://asweknowit.net/images_edu/DWA%205%20eukaryote.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Prokaryote_cell_diagram_pt.svg/573px-Prokaryote_cell_diagram_pt.svg.png Nucleus • Structure – Has its own double-membrane called the “nuclear envelope,” which has lots of pores. – Nuclear lamella provides shape. – Contains/protects DNA/chromosomes. • Function Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ – The “control center” of the cell. – Has a nucleolus (area in nucleus) that makes ribosomes. http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Anatomy/AnimalCellStructure/Nucleus/cellnucleus.jpg Pores in the Nuclear Membrane • Remember what needs to pass through here? • A little molecule by the name of mRNA? Coloring Sheet The Big Idea (or Central Dogma) Transcription DNA Translation RNA Protein Trait Replication NOTE: DNA Replication does not have to happen before transcription. The Big Idea (or Central Dogma) Transcription DNA Nucleus Translation RNA Protein Cytoplasm @ Ribosome Trait large subunit They’re small… Ribosomes small subunit • Structure – Made of two subunits (large and small) of rRNA. • Function – Protein manufacturing. • Other Found In Prokaryotes? – There are two types of ribosomes: ✓ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ • Bound ribosomes (attached to the ER) • Free ribosomes (somewhere in the cytosol) – They’re also evolutionarily old and found in every living thing. http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00217/images/content/ribosome.jpg Ribosomes 0.08mm Ribosomes Rough ER Smooth ER Nucleus & Ribosomes Interaction nuclear membrane DNA is used as a model to produce mRNA in the nucleus… DNA Nucleus nuclear pore mRNA small ribosomal subunit mRNA large ribosomal subunit cytoplasm …and then exits through a nuclear pore to meet with both halves of the ribosomes in the cytosol. Coloring Sheet Now for the unique structures… • Cell Wall – Rigid, relatively strong, made of cellulose. • Helps support plants. • Three layers (moving inward): – Primary cell wall – Middle lamella – Secondary cell wall Found In Prokaryotes? ✓ http://biology.unm.edu/ccouncil/Biology_124/Images/cellwall.jpeg Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✘ ✓ Coloring Sheet Cell Membrane • Found in all cells. • Surrounds the cell. • Allows for membrane transport (diffusion, osmosis, et cetera) and serves as a barrier. • A LOT more to come on this one. Found In Prokaryotes? ✓ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ Coloring Sheet Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) • Usually found near the nucleus. – Rough ER: Lined with ribosomes (which make protein). • Rough ER is a stack of discs. • Proteins are made and transported for export to other cells. – Smooth ER: No ribosomes. Drug detox. Makes lipids. Has calcium. Converts glycogen to glucose. ?? • Smooth ER is a tube shape. • Lipids are kept local. • Makes cell membrane. • Both are capable of some transport. Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ http://images.teamsugar.com/files/upl1/1/13839/15_2008/MV5BMjA0NjI0ODgzNF5BMl5BanBnXkFtZTcwMDAxNDUyMQ@@._V1._SY400_SX60 0_.jpg https://illnessesanimalsplants.wikispaces.com/file/view/smooth_&_rough_ER.jpg/31839797 Endoplasmic Reticulum Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough ER: Protein Synthesis cisternal space polypeptide signal sequence ribosome mRNA membrane of endoplasmic reticulum cytoplasm Get it? Case in Point: Organelle “Trends” • Which type of cell might have a lot of smooth ER? – Maybe a reproductive organ’s cell? Something that uses a lot of hormones. – Maybe a liver cell? Something that will be involved in alcohol detoxification. • Which type of cell might have a lot of rough ER? – Maybe a pancreatic cell? Something that needs a lot of protein. Coloring Sheet Vesicles • Not technically organelles, they are membrane-bound “packages” of the cell, usually from the Golgi or cell membrane. • A sac that contains a substance. • Pinch off organelles and move through the cytoplasm to a destination. – What might be a destination? Nerve cell vesicles releasing contents http://www.cnsforum.com/content/pictures/imagebank/hirespng/vesicle_fusion.png Vesicles • Vesicles are small “bubbles” made of cell membrane. • They’re used to carry stuff around the cell, out of the cell, or into the cell. • Think of them like little envelopes for shipping stuff. Lysosome • Structure – A vesicle containing digestive enzymes. • Function – Break down worn out organelles or other cell parts (autophagy – literally “eating oneself”). – Break down organic molecules within the cell or already-eaten other cells. – Like a garbage disposal for the cell. • Plant cells have them, but they’re not as common as in animal cells. http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/img/lysosome.jpg Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ Lysosome http://www.yksd.com/distanceedcourses/Courses09/Biology/lessons/FirstQuarterLessons/Chapter1/images/Lesson2/25lysosome.png Aside: Lysosomal Diseases • Tay-Sachs Disease and Gaucher’s Disease – Failure to break down fatty acid derivatives. – Tay-Sachs is common in Ashkenazic Jews. • Many lysosomal diseases (there are around 40 of them) result in a buildup of wastes within the cell due to the digestive enzymes not functioning. Lysosomes Apoptosis • When cells need to be replaced, they undergo something referred to as “programmed cell death,” or apoptosis. – Literally, they digest themselves to death. • The lysosome plays a role in this process too, by releasing enzymes into the cytoplasm. – It’s like if your stomach opened and ate you. • This is the same process used to eliminate the tailbone and webbing between your fingers you had whilst still in yo’ mom. Aside: Syndactyly – “Together Fingers” • And if that apoptotic process somehow fails? Case in Point: Organelle “Trends” • Which type of cell might have a lot of lysosomes? – Maybe a leukocyte (white blood cell)? Something that digests a lot. • Another look at digestion: – Amoeba Eats Two Paramecia video Coloring Sheet Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi Body) • Structure – A blobby stack of membranes in the cytosol. – Cis face is the receiving side facing the nucleus/ER; Trans face is the sending side facing the membrane. • Function – Finishes, sorts, tags, and ships cell products out of the cell. – Ships products in vesicles. Found In Eukaryotes? Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ http://employees.csbsju.edu/HJAKUBOWSKI/classes/ch331/cho/ergolgi.jpeg Golgi Apparatus Vesicular Transport Cytosol ER Golgi Apparatus Protein Vesicle budding from ER Ribosome Migrating transport vesicle Fusion of vesicle with Golgi Apparatus DNA mRNA Vesicle containing protein Vesicle containing processed protein http://employees.csbsju.edu/HJAKUBOWSKI/classes/ch331/cho/ergolgi.jpeg Endomembrane System • What you just saw on the previous slide is a good illustration of the endomembrane system, which is the network of membrane-bound organelles within the cytoplasm: – – – – – – – Nucleus ER Golgi Apparatus Vesicles Vacuoles Lysosomes Cell membrane Case in Point: Organelle “Trends” • Which type of cell might have a lot of Golgi apparatuses? – Maybe a glandular cell? Something that secretes a lot of stuff, like endocrine glands (pituitary gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries) or the salivary gland. Coloring Sheet Quick Analogy • Let’s say you want to make someone a present and mail it to them. – First you would make the gift (like a ribosome makes protein)… – …then you would move it in your house toward the door (like rough ER moves protein)… – …then you would ship it to your friend (like the Golgi ships particles)… – …in a box (like a vesicle). Mitochondria • Structure Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ – Two membranes that form two compartments. – Have their own DNA (!). – More structure details next slide. • Function – Often called the powerhouse of the cell, and there are an average of 100-1000 for each cell (sometimes even just 1). – Uses organic molecules to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), helps in respiration. • More coming on this next unit… • Grammar Note: – One mitochondrion, two mitochondria… Mitochondria Structure • The inner membrane of the mitochondrion is highly folded. – The folds are called cristae, and they increase the surface area of the membrane. • The innermost space of the mitochondrion is known as the matrix. – The matrix contains DNA, enzymes, and ribosomes. Mitochondria Structure Mitochondria Structure • So why do mitochondria need cristae? Why increase the surface area? – Because the cristae contain membrane-bound enzymes! Mitochondria Evolution • They have their own DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. They move and divide on their own. • Scientists think mitochondria once lived on their own…and were actually bacteria! • Need more evidence? http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/images/endosymbiosis/mitoch ondria.gif Mitochondria mtDNA • mtDNA is the name given to mitochondrial DNA. • It’s inherited directly from the maternal side of the family, meaning it’s almost always unchanged from your mother’s mtDNA…whose mtDNA was unchanged from her mother too. • This makes it valuable for forensics, as it’s not as fragile as nuclear DNA and can be found much more readily in hair samples. Case In Point: Organelle “Trends” • Which type of cell might have a lot of mitochondria? – Maybe a muscle cell? Something that needs a lot of energy. Coloring Sheet Aside: Muscle Cells • Muscle cells act in cooperation with others. • As a result, their organelles have different names: – Sarcolemma = Plasma Membrane – Sarcoplasmic Reticulum = Endoplasmic Reticulum – Sarcosomes = Mitochondria – Sarcoplasm = Cytoplasm Chloroplast • Structure – Similar to mitochondria: • • • • Double membrane Ribosomes DNA Move and divide like bacteria – More structure details next slide. • Function – Photosynthesis. – Green pigmentation. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/chloroplasts/images/chloroplastsfigure1.jpg Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✘ ✓ Chloroplast Structure • The two-membrane structure is like mitochondria. • The innermost space is called the stroma. – In mitochondria, it’s the matrix, remember? • Inside the stroma are stacks of disks. – The disks are thylakoids. – The stacks are grana (singular: granum). • The disks increase the surface area of the membrane just like the cristae do. Chloroplast Plastids • Plant and algal cells have a bunch of closelyrelated organelles called plastids. • Chloroplasts – Green pigments and photosynthesis. • Amyloplasts – Starch storage in roots/tubers. • FYI: Starch-related words tend to start in “amyl-.” • Chromoplasts – Pigment for flowers and fruit. • FYI: Anything related to color or visibility Mitochondria & Chloroplasts • They are the hipsters of the cell: – They’re not part of the endomembrane system. • Did you see how they weren’t part of the nucleus > ER > Golgi > membrane chain? – They grow and reproduce on their own. – They get protein from their own ribosomes (which are like those of bacteria) or the free ones in the cell. – They have a circular chromosome (like bacteria). Coloring Sheet Case In Point: Organelle “Trends” • Would a cell from an onion contain a lot of chloroplasts? – Nope – onions grow underground. Central Vacuole • Structure – Plants only have large, central vacuoles. Entire Cell – Takes up most of the cell (plants only). • Function – Storage for water and food (plants/animals). – Supports the cell when full (plants only). Vacuole • Animals have smaller ones. • Prokaryotes rarely have them. Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ [small] [large] http://www.ccs.k12.in.us/chsBS/kons/kons/eukaryotic%20cell/cytoplasm_and_its_associated_str_files/image017.jpg Vacuoles Types • Food Vacuoles – Help the cell “eat” stuff. – Fuse with lysosomes for digestion. • Contractile Vacuoles – Regulate H2O balance by pumping water out. • Central Vacuoles – Store water and help keep a plant cell rigid. – Store pigments and ions. – Store compounds that defend against herbivores. – Surrounded by the tonoplast. Central Vacuole Support http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Turgor_pressure_on_plant_cells_diagram.svg/2000pxTurgor_pressure_on_plant_cells_diagram.svg.png Coloring Sheet Peroxisomes Not on your coloring sheet • Structure – Digestive enzyme sac, much like the lysosome in that it must be kept separate from the cell. • Function – Break down fatty acids to sugars (yes, fat to sugar). – Detoxify cell by breaking down alcohol and other poisons. – Produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). • The peroxide is toxic and must be broken down to water. • Other – Made by the ER. – Sometimes called microbodies. Found In Prokaryotes? ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ Aside: Peroxisomal Diseases • X-linked Adrenoleukodistrophy – Fatty acids can’t get metabolized, resulting ultimately in nerve damage. • See Lorenzo’s Oil. • Zellweger Syndrome – Proteins cannot be imported into the peroxisome. Cytoskeleton • Structure – Made of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. • Microfilaments are made of a protein called actin. • Microtubules are made of a protein called tubulin. • Function – Help cells move (make up flagella and cilia). – Help move things within cells. – Support organelles. – Aid in cell division. – Form centrioles. http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/gbi/images/mtsandactin.jpg Found In Prokaryotes? ✓ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✓ Cytoskeleton • Actin • Tubulin • Nuclei Motor Proteins • So you know how vesicles move through the cytoplasm? • Well, they don’t float randomly. • Motor proteins help them “walk” down the cytoskeleton. • Video: Kinesin Motor Protein Other Parts of the Cell http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/cilia_flagella.jpg Cilia and Flagella Found In Prokaryotes? ✓ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✘ • As you might imagine, some cells need to move. • To do this, they use flagella (singular: flagellum) and cilia (singular: cilium). – Flagellum (made of protein) • A long “whip-like” structure usually on one end of the cell. • Most cells have one or two flagella. – Cilia (made of protein) • Many short “hair-like” structures along the outside of the cell. • Most cells have lots of cilia. • Cilia also move other things along the surface of the cell. • Both are anchored to the cell by a basal body, which is like a centriole (next organelle). Coloring Sheet Centrioles • Structure Found In Prokaryotes? Not on your coloring sheet – One pair in each cell. – Short, rod-shaped structure. – Made of nine bundles of three microtubules. • Function – Guides cell division in animals. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/centrioles/images/centriolesfigure1.jpg ✘ Found In Eukaryotes? Animals? Plants? ✓ ✘ Cytoplasm • You know this one. • New stuff: – The inner cytoplasm is watery. – The outer cytoplasm is more like a gel and is called the cortex. – The cytoplasm sometimes circulates around the cell. This is called cytoplasmic streaming. Coloring Sheet Starting here… A Little Review http://www.bchs.k12.va.us/BCHS-Webpage/HSWEBPAGE/SchoolSite/assets/plantcell.gif A Little More Review • Let’s try some cell anatomy with a little more detail… • http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/health/an atomy/cell/index.htm It’s POGIL Time! • Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells POGIL Closure • Organelle Charades, anyone?