Download biological bases of behavior

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Neuro Bio
Neurobiology
The Neuron
Soma (cell body): Contains nucleus and support systems
Dendrites: Tree-like branches that receive information from other neurons
Axon: Long fiber that passes info to other neurons
Myelin: Fatty substance on some axons--speeds up neural transmissions
Terminal Branches of Axon: Form junctions with other cells and contain synaptic vesicles
Synaptic vesicles: sac-like structures that contain neurotransmitters
Synapse: The tiny gap between the sending and receiving neurons
Neural Networks: Clusters of neurons that work together and become strengthened with use.
Neural Communication: Neurons communicate
via an electrochemical process
Electrical Process
Resting Potential: Neuron is at rest and is said to
be Polarized (-70 milivolts). The inside of the cell
is more negative than the surrounding fluid.
Action Potential: When stimulated at or above
threshold, the cell becomes depolarized (+50
milivolts)as positively charged sodium ions rush
into the cell. The neuron has now "fired". It is an
all-or-nothing response. The cell then returns to
its polarized state.
Refractory Period: For 1/1000 of a second after firing, the cell cannot fire again. This is
Somewhat like a camera flash recharging itself.
Chemical Process
1. When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons on the ends of the terminal branches, it
causes the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
2. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron (like a key fitting into
a lock). Some neurotransmitters are excitatory (create a new action potential) while others are
inhibitory.
3. After neurotransmitters have done their job, they may be destroyed by other chemicals released
into the synapse. Or, reuptake may occur.
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Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron and recycled for future use.
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (Ach): Muscle movement, learning, and memory. An undersupply is involved in
Alzheimer's disease.
Dopamine: Involved in learning, attention, and emotion. An Excess dopamine is involved in
schizophrenia.
Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. An undersupply is linked to depression.
Norepinephrine: Helps control alertness and arousal. An undersupply can lead to depression. An
oversupply can lead to manic symptoms.
GABA (gamma-aminobutytic acid): Major inhibitory neurotransmitter. An undersupply can
lead to tremors, seizures, and insomnia.
Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can
overstimulate the brain leading to migraines (this is why some people avoid MSG in food).
Endorphins: natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure.
Drugs and Neurotransmitters
Agonists: Drugs that are so similar to a neurotransmitter that they can mimic its effects-or-they
may block reuptake of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonists: Drugs that inhibit a neurotransmitters release-or-they may occupy the receptor site
on the receiving neuron, thus blocking the neurotransmitter form binding.
The Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
a) Brain
b) Spinal Cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
a) Somatic (skeletal) nervous system:
Voluntary behaviors
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
b) Autonomic: Self-regulation of internal
organs and glands.
1. sympathetic NS: arousing
Pupils dilate, HR, BP, respiration increase,
and digestive processes slow down.
Fight or flight response.
2. parasympathetic NS: calming-opposite
of sympathetic nervous system response.
Three types of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons of the peripheral NS take incoming sensory information to the spinal
cord and brain.
2. Motor (efferent) neurons take information from the spinal cord out to muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons are neurons in the central NS (brain & spinal cord). They communicate with each
other and connect the sensory and motor neurons.
The Simple Reflex
A simple reflex involves afferent (sensory) neurons
carrying sensory information to the spinal cord.
Interneurons connect the afferent neurons to the
efferent (motor) neurons. A reflex does not involve
the brain.
The Brain
Studying the Brain
Phineas Gage
Lesions: Destruction of brain tissue
Studying the Brain (cont.)
EEG (electroencephalogram): amplified recordings of brain wave activity.
CT (computerized tomography) scan: X-ray photos of slices of the brain.
CT (or CAT) scans show structures within the brain but not functions of the brain.
PET (positron emission tomography): visual display of brain activity that detects where a
radioactive form of glucose is being used while the brain performs certain tasks.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to see
structures within the brain.
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fMRI (functional MRI): allows us to see where oxygen is being used in the brain while various
tasks are being performed.
Structure and Function of the Brain
Brainstem: Oldest area of the brain. Also called the reptilian brain.
1. Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
2. Reticular Formation: A neural network within the brainstem; important in arousal including
sleep.
Thalamus: Sits on top of the brainstem; received all incoming sensory information (except smell)
and sends it to the appropriate part of the brain for further processing.
Cerebellum: The "little brain" attached to the back of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary
movement and balance.
The Limbic System: A doughnut-shaped structure between the brainstem and the cerebral
hemispheres. It is considered the "seat of emotion" and is also involved in motivated behavior like
eating, drinking, and sex.
1. Amygdala: Involved in rage and fear as well as emotional
memories.
2. Hippocampus: Involved in memory
3: Hypothalamus: Involved in eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
It also controls the endocrine (hormonal system) via the pituitary
gland. It is sometimes referred to as "the pleasure center" of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex: The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells
that covers the cerebral hemispheres. The ultimate informationprocessing center of the brain.
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobes: Contain the motor cortex which control
voluntary movement. In the LEFT frontal lobe is Broca's Area
which controls our ability to speak.
Parietal Lobes: Contain the somatosensory cortex which
registers bodily sensations (touch).
Temporal Lobes: Contain the primary auditory cortex (audition) and areas for the senses of
smell (olfaction) and taste (gustatory sense).
The LEFT temporal lobe contains Wernicke's Area which control language comprehension and
expression.
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Occipital Lobes: Contains the Primary Visual
Cortex.
Association Areas: Areas of the cortex not
involved in sensory or motor functions. They
are involved in higher mental functions such
as learning, remembering, thinking, planning,
and language. About 75-80% of the brain is
composed of association areas.
Hemispheres of the Brain
Virtually all activities require BOTH hemispheres.
However, the Left Hemisphere receives sensory information from
the right side of the body and controls movement of the right side of
the body. It is also involved in language, science, math, etc.
The Right Hemisphere receives sensory information from the left
side of the body and control movement of the right side of the body.
It is involved in music, artistic ability, and spatial skills.
Split Brain Research: Review information in your text and check it
out:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland
Pituitary: Secretes growth hormone and many other hormones
that affect other glands.
Thyroid: Affects metabolism
Parathyroids: Regulate calcium levels in the blood
Adrenal Glands: Secrete the hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine which trigger the "fight or flight" response.
Pancreas: Regulates glucose levels in the blood through the
release of insulin.
Ovaries and Testes: Secrete female and male sex hormones.
Reviewing the Biological Processes of the Brain
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Big Picture
CNS
PNS
Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous
System
Sympathetic Nervous
System
Parasympathetic Nervous
System
Function
Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System – any neurons that extend past CNS
The muscles and functions you can control
Regulates glands, blood vessels and flow, internal organs
Breaking it down
Medulla
BRAIN FUNCTIONS
Regulates breathing and heart rate – hanging a person works b/c (if
done correctly) it breaks this in half
Involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming
The “lesser brain” coordinates balance and coordination
Relays all sensory information to specific perception areas of the
brain, with the exception of smell
Part of the “old brain” – it controls survival elements such as hunger,
thirst, emotion, sex drive and reproduction. Works in conjunction
with the pituitary gland.
Secretes hormones as “directed” by the hypothalamus to regulate
the body during a “primal” function
Instantaneously evaluates sensory information from the thalamus
and determines its emotional importance – helps to decide if
something needs to be addressed immediately; the “fight or flight”
brain section (PART OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
The gateway to all memory functions; also works with the reticular
activating system to relate sensory input to what the brain already
“knows” about it (PART OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
Pons
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Amygdala
Hippocampus
THE LOBES
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Frontal lobe
Corpus Callosum
Left side of brain
Right side of brain
Roger Sperry
Prepares the body for stress; builds energy/adrenaline
Helps to bring the body back to a normal state
Lower back of the brain; contains the visual cortex
Top of the brain; contains the somatosensory cortex, which receives
all info about pressure, pain, heat, etc., from the body.
Sides of the brain; involved in memory storage, perception and
emotion; contains the auditory cortex as well as Wernicke’s area,
which processes language comprehension.
Front of the brain (duh) and contains the motor cortex, which
controls over 600 muscles all over the body. Also contains Broca’s
area, which allows us to know how to speak. It also helps us think
creatively and think rationally; dopamine that is supposed to reach
this lobe is shut off during schizophrenia, making it impossible for the
victim to tell what is real and what is hallucinatory.
Serves as the network between the left/right sides of the brain.
Rational and analytical thought
Intuitive, creative, holistic thought
Most well known split-brain psychologist; worked with cats and
severed their corpus callosum to see what would happen
NEURONS
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Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Mylein sheath
Synaptic cleft
Plasticity
Action potential
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Serotonin
Dopamine
Acetycholine
GABA
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
SEEING THE BRAIN
CAT
MRI
PET
Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Information receptors
Determines how/when a neuron is supposed to fire and emit a signal
The “tail” of the neuron; sends info away from the cell body
Made up of several glial cells, insulates the axon to make sure no
random signals get in and no signals slip out
The areas between the synaptic end bulbs and dendrites of another
neuron where neurotransmitters are released and taken.
The brain’s ability to recover from brain/nerve damage by possibly
creating new pathways for previous messages
This allows messages to flow from neuron to neuron as an electrical
charge is created when positively charged sodium ions flow into a
neuron and flows out as positively charged potassium charges.
Affects appetite, perception, temperature regulation, pain
suppression and mood – the neurotransmitter that is inhibited during
DEPRESSION; increased by stimulants.
Affects voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion – the
neurotransmitter that is overactive during SCHIZOPHRENIA; can be
replicated by certain psychoactive drugs like THC (marijuana); also in
low amounts for Parkinson’s victims
Affects cognitition, muscle movement, memory and emotion
An inhibitor; it is unable to reuptake into neurons when depressants
such as alcohol are present in the blood system
Increases heart rate, involved in dreaming, sleeping and emtion
Secreted by the endocrine system; basically, it is adrenaline
Computerized Axial Tomography – a cross-section shot
Magnetic Resonance Imaging – picks up iron in the blood to show
what parts of the brain are active
Positron Emission Tomography – radioactive glucose injections show
up in specific parts of the brain during activity or during abnormal
behavior
How do drugs affect each of the above?
Reputake of Neurotransmitters – reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft is
disallowed, allowing them to go to other areas of need.
Blocking Neurotransmitter receptors – This is used when amounts of neurotransmitters needs to be
lowered.
Mimicking Neurotransmitters – Chemicals within the drugs are so similar to neurotransmitters, they
are allowed into receptor areas in the postsynaptic neuron.
Examples:
Alcohol – depressant; stimulates GABA receptors, leading to a reduction of anxiety and a loss
of inhibitions.
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Marijuana – There is a specific receptor for THC (tetra-hydro-cannabinol) throughout the
brain, including the hippocampus, cerebellum and limbic system.
Hallucinogens – Increase the amount of dopamine in the auditory and visual cortex areas and
inhibits flow to the prefrontal cortex with mescaline. With LSD (acid) and Psilocybin ('shrooms),
serotonin receptors are blocked.
n
LSD
n
Psilocybin
n
Mescaline
n
Ecstasy
Stimulants – Increase the production of dopamine as well as blocking its reuptake, sending it
to other magical areas affecting sensation, mood, and motor skills.
n
Amphetamines
n
Cocaine
n
Caffeine
n
Nicotine
Opiates – mimick the function of naturally produced endorphins in the body. It has its own
receptors within the brain, and continual use can lead to a decrease in naturally produced
endorphins, leading to severe withdrawal and addictions. It also causes constipation.
n
Opium
n
Morphine
n
Heroin
Abnormal Psychological Issues … how neurotransmitters are affected (SEE ABOVE IN THE CHART)
Schizophrenia –
Anxiety disorders –
Mood disorders (depression and bipolar) –
BACK TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM …
Afferent neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
Efferent neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
Sympathetic Nervous System – Increase in physiological reactions, usually part of fight-or-flight
responses.
Parasympathetic Nervous System – Bringing it all back down.
Conditions we’ve discussed … a potential essay question may ask you to take one of these and
analyze their cause from different perspectives (biological, cognitive, etc.)
Autism
Alzheimer’s
Anorexia
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Anxiety
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Aphasia
Bipolar Depression
Bulimia
Depression
Dissociative disorders (amnesia, multiple personality, fugue)
Down syndrome
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Gender Identity Disorder
Phobias
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Schizophrenia (esp. catatonic and paranoid)
Somatoform disorders
RETICULAR FORMATION (ACTIVATION) -- Deals with arousing the forebrain (deals with reasoning,
sleeping, emotions)
Reviewing the Biological Processes of the Brain
Big Picture
CNS
PNS
Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous
System
Function
Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System – any neurons that extend past CNS
The muscles and functions you can control
Regulates glands, blood vessels and flow, internal organs
Prepares the body for stress; builds energy/adrenaline
Helps to bring the body back to a normal state
Breaking it down
Medulla
BRAIN FUNCTIONS
Regulates breathing and heart rate – hanging a person works b/c (if done correctly) it
breaks this in half
Involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming
The “lesser brain” coordinates balance and coordination
Relays all sensory information to specific perception areas of the brain, with the
exception of smell
Part of the “old brain” – it controls survival elements such as hunger, thirst, emotion,
sex drive and reproduction. Works in conjunction with the pituitary gland.
Secretes hormones as “directed” by the hypothalamus to regulate the body during a
“primal” function
Instantaneously evaluates sensory information from the thalamus and determines its
emotional importance – helps to decide if something needs to be addressed
immediately; the “fight or flight” brain section (PART OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
The gateway to all memory functions; also works with the reticular activating system
to relate sensory input to what the brain already “knows” about it (PART OF THE
LIMBIC SYSTEM)
Pons
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Amygdala
Hippocampus
THE LOBES
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Frontal lobe
Lower back of the brain; contains the visual cortex
Top of the brain; contains the somatosensory cortex, which receives all info about
pressure, pain, heat, etc., from the body.
Sides of the brain; involved in memory storage, perception and emotion; contains the
auditory cortex as well as Wernicke’s area, which processes language
comprehension.
Front of the brain (duh) and contains the motor cortex, which controls over 600
muscles all over the body. Also contains Broca’s area, which allows us to know how
to speak. It also helps us think creatively and think rationally; dopamine that is
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Corpus Callosum
Left side of brain
Right side of brain
Roger Sperry
NEURONS
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Mylein sheath
Synaptic cleft
Plasticity
Action potential
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Serotonin
Dopamine
Acetycholine
GABA
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
SEEING THE BRAIN
CAT
MRI
PET
Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
supposed to reach this lobe is shut off during schizophrenia, making it impossible for
the victim to tell what is real and what is hallucinatory.
Serves as the network between the left/right sides of the brain.
Rational and analytical thought
Intuitive, creative, holistic thought
Most well known split-brain psychologist; worked with cats and severed their corpus
callosum to see what would happen
Information receptors
Determines how/when a neuron is supposed to fire and emit a signal
The “tail” of the neuron; sends info away from the cell body
Made up of several glial cells, insulates the axon to make sure no random signals get
in and no signals slip out
The areas between the synaptic end bulbs and dendrites of another neuron where
neurotransmitters are released and taken.
The brain’s ability to recover from brain/nerve damage by possibly creating new
pathways for previous messages
This allows messages to flow from neuron to neuron as an electrical charge is
created when positively charged sodium ions flow into a neuron and flows out as
positively charged potassium charges.
Affects appetite, perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression and mood –
the neurotransmitter that is inhibited during DEPRESSION; increased by stimulants.
Affects voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion – the neurotransmitter that
is overactive during SCHIZOPHRENIA; can be replicated by certain psychoactive
drugs like THC (marijuana); also in low amounts for Parkinson’s victims
Affects cognitition, muscle movement, memory and emotion
An inhibitor; it is unable to reuptake into neurons when depressants such as alcohol
are present in the blood system
Increases heart rate, involved in dreaming, sleeping and emtion
Secreted by the endocrine system; basically, it is adrenaline
Computerized Axial Tomography – a cross-section shot
Magnetic Resonance Imaging – picks up iron in the blood to show what parts of the
brain are active
Positron Emission Tomography – radioactive glucose injections show up in specific
parts of the brain during activity or during abnormal behavior
How do drugs affect each of the above?
Reputake of Neurotransmitters – re-absorption of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft is disallowed, allowing
them to go to other areas of need.
Blocking Neurotransmitter receptors – This is used when amounts of neurotransmitters needs to be lowered.
Mimicking Neurotransmitters – Chemicals within the drugs are so similar to neurotransmitters, they are allowed
into receptor areas in the postsynaptic neuron.
Examples:
Alcohol – depressant; stimulates GABA receptors, leading to a reduction of anxiety and a loss of inhibitions.
Marijuana – There is a specific receptor for THC (tetra-hydro-cannabinol) throughout the brain, including the
hippocampus, cerebellum and limbic system.
Hallucinogens – Increase the amount of dopamine in the auditory and visual cortex areas and inhibits flow to the prefrontal
cortex with mescaline. With LSD (acid) and Psilocybin ('shrooms), seratonin receptors are blocked.
LSD
Psilocybin
Mescaline
Ecstasy
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
Stimulants – Increase the production of dopamine as well as blocking its reuptake, sending it to other magical areas
affecting sensation, mood, and motor skills.
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Caffeine
Nicotine
Opiates – mimick the function of naturally produced endorphins in the body. It has its own receptors within the brain, and
continual use can lead to a decrease in naturally produced endorphins, leading to severe withdrawal and addictions. It also
causes constipation.
Opium
Morphine
Heroin
Abnormal Psychological Issues … how neurotransmitters are affected (SEE ABOVE IN THE CHART)
Schizophrenia –
Anxiety disorders –
Mood disorders (depression and bipolar) –
BACK TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM …
Afferent neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
Efferent neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
Sympathetic Nervous System – Increase in physiological reactions, usually part of fight-or-flight responses.
Parasympathetic Nervous System – Bringing it all back down.
Conditions we’ve discussed … a potential essay question may ask you to take one of these and analyze their cause from
different perspectives (biological, cognitive, etc.)
Autism
Alzheimer’s
Anorexia
Anxiety
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Aphasia
Bipolar Depression
Bulimia
Depression
Dissociative disorders (amnesia, multiple personality, fugue)
Down syndrome
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Gender Identity Disorder
Phobias
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Schizophrenia (esp. catatonic and paranoid)
Somatoform disorders
RETICULAR FORMATION (ACTIVATION) -- Deals with arousing the forebrain (deals with reasoning, sleeping,
emotions)
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
THE HUMAN BRAIN
The influence of biology (sometimes called the neuroscience or biopsychological perspective) is growing. Some
researchers predict that someday psychology will be a specialty within the field of biology. An understanding of the
biological principles relevant to psychology is needed to understand current psychological thinking.
The human brain consists of three major divisions; hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
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Major Division
Prosencephalon
(Forebrain)
Mesencephalon
(Midbrain)
Rhombencephalon
(Hindbrain)
Subdivision
Structures
Telencephalon
Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala; Hippocampus; Lateral
Ventricles
Diencephalon
Thalamus; Hypothalamus; Epithalamus; Third Ventricle
Mesencephalon
Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral Aqueduct
Metencephalon
Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle
Myelencephalon
Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle
Brain Structure
1. Hindbrain- structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us
alive.
a.
Medulla- controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
b.
Pons- connects the hindbrain with the mid and forebrain, also involved in the control of facial
expressions
c.
Cerebellum- portion of the lower brain that coordinates and organizes bodily movements for balance and
accuracy.
2
Midbrain-between the hind and forebrain, coordinates simple movements with sensory information.
3
Forebrain- controls what we think of as thought and reason.
a. Thalamus- portion of the lower brain that functions primarily as a central relay station for incoming and
outgoing messages from the body to the brain and the brain to the body
b. Hypothalamus- portion of the lower brain that regulates basic needs (hunger, thirst) and emotions such
as pleasure, fear, rage, and sexuality
c. Amygdala and Hippocampus- two arms surrounding the thalamus, important in how we process and
perceive memory and emotion
NOTE: The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic system because they all deal with aspects of
emotion and memory.
What is a Neuron?
A neuron is a nerve cell. The brain is made up of about 100 billion neurons.
Neurons are similar to other cells in the body in some ways such as:
1.
Neurons are surrounded by a membrane.
2.
Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3.
Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other "organelles".
However, neurons differ from other cells in the body in some ways such as:
1.
Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to the cell body and
axons take information away from the cell body.
2.
Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3.
Neurons form specialized connections called "synapses" and produce special chemicals called "neurotransmitters"
that are released at the synapse.
It has been estimated that there are 1 quadrillion synapses in the human brain. That's 10 15 or 1,000,000,000,000,000
synapses! This is equal to about a half-billion synapses per cubic millimeter. (Statistic from Changeux, J-P. and Ricoeur,
P., What Makes Us Think?, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 78)
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
How big is the brain? How much does the brain weigh?
The adult human brain weighs between 1300 g and 1400 g (about 3 lbs). A
newborn human brain weighs between 350 and 400 g. For comparison:
elephant brain = 6,000 g
chimpanzee brain = 420 g
rhesus monkey brain = 95 g
beagle dog brain = 72 g
cat brain = 30 g
rat brain = 2 g
The picture to the right is a human brain.
(Image provided by Dr. Wally Welker, Univ. of Wisconsin Brain
Collection)
Ways of studying the brain: Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized axial tomography, Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), Positron emission tomography, Functional MRI, Neuroanatomy
Neuron – a nerve cell, which transmits
electrical and chemical information throughout
the body
dendrite- part of the neuron that receives
information from the axons of other nerve cells
Axon- part of the neuron that carries messages
away from one neuron to the dendrites of
another Cell body, or soma- contains the
nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to
sustain its life
Myelin sheath- a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
Terminal buttons- the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
Vesicles – bubblelike containers of neurotransmitters, located at the end of an axon
Neurotransmitters-– chemicals in the endings of nerve cells that send information across the synapse
Acetylcholine – neurotransmitter that regulates basic bodily processes such as movement
Dopamine – a neurotransmitter involved in the control of bodily movements ( involved in Parkinson’s disease, and
Alzheimer’s)
Endorphins – neurotransmitters that relieve pain and increase our sense of wellbeing
Serotonin- mood control
Synapse- the junction point of two or more neurons; a connection is made by neurotransmitters.
Action potential
All-or-none principle
Afferent neurons, or sensory neurons
Interneurons
Efferent neurons, or motor neurons
Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system- - all other nerves
Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movements
Autonomic nervous system- controls involuntary movements
Sympathetic nervous system- speeds things up- prepares body for fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system-- brings the body back to normal
Cerebral cortex- covers the lower brain and controls mental processes such as thought
Frontal lobes-– contains the motor strip and frontal association area
Frontal association area – plays an important part in integrating personality and in forming complex thoughts
Motor strip- band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements
Parietal lobes -– area that contains the sensory strip
Sensory strip- band running down the side of he parietal lobe that registers and provides all sensation
Occipital lobes- area that interprets visual information
Temporal lobes- area responsible for hearing and some speech functions
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Lobe- major division of the brain
Hemispheres- one-half of the two halves of the brain; controls the opposite side of the body
Brain lateralization
Corpus callosum - bundle of nerve fibers that transfers info. From one hemisphere to the other
Fissure- a lengthy depression marking off an area of the brain
Reticular activating system- the alertness control center of the brain that regulates the activity level of the body
Split-brain
Brain plasticity
Endocrine system – system of all the glands and their chemical messages taken together
Hormones – chemical regulators that control bodily processes such as emotional responses, growth, and sexuality
Pituitary gland – the master gland of the body that activates other glands and controls the growth hormone
Growth hormone – hormone that regulates the growth process
Thyroid gland – controls and regulates the speed of bodily processes called metabolism
Metabolism – the speed at which the body operates of the speed at which it uses up energy
Adrenal glands – glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in order to prepare the body for an
emergency
Adrenaline – chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by increasing blood pressure, breathing rate,
and energy level
COMMUNICATION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The major divisions of the nervous system are the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, the brain and spinal cord, and the
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. NERVES are bundles of neuron
fibers that are outside the brain and spinal cord extending to the periphery (outside) of the body.
The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM nerves connect to muscles and sensory receptors and carry information to and from
the central nervous system. The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM connects to the heart, blood vessels, muscles and
glands. It controls the automatic or involuntary functions such as heart rate, perspiration and digestion.
The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM has two divisions. The SYMPATHETIC DIVISION mobilizes the body’s
resources for emergencies, responding in a "fight or flight" manner. Key sympathetic nerves signal the adrenal glands to
release hormones that give strong short-term energy to the system. The PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION conserves
bodily resources to store energy.
Cells in the nervous system transmit, receive and integrate information. NEURONS are the basic communication links,
sending changes in electrical charges called an ACTION POTENTIAL along an AXON to a SYNAPSE with another
NEURON. ACTION POTENTIALS trigger release of NEUROTRANSMITTERS that travel across synapses to
communicate among neurons. They are the chemical couriers that play a fundamental role in our behavior.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS affect moods, thoughts and behaviors. Three neurotransmitters, known as biogenic amines,
dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin have been linked to development of psychological disorders. The development of
schizophrenia has been linked to alterations in activity of dopamine while lowered norepinephrine is linked to depression.
Acetylcholine (Ach), another neurotransmitter is found at synapses that regulate the voluntary muscles and contribute to
memory processes. Low levels are in the brain of deceased Alzheimer’s patients, leading to speculation that it is related to
Ach.
ENDORPHINS are chemicals that are produced internally and act as homemade opiates, contributing to our feelings of pain,
pleasure and hunger. The classic case is the "runner’s high" euphoric feeling when endorphins are released by the body to
circumvent pain.
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Recent research has discovered a myriad of interesting and complex biochemical processes in the nervous system that
regulate our behavior. We are on the verge of a deeper understanding of the biological underpinnings of behavior and
welcome the increasing information. Recent studies have led to breakthrough biological treatments of mental disorders and
have helped millions to lead happier, more functional lives.
THE BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain contains billions of interacting cells
that give us our abilities to think, talk, create, dream and act. Recently brain-imaging devices such as the CT scan
(computerized tomography scan), the MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and PET scans (positron emission tomography)
give us color-coded maps of activity of the brain and neurotransmitters as well as computer-enhanced "slices" of the brain
to examine aspects of brain structure.
Rapid advances in technology have led to vast knowledge about the structure and functions of different parts of the brain.
The HINDBRAIN includes the brainstem and the cerebellum that coordinates fine muscle movement and balance. The
MIDBRAIN is concerned with sensory processes and the reticular formation running through the hindbrain and midbrain
modulates muscle reflexes, pain perception and breathing. The FOREBRAIN is the largest and most complex region
including the thalamus, relaying sensory information to the cerebral cortex, the hypothalamus, regulating biological needs,
and the limbic system, the seat of emotions.
The CEREBRAL CORTEX is the outside layer of the cerebrum and is divided into two hemispheres, the right brain and left
brain. Each hemisphere has four parts or lobes, the parietal, occipital, temporal and frontal lobes that govern specific
functions of the brain. Split-brain research has allowed us to understand more about the way sensory and motor information
is routed to and from the left and right hemispheres.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONES
The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that govern and affect bodily
processes. The MASTER GLAND is the PITUITARY GLAND as it sends a great number of hormones to other glands.
Much of the endocrine system is controlled by the HYPOTHALAMUS in the forebrain.
HORMONES play important roles in sexual identity and in modulating human physiological development. Hormones
regulate metabolic rate, reproduction and bodily growth and are often active in emotional arousal. (PMS!)
Name: __________________________ Date: _____________
___ 1. Which of the following was a major problem with phrenology?
A) It was “ahead of its time” and no one believed it could be true.
B) The brain is not neatly organized into structures that correspond to our categories of behavior.
C) The brains of humans and animals are much less similar than the theory implied.
D) All of the above were problems with phrenology.
___ 2. A biological psychologist would be more likely to study:
A) how you learn to express emotions.
C) life-span changes in the expression of emotion.
B) how to help people overcome emotional disorders. D) the chemical changes that accompany emotions.
___ 3. Dr. Hernandez is studying neurotransmitter abnormalities in depressed patients. She would most likely describe
herself as a:
A) personality psychologist. B) phrenologist. C) psychoanalyst. D) biological psychologist.
___ 4. The axons of certain neurons are covered by a layer of fatty tissue that helps speed neural transmission. This
tissue is:
A) the glia. B) the myelin sheath. C) acetylcholine. D) an endorphin.
___ 5. The myelin sheath that is on some neurons:
A) increases the speed of neural transmission.
B) slows neural transmission.
C) regulates the release of neurotransmitters.
D) does a. and c.
___ 6. During an action potential, the electrical state of the axon becomes:
A) polarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
B) polarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
C) depolarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
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D) depolarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
___ 7. In a resting state, the axon is:
A) depolarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
B) depolarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
C) polarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
D) polarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
___ 8. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a neural impulse?
synapse
A)
C)
B)
D)
___ 9. A neuron will generate action potentials more often when it:
A) remains below its threshold.
C) receives more excitatory than inhibitory inputs.
B) receives an excitatory input.
D) is stimulated by a neurotransmitter.
___ 10. A strong stimulus can increase the:
A) speed of the impulse the neuron fires.
B) intensity of the impulse the neuron fires.
C) number of times the neuron fires.
D) threshold that must be reached before the neuron fires.
___ 11. Several shy neurons send an inhibitory message to neighboring neuron Joni. At the same time, a larger group of
party-going neurons send Joni excitatory messages. What will Joni do?
A) fire, assuming that her threshold has been reached C) enter a refractory period
B) not fire, even if her threshold has been reached
D) become hyperpolarized
___ 12. Since Malcolm has been taking a drug prescribed by his doctor, he no longer enjoys the little pleasures of life,
such as eating and drinking. His doctor explains that this is because the drug:
A) triggers release of dopamine.
C) triggers release of ACh.
B) inhibits release of dopamine.
D) inhibits release of ACh.
___ 13. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) is most likely to be found:
A) at the junction between sensory neurons and muscle fibers.
B) at the junction between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
C) at junctions between interneurons.
D) in all of the above locations.
___ 14. Melissa has just completed running a marathon. She is so elated that she feels little fatigue or discomfort. Her
lack of pain is probably the result of the release of:
A) ACh. B) endorphins. C) dopamine. D) norepinephrine.
___ 15. The pain of heroin withdrawal may be attributable to the fact that:
A) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of endorphins.
B) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of all neurotransmitters.
C) during heroin withdrawal the brain's production of all neurotransmitters is greatly increased.
D) heroin destroys endorphin receptors in the brain.
___ 16. The effect of a drug that is an agonist is to:
A) cause the brain to stop producing certain neurotransmitters.
B) mimic a particular neurotransmitter.
C) block a particular neurotransmitter.
D) disrupt a neuron's all-or-none firing pattern.
___ 17. Parkinson's disease involves:
A) the death of nerve cells that produce a vital neurotransmitter.
B) impaired function in the right hemisphere only.
C) impaired function in the left hemisphere only.
D) excess production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine.
___ 18. Heartbeat, digestion, and other self-regulating bodily functions are governed by the:
A) voluntary nervous system.
B) autonomic nervous system.
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C) sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
D) somatic nervous system.
___ 19. Voluntary movements, such as writing with a pencil, are directed by the:
A) sympathetic nervous system.
C) parasympathetic nervous system.
B) somatic nervous system.
D) autonomic nervous system.
___ 20. Following Jayshree's near-fatal car accident, her physician noticed that the pupillary reflex of her eyes was
abnormal. This may indicate that Jayshree's ________ was damaged in the accident.
A) occipital cortex B) autonomic nervous system C) left temporal lobe D) cerebellum
___ 21. Your brother has been taking prescription medicine and experiencing a number of unpleasant side effects,
including unusually rapid heartbeat and excessive perspiration. It is likely that the medicine is exaggerating
activity in the:
A) reticular formation. B) sympathetic nervous system. C) parasympathetic nervous system. D)
amygdala.
___ 22. When Sandy scalded her toe in a tub of hot water, the pain message was carried to her spinal cord by the
________ nervous system.
A) somatic B) sympathetic C) parasympathetic D) central
___ 23. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a simple reflex?
A)
C)
B)
D)
___ 24. Which of the following are/is governed by the simplest neural pathways?
A) emotions B) physiological drives, such as hunger C) reflexes D) movements, such as walking
___ 25. You are able to pull your hand quickly away from hot water before pain is felt because:
A) movement of the hand is a reflex that involves intervention of the spinal cord only.
B) movement of the hand does not require intervention by the central nervous system.
C) the brain reacts quickly to prevent severe injury.
D) the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system intervenes to speed contraction of the muscles of
the hand.
___ 26. In the brain, learning occurs as experience strengthens certain connections in cell work groups called:
A) action potentials. B) neural networks. C) endocrine systems. D) dendrites.
___ 27. Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands are called:
A) agonists. B) neurotransmitters. C) hormones. D) enzymes.
___ 28. I am a relatively slow-acting (but long-lasting) chemical messenger carried throughout the body by the
bloodstream. What am I?
A) a hormone B) a neurotransmitter C) acetylcholine D) dopamine
___ 29. The gland that regulates body growth is the:
A) adrenal. B) thyroid. C) hypothalamus.
D) pituitary.
___ 30. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are ________ that are released by the ________ gland.
A) neurotransmitters; pituitary B) hormones; pituitary C) neurotransmitters; thyroid
adrenal
D) hormones;
___ 31. A bodybuilder friend suddenly seems to have grown several inches in height. You suspect that your friend's
growth spurt has occurred because he has been using drugs that affect the:
A) pituitary gland. B) thalamus. C) adrenal glands. D) medulla.
___ 32. The brain research technique that involves monitoring the brain's usage of glucose is called (in abbreviated
form) the:
A) PET scan. B) fMRI. C) EEG. D) MRI.
___ 33. The technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer images of structures within the
brain is called:
A) the EEG. B) a lesion. C) a PET scan. D) MRI.
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___ 34. In primitive vertebrate animals, the brain primarily regulates ________; in lower mammals, the brain enables
________.
A) emotion; memory B) memory; emotion C) survival functions; emotion D) reproduction; emotion
___ 35. The part of the human brain that is most like that of a fish is the:
A) cortex. B) limbic system. C) brainstem. D) right hemisphere.
___ 36. Following a head injury, a person has ongoing difficulties staying awake. Most likely, the damage occurred to
the:
A) thalamus. B) corpus callosum. C) reticular formation. D) cerebellum.
___ 37. Moruzzi and Magoun caused a cat to lapse into a coma by severing neural connections between the cortex and
the:
A) reticular formation. B) hypothalamus. C) thalamus. D) cerebellum.
___ 38. Jessica experienced difficulty keeping her balance after receiving a blow to the back of her head. It is likely that
she injured her:
A) medulla. B) thalamus. C) hypothalamus. D) cerebellum.
___ 39. Dr. Frankenstein made a mistake during neurosurgery on his monster. After the operation, the monster “saw”
with his ears and “heard” with his eyes. It is likely that Dr. Frankenstein “rewired” neural connections in the
monster's:
A) hypothalamus. B) cerebellum. C) amygdala. D) thalamus.
___ 40. Though there is no single “control center” for emotions, their regulation is primarily attributed to the brain
region known as the:
A) limbic system. B) reticular formation. C) brainstem. D) cerebellum.
___ 41. A scientist from another planet wishes to study the simplest brain mechanisms underlying emotion and
memory. You recommend that the scientist study the:
A) brainstem of a frog. B) limbic system of a dog. C) cortex of a monkey. D) cortex of a human.
___ 42. If Dr. Rogers wishes to conduct an experiment on the effects of stimulating the reward centers of a rat's brain,
he should insert an electrode into the:
A) thalamus. B) sensory cortex. C) hypothalamus. D) corpus callosum.
___ 43. Beginning at the front of the brain and moving toward the back of the head, then down the skull and back
around to the front, which of the following is the correct order of the cortical regions?
A) occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal lobe; frontal C) frontal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal
lobe
lobe
B) temporal lobe; frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital D) frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal
lobe
lobe
___ 44. The visual cortex is located in the:
A) occipital lobe. B) temporal lobe.
C) frontal lobe.
D) parietal lobe.
___ 45. Raccoons have much more precise control of their paws than dogs do. You would expect that raccoons have
more cortical space dedicated to “paw control” in the ________of their brains.
A) frontal lobes B) parietal lobes C) temporal lobes D) occipital lobes
___ 46. Research has found that the amount of representation in the motor cortex reflects the:
A) size of the body parts.
B) degree of precise control required by each of the parts.
C) sensitivity of the body region.
D) area of the occipital lobe being stimulated by the environment.
___ 47. In order to pinpoint the location of a tumor, a neurosurgeon electrically stimulated parts of the patient's sensory
cortex. If the patient was conscious during the procedure, which of the following was probably experienced?
A) “hearing” faint sounds
C) movement of the arms or legs
B) “seeing” random visual patterns
D) a sense of having the skin touched
___ 48. Cortical areas that are not primarily concerned with sensory, motor, or language functions are:
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
A) called projection areas.
B) called association areas.
C) located mostly in the parietal lobe.
D) located mostly in the temporal lobe.
___ 49. The increasing complexity of animals' behavior was accompanied by a(n):
A) increase in the size of the brainstem.
C) increase in the size of the frontal lobes.
B) decrease in the ratio of brain to body weight.
D) increase in the amount of association area.
___ 50. Following a nail gun wound to his head, Jack became more uninhibited, irritable, dishonest, and profane. It is
likely that his personality change was the result of injury to his:
A) parietal lobe. B) temporal lobe. C) occipital lobe. D) frontal lobe.
___ 51. Damage to ________ will usually cause a person to lose the ability to comprehend language.
A) the angular gyrus B) Broca's area C) Wernicke's area D) frontal lobe association areas
___ 52. Three-year-old Marco suffered damage to the speech area of the brain's left hemisphere when he fell from a
swing. Research suggests that:
A) he will never speak again.
B) his motor abilities may improve so that he can easily use sign language.
C) his right hemisphere may take over much of the language function.
D) his earlier experience with speech may enable him to continue speaking.
___ 53. The nerve fibers that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres and that have been
severed in split-brain patients form a structure called the:
A) reticular formation. B) association areas. C) corpus callosum. D) parietal lobes.
___ 54. A split-brain patient has a picture of a knife flashed to her left hemisphere and that of a fork to her right
hemisphere. She will be able to:
A) identify the fork using her left hand.
C) identify a knife using either hand.
B) identify a knife using her left hand.
D) identify a fork using either hand.
___ 55. Dr. Johnson briefly flashed a picture of a key in the right visual field of a split-brain patient. The patient could
probably:
A) verbally report that a key was seen.
C) draw a picture of a key using the left hand.
B) write the word key using the left hand.
D) do none of the above.
___ 56. (Thinking Critically) Based on research, which of the following seems true about the specialized functions of
the right and left hemispheres?
A) They are more clear-cut in men than in women.
B) They are more clear-cut in women than in men.
C) Most complex tasks emerge from the activity of one or the other hemisphere.
D) Most complex activities emerge from the integrated activity of both hemispheres.
___ 57. Which of the following is typically controlled by the right hemisphere?
A) language B) learned voluntary movements C) arithmetic reasoning
D) perceptual tasks
___ 58. Anton is applying for a technician's job with a neurosurgeon. In trying to impress his potential employer with
his knowledge of the brain, he says, “After my father's stroke I knew immediately that the blood clot had
affected his left cerebral hemisphere because he no longer recognized a picture of his friend.” Should Anton be
hired?
A) Yes. Anton obviously understands brain structure and function.
B) No. The right hemisphere, not the left, specializes in picture recognition.
C) Yes. Although blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, Anton should be rewarded for recognizing the
left hemisphere's role in picture recognition.
D) No. Blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, and the right hemisphere is more involved than the left
in recognizing pictures.
___ 59. Which of the following is typically controlled by the left hemisphere?
A) spatial reasoning B) word recognition C) the left side of the body
D) perceptual skills
___ 60. Which of the following is not true regarding brain organization and handedness?
A) If a person has a left-handed identical twin, odds are that he or she will also be left-handed.
B) Right-handedness is far more common than left-handedness throughout the world.
C) On average, right-handers live longer than left-handers.
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
D) Left-handers are more common than usual among people with reading disabilities.
Answer Key
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
B
D
D
B
A
C
D
D
C
C
A
B
B
B
A
B
A
B
B
B
B
A
C
C
A
B
C
A
D
D
A
A
D
C
C
C
A
D
D
A
B
C
D
A
A
B
D
B
D
D
C
C
C
A
A
D
D
B
B
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
60. A
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Exam SG 2 Neuro=Bio
___ 1. Which of the following was a major problem with phrenology?
A) It was “ahead of its time” and no one believed it could be true.
B) The brain is not neatly organized into structures that correspond to our categories of behavior.
C) The brains of humans and animals are much less similar than the theory implied.
D) All of the above were problems with phrenology.
___ 2. A biological psychologist would be more likely to study:
A) how you learn to express emotions.
B) how to help people overcome emotional disorders.
C) life-span changes in the expression of emotion.
D) the chemical changes that accompany emotions.
___ 3. Dr. Hernandez is studying neurotransmitter abnormalities in depressed patients. She would most likely
describe herself as a:
A) personality psychologist.
C) psychoanalyst.
B) phrenologist.
D) biological psychologist.
___ 4. The axons of certain neurons are covered by a layer of fatty tissue that helps speed neural transmission.
This tissue is:
A) the glia. B) the myelin sheath. C) acetylcholine. D) an endorphin.
___ 5. The myelin sheath that is on some neurons:
A) increases the speed of neural transmission.
B) slows neural transmission.
C) regulates the release of neurotransmitters.
D) does a. and c.
___ 6. During an action potential, the electrical state of the axon becomes:
A) polarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
B) polarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
C) depolarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
D) depolarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
___ 7. In a resting state, the axon is:
A) depolarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
B) depolarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
C) polarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
D) polarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
___ 8. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a neural impulse?
A) axon  dendrite  cell body  synapse
B) dendrite  axon  cell body  synapse
C) synapse  axon  dendrite  cell body
D) dendrite  cell body  axon  synapse
___ 9. A neuron will generate action potentials more often when it:
A) remains below its threshold.
B) receives an excitatory input.
C) receives more excitatory than inhibitory inputs.
D) is stimulated by a neurotransmitter.
___ 10. A strong stimulus can increase the:
A) speed of the impulse the neuron fires.
B) intensity of the impulse the neuron fires.
C) number of times the neuron fires.
D) threshold that must be reached before the neuron fires.
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___ 11. Several shy neurons send an inhibitory message to neighboring neuron Joni. At the same time, a larger
group of party-going neurons send Joni excitatory messages. What will Joni do?
A) fire, assuming that her threshold has been reached
B) not fire, even if her threshold has been reached
C) enter a refractory period
D) become hyperpolarized
___ 12. Since Malcolm has been taking a drug prescribed by his doctor, he no longer enjoys the little pleasures
of life, such as eating and drinking. His doctor explains that this is because the drug:
A) triggers release of dopamine.
C) triggers release of ACh.
B) inhibits release of dopamine.
D) inhibits release of ACh.
___ 13. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) is most likely to be found:
A) at the junction between sensory neurons and muscle fibers.
B) at the junction between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
C) at junctions between interneurons.
D) in all of the above locations.
___ 14. Melissa has just completed running a marathon. She is so elated that she feels little fatigue or
discomfort. Her lack of pain is probably the result of the release of:
A) ACh. B) endorphins. C) dopamine. D) norepinephrine.
___ 15. The pain of heroin withdrawal may be attributable to the fact that:
A) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of endorphins.
B) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of all neurotransmitters.
C) during heroin withdrawal the brain's production of all neurotransmitters is greatly increased.
D) heroin destroys endorphin receptors in the brain.
___ 16. The effect of a drug that is an agonist is to:
A) cause the brain to stop producing certain neurotransmitters.
B) mimic a particular neurotransmitter.
C) block a particular neurotransmitter.
D) disrupt a neuron's all-or-none firing pattern.
___ 17. Parkinson's disease involves:
A) the death of nerve cells that produce a vital neurotransmitter.
B) impaired function in the right hemisphere only.
C) impaired function in the left hemisphere only.
D) excess production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine.
___ 18. Heartbeat, digestion, and other self-regulating bodily functions are governed by the:
A) voluntary nervous system.
B) autonomic nervous system.
C) sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
D) somatic nervous system.
___ 19. Voluntary movements, such as writing with a pencil, are directed by the:
A) sympathetic nervous system.
C) parasympathetic nervous system.
B) somatic nervous system.
D) autonomic nervous system.
___ 20. Following Jayshree's near-fatal car accident, her physician noticed that the pupillary reflex of her eyes
was abnormal. This may indicate that Jayshree's ________ was damaged in the accident.
A) occipital cortex
C) left temporal lobe
B) autonomic nervous system
D) cerebellum
___ 21. Your brother has been taking prescription medicine and experiencing a number of unpleasant side
effects, including unusually rapid heartbeat and excessive perspiration. It is likely that the medicine is
exaggerating activity in the:
A) reticular formation.
C) parasympathetic nervous system.
B) sympathetic nervous system.
D) amygdala.
___ 22. When Sandy scalded her toe in a tub of hot water, the pain message was carried to her spinal cord by
the ________ nervous system.
A) somatic B) sympathetic C) parasympathetic D) central
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___ 23. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a simple reflex?
A) sensory neuron  interneuron  sensory neuron
B) interneuron  motor neuron  sensory neuron
C) sensory neuron  interneuron  motor neuron
D) interneuron  sensory neuron  motor neuron
___ 24. Which of the following are/is governed by the simplest neural pathways?
A) emotions
C) reflexes
B) physiological drives, such as hunger
D) movements, such as walking
___ 25. You are able to pull your hand quickly away from hot water before pain is felt because:
A) movement of the hand is a reflex that involves intervention of the spinal cord only.
B) movement of the hand does not require intervention by the central nervous system.
C) the brain reacts quickly to prevent severe injury.
D) the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system intervenes to speed contraction of the
muscles of the hand.
___ 26. In the brain, learning occurs as experience strengthens certain connections in cell work groups called:
A) action potentials.
C) endocrine systems.
B) neural networks.
D) dendrites.
___ 27. Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands are called:
A) agonists. B) neurotransmitters. C) hormones. D) enzymes.
___ 28. I am a relatively slow-acting (but long-lasting) chemical messenger carried throughout the body by the
bloodstream. What am I?
A) a hormone B) a neurotransmitter C) acetylcholine D) dopamine
___ 29. The gland that regulates body growth is the:
A) adrenal. B) thyroid. C) hypothalamus.
D) pituitary.
___ 30. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are ________ that are released by the ________ gland.
A) neurotransmitters; pituitary
C) neurotransmitters; thyroid
B) hormones; pituitary
D) hormones; adrenal
___ 31. A bodybuilder friend suddenly seems to have grown several inches in height. You suspect that your
friend's growth spurt has occurred because he has been using drugs that affect the:
A) pituitary gland. B) thalamus. C) adrenal glands. D) medulla.
___ 32. The brain research technique that involves monitoring the brain's usage of glucose is called (in
abbreviated form) the:
A) PET scan. B) fMRI. C) EEG. D) MRI.
___ 33. The technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer images of structures
within the brain is called:
A) the EEG. B) a lesion. C) a PET scan. D) MRI.
___ 34. In primitive vertebrate animals, the brain primarily regulates ________; in lower mammals, the brain
enables ________.
A) emotion; memory
C) survival functions; emotion
B) memory; emotion
D) reproduction; emotion
___ 35. The part of the human brain that is most like that of a fish is the:
A) cortex. B) limbic system. C) brainstem. D) right hemisphere.
___ 36. Following a head injury, a person has ongoing difficulties staying awake. Most likely, the damage
occurred to the:
A) thalamus. B) corpus callosum. C) reticular formation. D) cerebellum.
___ 37. Moruzzi and Magoun caused a cat to lapse into a coma by severing neural connections between the
cortex and the:
A) reticular formation. B) hypothalamus. C) thalamus. D) cerebellum.
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___ 38. Jessica experienced difficulty keeping her balance after receiving a blow to the back of her head. It is
likely that she injured her:
A) medulla. B) thalamus. C) hypothalamus. D) cerebellum.
___ 39. Dr. Frankenstein made a mistake during neurosurgery on his monster. After the operation, the monster
“saw” with his ears and “heard” with his eyes. It is likely that Dr. Frankenstein “rewired” neural
connections in the monster's:
A) hypothalamus. B) cerebellum. C) amygdala. D) thalamus.
___ 40. Though there is no single “control center” for emotions, their regulation is primarily attributed to the
brain region known as the:
A) limbic system. B) reticular formation. C) brainstem. D) cerebellum.
___ 41. A scientist from another planet wishes to study the simplest brain mechanisms underlying emotion and
memory. You recommend that the scientist study the:
A) brainstem of a frog.
C) cortex of a monkey.
B) limbic system of a dog.
D) cortex of a human.
___ 42. If Dr. Rogers wishes to conduct an experiment on the effects of stimulating the reward centers of a rat's
brain, he should insert an electrode into the:
A) thalamus. B) sensory cortex. C) hypothalamus. D) corpus callosum.
___ 43. Beginning at the front of the brain and moving toward the back of the head, then down the skull and
back around to the front, which of the following is the correct order of the cortical regions?
A) occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal lobe; frontal lobe
B) temporal lobe; frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital lobe
C) frontal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal lobe
D) frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal lobe
___ 44. The visual cortex is located in the:
A) occipital lobe. B) temporal lobe.
C) frontal lobe.
D) parietal lobe.
___ 45. Raccoons have much more precise control of their paws than dogs do. You would expect that raccoons
have more cortical space dedicated to “paw control” in the ________of their brains.
A) frontal lobes B) parietal lobes C) temporal lobes D) occipital lobes
___ 46. Research has found that the amount of representation in the motor cortex reflects the:
A) size of the body parts.
B) degree of precise control required by each of the parts.
C) sensitivity of the body region.
D) area of the occipital lobe being stimulated by the environment.
___ 47. In order to pinpoint the location of a tumor, a neurosurgeon electrically stimulated parts of the patient's
sensory cortex. If the patient was conscious during the procedure, which of the following was probably
experienced?
A) “hearing” faint sounds
C) movement of the arms or legs
B) “seeing” random visual patterns
D) a sense of having the skin touched
___ 48. Cortical areas that are not primarily concerned with sensory, motor, or language functions are:
A) called projection areas.
C) located mostly in the parietal lobe.
B) called association areas.
D) located mostly in the temporal lobe.
___ 49. The increasing complexity of animals' behavior was accompanied by a(n):
A) increase in the size of the brainstem.
B) decrease in the ratio of brain to body weight.
C) increase in the size of the frontal lobes.
D) increase in the amount of association area.
___ 50. Following a nail gun wound to his head, Jack became more uninhibited, irritable, dishonest, and
profane. It is likely that his personality change was the result of injury to his:
A) parietal lobe. B) temporal lobe. C) occipital lobe. D) frontal lobe.
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___ 51. Damage to ________ will usually cause a person to lose the ability to comprehend language.
A) the angular gyrus
C) Wernicke's area
B) Broca's area
D) frontal lobe association areas
___ 52. Three-year-old Marco suffered damage to the speech area of the brain's left hemisphere when he fell
from a swing. Research suggests that:
A) he will never speak again.
B) his motor abilities may improve so that he can easily use sign language.
C) his right hemisphere may take over much of the language function.
D) his earlier experience with speech may enable him to continue speaking.
___ 53. The nerve fibers that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres and that
have been severed in split-brain patients form a structure called the:
A) reticular formation.
C) corpus callosum.
B) association areas.
D) parietal lobes.
___ 54. A split-brain patient has a picture of a knife flashed to her left hemisphere and that of a fork to her
right hemisphere. She will be able to:
A) identify the fork using her left hand.
C) identify a knife using either hand.
B) identify a knife using her left hand.
D) identify a fork using either hand.
___ 55. Dr. Johnson briefly flashed a picture of a key in the right visual field of a split-brain patient. The
patient could probably:
A) verbally report that a key was seen.
B) write the word key using the left hand.
C) draw a picture of a key using the left hand.
D) do none of the above.
___ 56. (Thinking Critically) Based on research, which of the following seems true about the specialized
functions of the right and left hemispheres?
A) They are more clear-cut in men than in women.
B) They are more clear-cut in women than in men.
C) Most complex tasks emerge from the activity of one or the other hemisphere.
D) Most complex activities emerge from the integrated activity of both hemispheres.
___ 57. Which of the following is typically controlled by the right hemisphere?
A) language
C) arithmetic reasoning
B) learned voluntary movements
D) perceptual tasks
___ 58. Anton is applying for a technician's job with a neurosurgeon. In trying to impress his potential
employer with his knowledge of the brain, he says, “After my father's stroke I knew immediately that
the blood clot had affected his left cerebral hemisphere because he no longer recognized a picture of
his friend.” Should Anton be hired?
A) Yes. Anton obviously understands brain structure and function.
B) No. The right hemisphere, not the left, specializes in picture recognition.
C) Yes. Although blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, Anton should be rewarded for
recognizing the left hemisphere's role in picture recognition.
D) No. Blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, and the right hemisphere is more involved than
the left in recognizing pictures.
___ 59. Which of the following is typically controlled by the left hemisphere?
A) spatial reasoning
C) the left side of the body
B) word recognition
D) perceptual skills
___ 60. Which of the following is not true regarding brain organization and handedness?
A) If a person has a left-handed identical twin, odds are that he or she will also be left-handed.
B) Right-handedness is far more common than left-handedness throughout the world.
C) On average, right-handers live longer than left-handers.
D) Left-handers are more common than usual among people with reading disabilities.
___ 61. Who would have been most likely to claim that a slight protrusion in a certain region of someone's
skull indicated that the individual had an optimistic personality?
A) Aristotle B) Carl Wernicke C) John Locke D) Franz Gall
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___ 62. Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control are called:
A) ACh agonists.
D) endorphins.
B) dendrites.
E) glial cells.
C) morphene antagonists.
___ 63. Botox injections smooth facial wrinkles because botulin is a(n):
A) ACh antagonist.
C) ACh agonist.
B) dopamine antagonist.
D) dopamine agonist.
___ 64. Drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin will thereby increase the concentration of serotonin
molecules in the:
A) axon terminals. B) synaptic gaps. C) glial cells. D) endocrine glands.
___ 65. In stressful situations, the sympathetic nervous system ________ blood sugar levels and ________ the
pupils of the eyes.
A) lowers; dilates B) raises; contracts C) lowers; contracts D) raises; dilates
___ 66. While listening to operatic solos, musicians process the lyrics and the tunes in separate brain areas.
This most clearly illustrates the functioning of different:
A) neurotransmitters.
C) neural networks.
B) reticular formations.
D) limbic systems.
___ 67. Which of the following chemical messengers is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone?
A) serotonin B) acetylcholine C) norepinephrine D) dopamine E) insulin
___ 68. Which of the following would be most useful for detecting the brain areas that are most active as a
person performs mathematical calculations?
A) a brain lesion B) an interneuron C) a PET scan D) a hemispherectomy
___ 69. Which region of the brain appears to have the oldest evolutionary history?
A) frontal lobes B) limbic system C) brainstem D) corpus callosum
___ 70. After suffering an accidental brain injury, Kira has difficulty walking in a smooth and coordinated
manner. It is most probable that she has suffered damage to her:
A) amygdala. B) angular gyrus. C) cerebellum. D) corpus callosum.
___ 71. The limbic system structure that regulates hunger is called the:
A) thalamus. B) amygdala. C) hippocampus. D) hypothalamus.
___ 72. Which portion of the cerebral cortex is most directly involved in making plans and formulating moral
judgments?
A) occipital lobes B) frontal lobes C) temporal lobes D) parietal lobes
___ 73. The regions of the parietal lobes that are involved in mathematical and spatial reasoning are known as:
A) the angular gyrus.
D) the reticular formation.
B) the corpus callosum.
E) association areas.
C) Wernicke's areas.
___ 74. Due to an automobile accident, Jenny suffered damage to her cerebral cortex in Broca's area. Jenny is
most likely to experience:
A) auditory hallucinations.
D) paralysis of her left limbs.
B) memory loss.
E) reward deficiency syndrome.
C) aphasia.
___ 75. The successful functioning of children who have experienced the surgical removal of an entire cerebral
hemisphere best illustrates the value of:
A) aphasia. B) phrenology. C) plasticity. D) ACh antagonists.
___ 76. An axon transmits messages ________ the cell body and a dendrite transmits messages ________ the
cell body.
A) away from; toward
C) toward; away from
B) away from; away from
D) toward; toward
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___ 77. Multiple sclerosis is a disease that is most directly associated with the degeneration of:
A) the myelin sheath. B) the pituitary gland. C) endorphins. D) dendrites.
___ 78. Depressed mood states are linked to ________ levels of serotonin and ________ levels of
norepinephrine.
A) low; low B) high; high C) low; high D) high; low
___ 79. A drug that blocks the reuptake of a particular neurotransmitter is called a(n):
A) opiate. B) antagonist. C) glutamate. D) agonist.
___ 80. The peripheral nervous system consists of:
A) association areas.
B) the spinal cord.
C)
D)
___ 81. The autonomic nervous system most directly controls:
A) speech production.
C)
B) thinking and memory.
D)
the reticular formation.
sensory and motor neurons.
movement of the arms and legs.
bladder contractions.
___ 82. Although Ron has no genital sensations, he is capable of an erection if his genitals are stimulated.
Ron's experience is most indicative of a:
A) hemispherectomy.
C) split brain.
B) severed spinal cord.
D) reward deficiency syndrome.
___ 83. The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine ________ blood pressure and _______ blood sugar
levels.
A) raises; raises B) lowers; lowers C) raises; lowers D) lowers; raises
___ 84. In order to monitor electrical activity in the brain that is triggered by hearing one's own name,
researchers would make use of a(n):
A) MRI. B) PET scan. C) EEG. D) brain lesion.
___ 85. Research has suggested that a reward deficiency syndrome may contribute to:
A) insomnia. B) alcoholism. C) schizophrenia. D) Parkinson's disease.
___ 86. Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is most directly involved in speaking?
A) occipital B) frontal C) temporal D) parietal
___ 87. Following massive damage to his frontal lobes, Phineas Gage was most strikingly debilitated by:
A) aphasia.
D) irritability.
B) memory loss.
E) a reward deficiency syndrome.
C) auditory hallucinations.
___ 88. In which of the following parts of the brain would a lesion most likely result in aphasia?
A) corpus callosum
D) Wernicke's area
B) amygdala
E) cerebellum
C) hypothalamus
___ 89. Brain scans indicate that well-practiced pianists have a larger-than-usual auditory cortex area that
encodes piano sounds. This best illustrates:
A) hemispherectomy.
D) plasticity.
B) tomography.
E) neural networks.
C) aphasia.
___ 90. Research with split-brain patients led Michael Gazzaniga to conclude that the ________ typically
constructs the theories people offer to explain their own behaviors.
A) autonomic nervous systems
C) somatic nervous systems
B) left cerebral hemisphere
D) right cerebral hemisphere
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