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PROLOGUE:
1- The founding father of psychology: Wilhelm Wundt- he created an experimental
apparatus that measured the time lag between observing a stimulus and reacting to
it. Sought to measure the mental process and began the first psychological
laboratory.
2- What are structuralism, functionalism and behaviorism: STRUCTURALISM
(Edward Titchener) aimed to uncover the structural elements of the
mind…engaged people in introspection and trained them to report elements of
their experience…required smart, verbal people- FUNCTIONALIST (William
James) encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower
and habits- BEHAVIORISTS rooted in observation of subjects and their response
to different situations… should be an objective science that studies behavior
without reference(BF Skinner, Sigmund Freud)
3- Modern psychologists define psychology through: cognitive science…studies
brain activity…becoming more globalized community
4- What is the Nature/Nurture question: controversy over the relative contribution
that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and
behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
5- What are the three levels of psychology: psychological influences, biological
approach, and social-cultural influences…different complementary views …each
perspective is helpful but each by itself fails to reveal the whole picture
6- What is the difference between basic and applied research: basic research is pure
science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge…applied research is a
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
CHAPTER 1:- Critical Thinking
1- What are hindsight bias and overconfidence: HINDSIGHT- finding that
something has happened makes it seem inevitable… if you tell a crowd a
purported psychological finding they will regard it as true and find it
unsurprising.- OVERCONFIDENCE once people know the answer, hindsight
makes it seem obvious…..hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to
overestimate our intuition.
2- What is meant by critical thinking: examines assumptions, discerns hidden values,
evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions….thinking that does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusions.
3- What do the words theory, hypothesis and operational definition and replication
mean and how are they use in the scientific method? THEORY- an explanation
using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts
behaviors or events… HYPOTHESIS- a testable prediction often implied by a
theory…OPERATIONAL DEFNITION- a statement of the procedures used to
define research variables… REPLICATION- repeating the essence of a research
study with different participants in different situations to se whether the basic
finding extends to the other participants and circumstances.
4- What is the difference between science and pseudoscience:
5- What are the three types of research studies : CASE STUDY- observation
technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing
universal principle…SURVEY- a technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes of behaviors of a particular group usually by questioning a representative
random sample of the group…NATURALISTIC OBESERVATION- observing
and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation.
6- Issues to be concerned about when conducting a survey: wording effects and
random sampling.
7- What is a scatter plot: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the
values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the
relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the
strength of the correlation….CORRELATION COEFFICIENT is a statistical
index of the relationship between two things (ranges between -1 and 1)
8- What is an illusory correlation: a perceived but nonexistent relationship between
two things. When be believe there is a relationship between two things we are
likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief.
9- What is a placebo/ placebo effect/ demand characteristic/ double blind procedure/
random assignment: PLACEBO EFFECT- experimental results caused by
expectations alone…any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an
inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE- an experimental procedure in which both the
research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the
research participants have received the treatment drug or a placebo. Commonly
used in drug evaluation studies.
CHAPTER 2:- Neuroscience
1- What are the basic parts of the neuron and what are their functions; The basic
parts of the neuron are the axon, cell body and the dendrite. CELL BODY
contains the nucleus and all branching fibers stem from it. DENDRITE receives
information and conducts it toward the cell body. The cell body then passes the
information along the AXON to other neurons/muscles/glands….axons
sometimes have myelin sheaths which speeds the impulse of the electrochemical
gradient.
2- How do neurons pass on information: Impulses, called action potentials, are
electrochemical signals that travel down the axon…Fluid interior of a resting
neuron has a negative charge while the fluid outside the membrane is positively
charged. Rapid depolarization and depolarization causes the information to
rapidly move down the axon until it reaches the synaptic gap. Then,
neurotransmitters are released and travel to the dendrites of the receiving neuron.
3- What are two ways neurotransmitters influence the next neuron: NTs can either
influence the receiving neuron in an inhibitory or excitatory way. (slows the
transmission or speeds it up).
4- How are neurotransmitters distributed in the brain?: they are distributed in the
brain according to which pathway they activate/ correspond to.
5- What are the major branches of th nervous system and their primary functions:
the major branches of the nervous system are the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord- it
communicates/ gives commands to the PNS. The PNS is associated with sensory
receptors, muscles and glands. The PNS can be divided into two sub-systems:
Somatic nervous system and the Autonomic nervous system. Somatic controls the
body’s skeletal muscles while the autonomic controls the glands and muscles of
the interior muscles. Within the autonomic nervous system there are two more
systems: the sympathetic (which arouses and expends energy) and the
parasympathetic (which conserves energy and decreases heart rate).
6- What is a reflex and what function does it serve: a reflex is a simple, automatic
response to a sensory stimulus. Does not require the CNS to occur.
7- Whar are the various tools used to study the brain: EEGs- tracks brain wave
activity, CT scan. PET scan- brain activity through glucose consumption- and
MRI- magnetic image of the brain
8- Which part(s) of the brain are the oldest and which are the most recent? : the
oldest region is the brainstem. It controls automatic survival functions. Older
regions functions without any conscious effort. The most recent areas of the brain
are the cerebral cortex. It controls the control and information processing center.
Housed in the cerebral cortex are the parietal, occipital, temporal and frontal
lobes.
9- What are the general locations and functions of the brainstem, thalamus,
cerebellum, basal ganglia, limbic system and the hypothalamus: The
BRAINSTEM is where the spinal cord enters the skull and is responsible for
automatic brain functions like heartbeat and breathing. THALAMUS- is located
at the top of the brainstem.. receives all sensory inputs (except smell) and relays
the information to higher brain regions CEREBELLUM- extends from the rear of
the brainstem… functions include processing sensory input and coordinating
movement output and balance. LIMBIC SYSTEM- between the cerebral
hemispheres and the brain’s older parts (the two halves of the brain). Associated
with emotions and drives. HYPOTHAMAMUS- lies below the thalamus in the
interior of the brain. Directs several maintenance activities and helps govern the
endocrine system via the pituitary gland…linked to emotion and reward.
10- What is the cerebral cortex: The cerebral cortex is the intricate fabric of
interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s
ultimate control and information processing center. Human cerebral cortex differs
from other animals because it allows for increased capacities for learning and
thinking, thus enabling us to be more adaptable.
11- What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and what are their functions:
FRONTAL- just behind the forehead, in charge of speaking, muscle movements
and making plans/judgments. PARIETAL lies at the top of the head, receives
sensory input for touch and body position. OCCIPITAL- lies at the back of the
head and receives information from the visual fields. TEMPORAL- above the
ears, controls auditory senses.
12- What is the difference between sensory and association cortex: Sensory processes
body touch and movement sensations while association cortex is not involved in
primary motor or sensory functions. Instead, it is involved in higher mental
functions, like learning, remembering, thinking and speaking.
13- What is neural plasticity: the brain’s ability to change during childhood by
reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience.
14- What is the corpus collosum?: A large band of neural fibers connecting the two
brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
15- What are split brain patients?: When epileptic patients have their corpus callosum
severed in order to end the amplification of abnormal brain activity. Patients with
split brains are able to activate each hemisphere separately.
AGONISTS EXCITE WHILE ANAGONISTS INHIBIT
CHAPTER 3- Consciousness
1- How do you define consciousness? What are some examples of states of
consciousness?: Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our
environment. Allows us to assemble information from many sources as we reflect
on our past and plan for the future. Various states of consciousness are
daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming, hallucinations, orgasm, hypnosis and
meditation.
2- What is meant by dual processing? Dual processing is the principle that
information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and
unconscious tracks.
3- What is selective attention and what is it used for? Selective attention is the
focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Intentional blindness is
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
4- What is circadian rhythm: Circadian rhythm is the biological clock that regulates
bodily rhythms.
5- What are the sleep stages and how are they distinguished from each other: There
are four stages and a REM stage. We cycle though them about every 90 minutes.
REM is a stage of rapid eye movement when dreams occur. Known as
paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.
While awake the brain emits regular alpha waves, but when you fall asleep the
waves become more irregular….Stage 1 is hallucinogenic and many people
experience sensations of falling. Stage 2 is a deeper stage of sleep and is
characterized by sleep spindles. Stage 3 is transitional while Stage 4 emits large,
slow delta waves (also apparent in stage 3). After the first cycle you return to
REM- in between 2 and 1. Heart rate rises and breathing becomes rapid.
6- In what order do sleep stages occur: see answer to 5…sleep cycle takes approx.
90 minutes. Stage 4 gets briefer while REM and stage 2 become longer
7- What two important patterns do you observe in sleep cycles: you spend more
time in deep sleep early on, and more in shallower sleep later on. Also, REM
increases the longer you sleep.
8- What are the defining characteristics of REM sleep: see answer 5…(physical)
9- Why do we sleep: sleep protects us from dangers at nighttime, it helps up
recuperate, restore and repair brain tissue. Sleep also helps us make memories and
feeds critical thinking.
10- What are the characteristics of insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors
and sleepwalking: INSOMNIA is the inability to sleep or difficulty falling or
staying asleep. NARCOLEPSY is a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable
sleep attacks that takes them directly into REM sleep. SLEEP APNEA is a
temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary
awakenings. NIGHT TERRORS high arousal and appearance of being terrifiedoccurs during stage 4 sleep within two or three hours of falling asleep.
11- Why do we dream: we dream to satisfy our own wishes, file away memories,
developing and preserve neural pathways, make sense of neural static and reflect
cognitive development. Freud believed that dream’s manifest content is a
censored symbolic version of its latent content (story line of a dream. Latent
content is the underlying meaning of a dream.
12- What is hypnosis and hypnotic suggestibility: hypnosis is a social interaction in
which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts
or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Suggestibility deals with the openness to
suggestion and to entertain fanciful possibilities.
13- Does hypnosis improve memory: studies suggest that it does not. Instead, the
subjects incorporate the hypnotist’s hints into their pseudomemory.
14- What are the arguments against hypnosis: People are afraid that it would cause
others to be forced to act against their will.
15- What are the beneficial effects of hypnosis: Some think that hypnosis might be
therapeutic. The posthypnotic suggestion is a suggestion made during a hypnosis
session to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized. It is used by
some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms. Also thought to be able to
alleviate pain (reduces fear, and thus hypersensitivity to pain).
16- What is a psychoactive drug: a chemical substance that alters perceptions and
moods.
17- How do drugs interfere with neural transmission and what is the difference
between an agonist and an antagonist:
18- How does cocaine work in the brain: Cocaine enters the bloodstream and depletes
the brain’s supply of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine and is quickly
followed by an agitated depression.
19- How are drugs typically categorized: drugs are categorized into different classes
like depressants, stimulants and hallucinogens. Depressants include alcohol;
barbiturates and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions.
Stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, cocaine and ecstasy- they
incite neural activity and speed up bodily functions. Hallucinogens are
psychedelic “mind manifesting” drugs like LSD that distort perceptions and evoke
sensory images in the absence of sensory input- they also trigger negative
aftereffects that offset their immediate positive effects and grow stronger with
repetition.
20- What is the difference between physical and psychological dependence: physical
dependence is when there are unpleasant withdrawal symptoms after the drug use
is discontinued. Psychological dependence is a psychological need to use the
drug, such as to relive negative emotions.
21- What are some other factors that contribute to drug abuse and dependency:
biological influences, psychological and social-cultural influences
22- What are three common myths about addiction that are discussed in your
textbook: 1- addictive drugs quickly corrupt and lead to other drug use 2addictions cannot b overcome voluntarily and therapy is required 3- we can
extend the concept of addiction to cover not just drug dependencies, but a whole
spectrum of repetitive pleasure-seeking behaviors.
CHAPTER 4- Nature v nurture and behavior
1- What are chromosomes, DNA and genes: chromosomes are threadlike structures
made of DNA molecules that contain genes. DNA a complex molecule containing
the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. Genes are biochemical
units of heredity that make up the chromosomes.
2- What is Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: