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Introduction to the Age of Absolutism
The sixteenth century exploration of the new world brought untold wealth to the European
countries that sponsored expeditions. As a result, European countries and the monarchs that
ruled them grew in wealth at a tremendous rate. Naturally reluctant to share that wealth, these
same monarchs challenged the authority of the church in Rome that demanded taxes and fees.
Instead, kings solidified their borders and became nations of specific identity.
In the 1500s and 1600s, European monarchs sought to create powerful kingdoms in which
they could command the complete loyalty of all their subjects. This form of government,
known as absolutism, placed unlimited power with the monarch or their advisors. The
strength of absolute monarchs rested on divine right—the political idea that monarchs receive
their power directly from God and are responsible to God alone for their actions. It was
thought that absolute monarchs would unify diverse people and bring greater control and
efficiency to the nation.
Many monarchs, particularly those of European descent, employed the flourishing absolutist
philosophy during their reign in the seventeenth century. Defined as the "absolute or
unlimited rule usually by one man," absolutism is virtually equivalent to a dictatorship. A
ruler incorporating the absolutist philosophy has complete control of his subjects and the
highest authority with which to govern. With origins dating back to the Ancient Greeks,
absolutism found root in some of Aristotle's theories: An absolute monarchy “is that of a
single ruler that rules, not for the public good but for his own.” The idea of an absolute ruler
gained prominence in the political world over time. Fourteenth century philosophers
believed that a monarch should not be bound to the laws of the government, but still should
obey them whenever possible. Others advocated that the ruler is only accountable to divine
authority (being responsible to God alone), not the people.
As civilization began to organize from city-states to individual countries then to entire
dynasties or empires, all these civilizations needed some form of government. Establishing
order under one appointed leader helped advance that civilization.
Spain
Background:
During the Age of Absolutism, the Hapsburgs were the most powerful royal family in Europe.
Unfortunately, their lands were too scattered for any one person to rule effectively. To fix this problem,
King Charles V retired in 1556 and divided the empire. He left the Hapsburg lands in central Europe to his
brother Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman Emperor. He gave Spain, the Netherlands, southern Italy, and
Spain’s overseas empire to his son, Philip II. Philip II was the most powerful monarch in Spanish history.
Unrest:
Spanish territories had been united in 1469 when Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile. However,
a uniform system of government had never been established for the entire country. Each area had its own
laws and local authorities. In the 1500s, Castile had more territory, people, and wealth than any other part of
Spain. To provide stability, Philip II made this area the center of the Spanish Empire. Castile’s largest city,
Madrid, became the capitol of Spain.
Religion:
Spain is a nation-state that was born out of religious struggle between numerous different belief systems
including Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism and Judaism. Following the Crusades, the leaders of Spain
needed a way to unify the country into a strong nation. Ferdinand and Isabella chose Catholicism to unite
Spain and in 1478 asked permission of the pope to begin the Spanish Inquisition to purify the people of
Spain. They began by driving out Jews, Protestants and other non-believers. The Spanish Inquisition was
used for both political and religious reasons. Accused heretics (people who reject Christianity) were
identified by the general population and brought before the tribunal. They were given a chance to confess
their heresy against the Catholic Church and were also encouraged to indict other heretics. If they admitted
their wrongs and turned in other aggressors against the church they were either released or sentenced to a
prison penalty. If they would not admit their heresy or indict others the accused were publicly introduced in a
large ceremony before they were publicly killed or sentenced to a life in prison. Around the 1540s the
Spanish Inquisition turned its fire on the Protestants in Spain in an attempt to further unify the nation. The
Spanish Inquisition's reign of terror was finally suppressed in 1834.
Spanish Armada:
In 1588, King Phillip II set up a fleet of 150 ships to go and invade England. At the time Spain and England
were disagreeing about some religious issues and they were also having some trading problems. So King
Phillip put together the largest fleet of ships that had ever been seen at the time and he called this fleet the
Spanish Armada. However, this mighty force was defeated by the English.
Decline of the Hapsburgs:
The period from 1550 to 1650 is called Spain’s golden century. The Hapsburgs were the most powerful
monarchial family in Europe and overseas exploration had brought the treasury great wealth and power.
However, by 1650, Spain began to decline as a European power. Costly wars had drained the national
treasury, forcing the government to borrow money from foreign bankers. The flow of gold and silver caused
severe inflation (decrease in the value of currency that leads to high prices). Spain’s agriculture and industry
declined. Government taxation weakened the middle class.
Philip II’s successors were weak. In 1665, Charles II took the throne as the last of the Hapsburgs.
He was physically and mentally weak and did not rule long.
England
Background:
England developed a strong monarchy. The Tudor Dynasty ruled from 1485 to 1603 and brought unity to
the country after a long period of decline and disorder. Tudor monarchs were hardworking, able, and
popular. They greatly expanded the power and authority of the Crown. They were not as absolute in their
power as other European monarchs. Instead, Parliament and the courts of law set boundaries that limited
Tudor authority.
Early Monarchs:
Henry VII became the first Tudor monarch in 1485. He used shrewd maneuvering to disarm his rivals and to
increase the prestige of his family. He helped rebuild England’s commercial prosperity and strengthened
interests overseas.
His son, Henry VIII became the most powerful of all Tudor monarchs. Henry VIII fought wars on
the European continent and began to make England a great naval power. Henry VIII broke with the Catholic
Church during the Reformation to create an English Church called Anglicanism. Under his reign, the House
of Commons increased its power.
Henry VIII’s daughter Elizabeth I became queen in 1558 and became one of England’s most
successful and admired monarchs. Elizabeth brought prosperity and growth to England despite threats from
foreign powers and internal fighting among the English. She made the Protestant Church of England the
official state religion while managing to avoid war with the Roman Catholic countries of Europe. The first
English settlers were sent to North America to colonize the continent. Elizabeth's court was known far and
wide as a center of learning for artists and scholars. Elizabeth, never having married, died in 1603, leaving
no Tudor heirs. This ended the Tudor Dynasty.
Social Policy:
Social status was important during this era. English society was led by the monarch and their court. Next
were prominent nobles and important members of the middle class. This group provided the source of Tudor
strength and stability. The lowest social rank was composed of yeomen (farmers with little land) and
laborers.
Foreign Policy:
England worked to balance the power of European nations. Balance of power refers to the system in which
each European nation helps keep peace and order by maintaining power that is equal to rival nations. If one
nation becomes more powerful than another, a third nation can reestablish the balance by supporting the third
nation. Both France and Spain were powerful. England often operated as the third balancing nation so that
neither would gain enough power to conquer the other.
Spain and France posed the greatest threats to England. With a strong navy, called the Spanish
Armada, Spain attacked England in 1588 but were defeated. The attack forced England to rely on sea power
and diplomacy to protect their interests.
France
Background:
After a period of religious conflicts peace was restored to France when Henry IV took the throne in 1589.
He founded the Bourbon dynasty, which ruled France until the early 1800s. During most of that time,
Bourbon kings maintained an absolute monarchy that was imitated by other monarchs throughout Europe.
Important Monarchs:
Henry IV was Protestant but converted to Catholicism to quiet his powerful Catholic opponents. He issued
the Edict of Nantes in 1598 that gave Huguenots (French Protestants) the same civil rights that Catholics
enjoyed. These actions ended religious struggles and allowed France to rebuild itself. Henry IV put into
effect many policies without the approval of the Estates-General and thus laid the foundation for the absolute
rule of later Bourbon monarchs.
When Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, his 9 year old son, Louis XIII, became king but gave
complete control of the government to a Catholic clergyman named Cardinal Richelieu (Rish-lew) who set
out to create an absolute monarchy and make France the supreme power in Europe. Richelieu reduced
power of the nobility and Huguenots and other internal enemies. He strengthened the army, built up the
economy, and supported French culture.
Louis XIV is recognized as the most powerful Bourbon monarch. His 72-year reign was the longest
in European history. He emphasized a strong monarchy because he feared disorder without it. Louis’ style
set the trend for European monarchies during the 1600s and 1700s. Louis was known as the Sun King
because the royalty and nobility of Europe revolved around him. Although he relied on a bureaucracy, Louis
was the source for all political authority in France. He once boasted, “L’état, c’est moi!” (I am the state)
Culture:
During this era, France enjoyed one of its most brilliant cultural periods. Beautiful churches and palaces
were built. Artists and playwrights portrayed the daily life of the king’s court, the nobility, and the
peasantry.
Expansion:
France pursued a bold and active foreign policy to expand the glory and power of France. Other European
rulers were fearful of France’s desire for expansion and allied in opposition to France. When Charles II of
Spain died without an heir in 1700, France made a claim to the throne. The rest of Europe was concerned
that the balance of power would be disrupted if France inherited Spain’s vast empire. The European powers
worked out a plan to divide the Spanish Empire, but France disagreed. The War of Spanish Succession
began in 1701 and lasted until 1713. When peace was restored, a French prince was made king of Spain, but
France and Spain could never be unified under one crown. The war hurt France’s economy, increased
poverty, and created opposition to Louis XIV’s rule.
German States
Background:
In the German States, the Hapsburgs emerged as the dominant political force. This royal family established
themselves as absolute monarchs.
Thirty Years War:
Conflicts between Protestants and Catholics raged in Germany for years. Protestant princes in Germany
resisted the rule of the Catholic Hapsburg monarchs. In 1618, a rebellion took place between a new Catholic
monarch and the resisting Protestant people. Soon this skirmish developed into a full-scale civil war that
involved every major European power except England. Outside countries entered the war to defend religious
ideologies and gain power. For twenty-eight years the war dragged on, destroying towns and farms.
Historians estimate that Germany lost 1/3 of its entire population. When the conflict ended, Germany was
weakened and France emerged as Europe’s leading power. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into more
than 300 separate states. The Hapsburgs still ruled Austria and Bohemia, but their control over other German
states was in name only, thus ending their hope of establishing an absolute monarchy over all of Germany.
Austria:
After the Thirty Years War, the Austrian Hapsburgs concentrated on building a strong monarchy in Austria,
the most powerful of the German states. In 1740, Maria Theresa inherited the throne from her father.
According to law and custom, women were not permitted to rule in Austria. However, a pragmatic sanction
(royal decree) by which Europe’s rulers promised not to divide the Hapsburg lands and to accept female
succession. Maria Theresa proved to be an effective leader who strengthened the central government and
improved the economy.
Prussia:
During the Thirty Years War, a rival family of the Hapsburgs took power in the widely scattered lands in
northeastern Germany called Prussia. The Hohenzollern family gained control of Prussia. One of the
greatest of the Hohenzollern monarchs was Frederick William, the “Great Elector.” Frederick William
increased the strength of Prussia by creating a permanent army and created an alliance with the Prussian
nobility who supported the absolute ruler.
Frederick II took power in 1740 and quickly adopted military ways and set out to expand Prussian
territory. Frederick the Great, as he became known, rejected Austria’s pragmatic sanction and seized lands
in Austria, beginning the War of Austrian Succession. Spain and France aided Prussia while Britain and the
Netherlands supported Austria. This conflict led to years of battling between Austria and Prussia and their
respective allies. In the end, Prussia gained Austrian lands in Silesia and was recognized as an important
nation.
Russia
Background:
Between 1500 and 1800, Russia made tremendous territorial gains and became a major European power.
From the 1200s to the early 1700s, Russia was isolated from western European developments, such as the
Crusades, the Renaissance, and Reformation. Russia developed its own civilization based on values of the
Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Empire. The Russian monarch became all-powerful and easily
crushed its opponents. The nobility, the established church, and towns never posed the same challenge in
Russia as they had done in Europe.
Important Monarchs:
The most powerful of the early czars was Ivan IV who took power in 1533. Ivan the Terrible increased
Russia’s trade and expanded its borders to the east and south. Afraid of treason, Ivan created his own secret
police force, terrorized political opponents, and seized lands from 1/2 of the population.
Peter the Great came to power in 1689 and sought to bring Russia into the mainstream of European
civilization. Peter forced Russian nobility to adopt many of the ways of Western Europe. One of his greatest
achievements was the creation of a new Russian capital of St. Petersburg, Russia’s “window to the West.”
In 1762, Catherine II seized the throne from her weak husband and ruled as empress of Russia until
1796. As empress, Catherine the Great successfully expanded Russia’s borders and achieved a warm water
port (which it needed to trade) on the Black Sea and acquired land in Poland.
Foreign Policy:
Russian foreign policy during this era was focused on expanding its borders. Russia forced China to accept
Russian control of Siberia. Russian explorers claimed lands and established settlements in Alaska and
California. Russia fought battles in attempts to gain warm-water ports for trade.
Government Administration:
Russia made sweeping changes in the Russian government. Borrowing ideas from France, Russia introduced
a central bureaucracy and placed local governments under its control. The Eastern Orthodox Church was
brought under direct government authority. A Holy Synod (council of bishops) was responsible to the
government. A new class of nobles, called dvorianie, was created. These people were allowed to own
landed estates in exchange for government service.
Economic Changes:
To stimulate economic growth, Russia introduced government control of agriculture and craft production.
Incentives were given to increase mining and metalworking production. New production centers were
provided with land, money, and workers.