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Transcript
BIOLOGY TAKS “MUST KNOW” 1. Cellular Processes Diffusion – To move from a low to a high concentration until homeostasis or equilibrium is met. Osmosis – Diffusion of water from a high to a low concentration. In the picture below there is 98% water inside and 95% water outside. Therefore the balloon will shrink because water moves from a high to a low concentration until equilibrium is met. Picture by TEA If a cell is placed into salt water it will shrink…remember salt sucks! If a cell is placed into 100% pure distilled water it will swell! 2. Cell Parts & Functions Chloroplast – organelle in a cell that uses sunlight to make food. Plants have these not animals. *Mitochondria* – organelle in a cell that uses food to convert it into ATP. ATP is the form of energy that ALL living things need to survive, including plants. Plants make their own food from the sun, but they still need mitochondria to convert it into ATP. In animals, muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria! Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane – organelle that surrounds all cells. It is the barrier that allows things in & out of a cell. This organelle maintains homeostasis within the cell. In the picture above, the balloon represents the cell membrane. Cell Wall – all cells have a cell wall EXCEPT ANIMALS. Animals do not have a cell wall. Plants, Fungi, Protista, & Bacteria all DO have cells walls. The function is for support & protection. Nucleus – the organelle where DNA is stored…bacteria are the only living cells that do not have a nucleus, but they still have DNA. DNA is the code to make proteins. Ribosome- the organelle where proteins are made. http://summit.k12.co.us/schools/shs/computer/tkelley/types.html 3. Photosynthesis/Cellular Respiration These are EXACT OPPOSITES! Photosynthesis – the process of taking sunlight (solar energy) and converting it into food (chemical energy). The food plants make is called glucose C6H12O6. This process occurs in the CHLOROPLAST. Plants take in water & carbon dioxide and make food & release oxygen. Water + CO2 + Sun Food + O2 Cellular Respiration – the process of taking food or glucose and converting it into ATP (another form of chemical energy). This occurs in the MITOCHONDRIA. We eat food, breath oxygen and blow out carbon dioxide & water vapor in order to get energy to survive. All living things use this process. Yes the water that went onto the plants you ate is being blown back into the atmosphere as water vapor. Food + O2 Water + CO2 + ATP Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration are exact opposite reactions (a cycle) except solar energy becomes chemical energy (ATP). 4. Viruses Viruses are NOT a cell like bacteria are! This is because they need a host cell to reproduce… they need to take over another cell and get it to do it for them. A real cell has the ability to reproduce on its own. Viruses cannot do this! One thing viruses do have in common with cells is they use DNA/RNA as their genetic material. Examples of viruses are influenza (flu), the common cold, small pox, West Nile, warts, hepatitis, HIV, etc. There are vaccines for certain viruses that can prevent getting infected, but once a viral infection has occurred only the immune system can get rid of it. You CANNOT take ANTIBIOTICS for a viral infection. Antibiotics can only cure bacterial infections! One last thing that students MUST know is that HIV attacks KILLER-T CELLS! http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/virus/page.html 5. Bacteria Benefits: Bacteria help with digestion. For example, you have E.coli bacteria (the good kind) that live in your intestines that help you with digestion. The reason eating yogurt while taking antibiotics is good is because it replaces the bacteria that were killed by the antibiotics. Yogurt has live bacteria in it that is good for you & your digestive system. Another example is cows. Cows eat plants so they have to digest cellulose. The only way that the cellulose can be digested is by the bacteria in their digestive system. If a veterinarian gives a cow antibiotics, they must replace the bacteria or the cow will starve to death. Disease: Antibiotics can be taken for bacterial infections. Examples of bacterial infections are strep throat, tetanus, tooth decay, etc. When you have an infection of any kind you may experience fever, swelling, rashes, and an increased WHITE blood cell count. This is your immune systems way of fighting it off. 6. DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) DNA is the genetic code to make proteins. You are one big protein. Its shape is a double helix or twisted ladder. DNA stores genetic information by the order of the NITROGEN BASES in the middle (or the steps of the ladder). If the order of the nitrogen bases changes, a mutation occurs and the correct protein may not be made. The nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), & guanine (G). “A” matches with “T”. “C” matches with “G”. http://members.cox.net/amgough/Fanconi-genetics-genetics-primer.htm http://genome.imim.es/courses/Madrid04/exercises/ensembl/index.html DNA Replication – the process of the DNA making a copy of itself before the cell divides. The DNA will unzip and a new side will be added to each old side. So each new DNA strand will be part old and part new. Picture by Wikipedia 7. Protein Synthesis There are a series of steps in order to make a protein. Proteins are made in the ribosomes of the cell. The DNA holds the code to make the protein, but the DNA cannot leave the nucleus. The process of getting the code from the DNA to the ribosome is called TRANSCRIPTION. Transcription is step 1: RNA copies the DNA inside the nucleus and takes it to the ribosome. RNA differs from DNA in that it does not have the nitrogen base called thymine (T). Instead of “T’ RNA has uracil (U). So in RNA “A” matches with “U” and “C” matches with “G”. http://genome.imim.es/courses/Madrid04/exercises/ensembl/index.html Step 2 is called TRANSLATION – the actual assembly of the protein. Translation is where RNA takes the code to the ribosome to be decoded into a protein. Every 3 nitrogen bases (codon) codes for 1 amino acid. A protein is a chain of amino acids. The students must be able to read a codon chart. The words in the chart below are amino acids. Picture by TEA A mutation has occurred to the second nitrogen base. It has mutated from a “G” to a “C.” The first protein would have a chain of Arginine-Serine-Serine. AGA = Arginine UCG = Serine AGU = Serine. The mutated protein would have a chain of Threonine-Serine-Serine. ACA=Threonine UCG=Serine AGU=Serine. Because the sequence of amino acids has changed, the function of the protein will change…it will not be able to do its job! 8. Evolution – Change Over Time Evolution is not a high stakes concept for RRISD. There is much the students need to know about evolution. Some common vocabulary is Charles Darwin, Common Ancestor, Fossil Record, Similarities in Embryology, Natural Selection, Homologous Structures, Analagous Structures, Speciation, Adaptation, etc. The students need to also understand that the more similar the DNA, the more closely related the species. 9. Genetics Basic Vocabulary: Allele, Dominant, Recessive, Homozygous, Heterozygous, Punnett Square, Chromosome, Pedigree, Sex-Linked Traits Picture by TEA What trait will most likely be observed in all offspring of the above set of parents? A Green feathers (this is the correct answer) B Yellow feathers C Long beak D Short beak http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/pedigree.php http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/visionwebsite04/twotypes.html 10. Classification of Organisms Taxons: Kingdom (large group), Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species (small group) All organisms have a two-part scientific name. The first part is the Genus and the second part is the Species. For example Homo sapien; humans are classified by this name. Homo is the Genus and sapien is the Species. If two different species have the same Genus, then they are closely related. For example, Felis concolor is the mountain lion Felis domesticus is the domestic cat. Background Vocabulary: Prokaryote—cell without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (ONLY BACTERIA) Eukaryote—cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (Protista, Fungi, Plantae, & Animalia) Unicellular—of one cell or single-celled Multicellular—of many cells; each cell has a special function Autotroph—(Producer) - makes its own food Heterotroph—(Consumer) - cannot make its own food; must get it from elsewhere Kingdom Archaebacteria Prokaryote Cell Walls WITHOUT peptidoglycan Unicellular Live in extreme conditions Kingdom Eubacteria Prokaryote Cell walls WITH peptidoglycan Unicellular Live in normal every environments Examples: Streptococcus or Escherichia coli Kingdom Protista Eukaryote Cell Walls—various types Most are unicellular Some are multicellular “Junk Drawer” or “Catch-all” Kingdom Examples: Amoeba, euglena, paramecium, diatoms, algae, giant kelp Kingdom Fungi Eukaryote Cell Walls made of chitin Most multicellular; some unicellular Heterotroph Examples: mushrooms, yeasts, athlete’s foot, ringworm Kingdom Plantae Eukaryote Cell Walls made of cellulose Have chloroplasts for photosynthesis Large water vacuole Multicellular Autotroph Examples: mosses, ferns, evergreens and flowering plants Kingdom Animalia Eukaryote NO Cell Walls – The only Kingdom without Cell Walls! NO Chloroplasts Multicellular Heterotroph Examples: Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, mammals 11. Ecology (Energy Flow) Energy flows in one direction in an ecosystem. It starts with the sun, then goes to the producers/autotrophs (ex. plants), then goes to the consumers/heterotrophs (ex. humans). Basic Vocabulary: Omnivore – consumer that eats both plants & animals Herbivore – consumer that eats only plants Carnivore – consumer that eats only meat Decomposer – breaks down dead or decaying matter so matter can recycle within the ecosystem. The two largest decomposers on Earth are bacteria and fungi. Trophic Level – Each step if a food chain. 10% Rule – Only 10% of energy or biomass is passed from one trophic level to the next. 90% is transferred to heat. See next page… Food Chain – The arrow points to the mouth that is being fed. The arrow is pointing in the direction the energy flows. Also remember that the sun is the main energy source! Food Web – many food chains together…Remember the arrow points to the mouth that is being fed. In this food web the plants are on trophic level 1 and are the producers of the food web. An example of a primary consumer would be the rabbit. An example of a secondary consumer would be the fox. http://king.portlandschools.org/files/houses/y7/animalmaineia/files/species/rdovefi/foodweb/Foo dwed.html Ecology Pyramids – A different way to view a food chain. http://www.princetonecology.org/id35.html http://www.arcytech.org/java/population/facts_foodchain.html 12. Ecology (Symbiosis) Symbiosis is a relationship where two species live closely together. There are three kinds. Mutualism (+ +) both organisms are benefiting. (a bee & a flower.) Parasitism (+ -) one organism is benefiting and the other is being harmed. (a tick & a dog) Commensalism (+ ≠) one organism is benefiting and the other is neither helped or harmed. (an orchid in a tree…an orchid is a flower…it is benefiting because it gets a place to live & is propped up to more sunlight…the tree is not helped or hurt because the orchid is not taking any nutrients from the tree. 13. Plant Adaptations Survival of the fittest…evolution…the organisms that have “strong” genes to survive their environment will reproduce…the “weak” organisms will die and not pass on their genes. Tropical Rain Forest – big broad leaves under the canopy to fight for sunlight Desert (arid/dry climate) – reduced or small leaves to prevent water from escaping out of the stomata (the holes for gas exchange under the leaves); the stomata are also closed during the day; cacti also have a thick cuticle (wax covering of leaf) to prevent water loss as well; cacti also have an extensive fibrous root system to absorb water fast. Tundra (cold climate) – plants have a thick cuticle (wax covering of leaf) for insulation & also grow close to the ground to stay warm. 14. Body Systems Circulatory System Heart, Veins, Arteries and BLOOD! Main function: transports or delivers or distributes nutrients, water, white blood cells, respiratory gases, and wastes throughout the body. Hemoglobin is the protein in the blood that carries oxygen to body cells. We have a closed-circulatory system meaning the blood circulates within vessels. Clams have an open-circulatory system where blood baths tissues in the cavities called sinuses. Nervous System Brain, Spinal Cord, Neuron & Synapse Main function: Sense internal & external stimuli (the 5 senses: sight, smell, taste, hear, touch) & storing memories…thinking! Neuron http://www2.cedarcrest.edu/academic/bio/hale/bioT_EID/lectures/tetanus-neuron.html Endocrine System Glands and Hormones Main function: To maintain homeostasis by delivering messages throughout the body with hormones. (Feedback loops- like the air conditioner). Organs: Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland (main gland), Parathryoid Gland, Thymus Gland, Pineal Gland, Adrenal Gland, Thyroid, Pancreas, Ovary and Testes. Skeletal System Bone; bones are held together at joints with ligaments. Main function: structure & support, movement, & to make red & white blood cells in the bone marrow. Muscular System – Muscle cells have a high number of mitochondria to convert food into ATP/energy! 3 kinds of muscle cells: skeletal, smooth, & cardiac Main function: Movement. For every muscle there is an opposing muscle group for extension & flexion. Muscles are attached to bones through ligaments. The muscle shortens, pulls on the bone, & the limb moves. http://www.nambourshs.qld.edu.au/curriculum/hpe/hpes/online/biomech.htm Respiratory System Lungs, Alveoli (little grapes, air sacs) Main function: diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas into and out of the blood. Alveoli http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/Respirat orySystem/HumanRespiratory/HumanRespiratory.htm Urinary/Excretory System Kidneys (Nephron is the filtering device) & Bladder Main function: filters your blood through diffusion. http://www.foxriverwatch.com/kidney_cancer_pcbs_intro.html Digestive System Mouth –(chemical & mechanical digestion begin here), Pharynx, Esophagus, Liver, Gall Bladder, Stomach, Rectum, Pancreas, , Small Intestine (microvilli absorb nutrients), Large Intestine (absorbs water) Main function: diffusion of nutrients and water into the blood; produces enzymes that aid in breaking down substances to be absorbed for the body’s growth & repair. http://www.bayfrontgi.com/patient_education.asp Integumentary System – Skin, Hair, & Nails Skin layers are Epidermis, Dermis and Hypodermis Main function is to protect you, helps keep you cool with sweat, & it is a major sensory organ for touch. Reproductive System Female and Male reproductive parts… Main function: to make gametes (or sex cells) to have offspring and to produce hormones such as testosterone and estrogen (connection to endocrine system b/c of the hormones). Sexual reproduction- two parents each provide half the genetic material resulting in offspring (first cell = zygote) with characteristics of both parents. Gametes (or sex cells) are made through a process called Meiosis (PMAT1 & PMAT2). This method of reproduction increases diversity because of crossing-over or gene shuffling. Asexual reproduction- single parent produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent…an example is binary fission in bacteria. Lymphatic System Lymph Nodes & Spleen Main function: to pick up fluid that has leaked into surrounding tissue and filter microorganisms with the lymph nodes. Works closely with the immune system. Immune System (Lymphocyte means White Blood Cell) B Lymphocytes make plasma cells that make antibodies (Humoral Immunity), T-Cells kill infected or abnormal cells of our own (Cell-Mediated Immunity) Main function: Fights off disease and cancer. A vaccine is a small amount of weakened or dead pathogens that allow the body to respond and build up memory cells so the next time exposure occurs the body has a huge army of defense ready. There are vaccines for different kinds of bacteria and viruses. Anything that causes disease is called a pathogen. You can take antibiotics to cure a bacterial disease, but not for a viral disease. Bacteria produce toxins or poisons that can hurt your body. Your humoral immunity is designed to produce B lymphocytes that produce plasma cells that produce antibodies that bind to the antigens on the pathogen to deactivate them so a macrophage can eat it. If a virus, protista, or fungus gets inside one of your cells or you have cells that turn into cancer your cell-mediated immunity will kill your cell that is infected or is growing “out of control” aka cancer. The T-cell made a hole in your bad, infected, or cancerous cell. HIV attacks T-cells! www.jdaross.cwc.net/cellmediated_immunity.htm