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Chapter 28
Science
 science in the early 1900s was done by individuals doing studies and relaying results to other
scientists, as done today; information was sought for no reason, just to know
 scientists began working in teams; Enrico Fermi headed an atomic physics research team at the
University of Rome; a team led by J.F. Joliot and his wife Irene Curie Joliot (daughter of Marie
Curie) discovered artificial radiation in France; 1932 the team of J.D. Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton
split an atom
 beginning 1933, scientists fled central Europe for safety; Enrico Fermi fled to the U.S. with his
Jewish wife after winning the Nobel Prize in physics 1938; Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls fled
Germany, worked on uranium in Britain, convinced the British to develop atomic weapons
The Ultimate Bomb
 1939 German scientists considered building an ultimate bomb from the knowledge they had,
required dedication, now know Germans didn’t believe could be done before end of war
 Manhattan Project- British and U.S. endeavor to develop an atomic bomb, budget estimated to
be equal to that of the entire U.S. auto industry; was headed by physicist Robert Oppenheimer,
said had no problem building it, didn’t know if they’d use it; first time ethics questioned the use of a
weapon
Beginning of World War II


Germany, Italy, Japan = Axis Powers
Britain, Soviet Union, United States = Grand Alliance
Japan vs. China
 Japanese economy depended on Manchuria and China; China boycotts Japanese goods and
threats interests in Manchuria; Japanese occupy Manchuria and establish it as a puppet state;
League of Nations, led by Britain, refused to recognize the state, Japan withdraws from League;
Japan invades China without declaring war; Soviet Union, Britain, and U.S. support China and its
leader, Chiang Kai-shek
Pre-War
 Hitler didn’t want to repeat WWI, wanted to fight Soviet Union for living space without Britain
intervention; believed Britain would remain neutral if left alone because they’d want to abolish
communism and the British were fellow Aryans
Austria
 Hitler was impatient; some Austrians wanted to unite with Germany, some didn’t; Hitler
intimidated them into adopting a Nazi party to gain support, then annexed Austria in March 1938
Sudetenland
 summer 1938, Hitler demanded “freedom” to German Czechs in the Sudetenland; France, a
Czech ally, didn’t want to help; Britain sent Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to talk to Hitler;
Chamberlain believed transferring the Sudetenland was the only solution and would repay the
wrongs done to Germany after WWI, convinced France and Czecho. to obey Hitler because Britain
didn’t want to pay for another world war
 September 29, 1938- had final meeting to avoid war at Munich with Mussolini, French prime
minister Edouard Daladier, Hitler, and Chamberlain; gave Sudetenland to Germany, which
quickly took it; policy of British and French known as appeasement- willingness to concede to
demands in order to preserve peace; Chamberlain believed peace was ahead
 September 30, 1938- Hitler helped himself to western Czechoslovakia including capital of
Prague, leaving Slovakia; Lithuania was pressured into surrendering Memel; Hitler demanded
Gdask and the Polish Corridor
Alliances
 1939- Hitler signs Pact of Steel with Mussolini, and, although enemies, Non-Aggression Pact
with Stalin, wouldn’t be neutral to each other, Hitler would allow Stalin to take eastern Poland,
Bessarabia, Latvia, and Estonia; Stalin didn’t think anti-Communist west would ally him
Poland
 Britain and France agreed to help defend Poland; September 1, 1939- Hitler invades Poland and
wins by the end of the month, Stalin joins and gets eastern Poland
“Winter War”
 Stalin started defending against a possible attack from Germany, demanded Finland territory to
defend Leningrad with, Finland refused, Russia invades Finland in the “Winter War”, Finns hold
them off but lose in March 1940
World War II
 September 3, 1939- Britain and France declare war on Germany; but no war took place during
six months after fall of Poland, Allies were waiting for Germany, Germany was waiting for weather
to get better, known as the “phony war”
 April 1940- Germany attacks Denmark and Norway; May 10, 1940- Germany invades
Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg, racing toward the English Channel to separating troops
 Belgium forces had to be evacuated from the beaches of Dunkirk
 Germany used technique called blitzkrieg, “lightning war”; French depended on hilly and
forested terrain and the Maginot Line, which was outflanked by German tanks called panzers, to
protect them
France Loses
 French morale was extremely low from fear of a repeat of WWI; June 17, 1940- Marshal HenriPhilippe Petain, great World War I hero, asked for an armistice with Germany weeks after Germans
stepped into France; Petain created collaborationist government in Vichy, a city in central France,
known as Vichy France, that worked with the Germans; Charles de Gaulle, general opposed to the
armistice, fled to London and set up a Free French government

Italy joins Germans, coinciding with the Pact of Steel
Britain Fights
 Germany prepares to cross English Channel, German air force under Hermann Goring launched
air attacks against England, known as the Battle of Britain, initially attacked military targets, then
population targets; September 7 to November 2, 1940 Germans bombed London every night,
causing damage and killing 15,000
 Winston Churchill, British Prime minister after replacing Chamberlain 1940, encouraged the
British people on the radio
 British Royal Air Force inflicted losses to German aircraft, Hitler abandoned Battle of Britain
Balkans
 British air units deployed in Greek Peloponnese to defend Greece against Italy; caused Hitler to
engage Greeks as well in Operation Marita; invaded Yugoslavia through Bulgaria 1941 then moved
through to Greece, capturing Athens April 27, 1941; Germans went on to island of Crete deploying
the first paratroop attack in history, forced British to evacuate to Egypt, faced humiliating defeat
 Romania and Hungary supplied oil to Germany, Greece and Yugoslavia supplied resources
necessary for war; all gave advantage against Soviet Union in future
 Balkans preferred nazis and fascists to communists, saw a chance to put beliefs into practice
 Hungary allied Germany hoping for territory it lost in WWI; Romania allied Russia; Slovakia
helped Germany, which gave it independence; Yugoslav province Croatia became puppet state
Resistance
 resistors used assassinations, sabotage, guerrilla warfare; resistance movements developed
after Germany attacked the Soviet Union and when Hitler drafted men to German factories
 one of the greatest resistance fighters was Josip Broz, alias Tito, Croatian Communist and
Yugoslav nationalist; instead of waiting for Allies, formed partisans that fought Germans and
Italians; distracted ten or more German divisions; was admired by allies; after liberation, had 90
percent vote and became Yugoslavia’s leader
Racism and Destruction
 Hitler emphasized the idea of a “master (Aryan) race”- those worthy of living; and the
“subhumans”- those not worthy
 Poles and Russians were “subhuman” and their land could be taken away legitimately
 gypsies- were harassed by police 1933; Reich Central Office Against the Gypsy Nuisance
created 1936, kept records of gypsies; could be killed without trial; more than 200,000 gypsies were
killed throughout the course of the war
 mixed-race children- generation grew of those with German mother and black father because of
Rhineland and French colonial troops from Africa; 500 to 800 “Rhineland bastards” attacked
 “deformed”- those posing a “biological threat” or “racial impurity” were exterminated as part of
the “destruction of worthless life”; categories were made as an attempt for scientific validation;
medical examinations identified the “deformed” and starved them to death or injected with lethal
drugs; 1939- 65,000 to 70,000 Germans were identified to death; asylums asked to choose
candidates for death; Polish mental patients were simply shot
 “asocial”- criminals, beggars, vagrants, homeless, alcoholics, prostitutes, those with STDs were
thought to be so because of hereditary
 homosexuals- treated as “community aliens”; was subject to legal persecution; was considered
as a disease instead of a biological trait and wasn’t considered “biologically inferior”; were
identified by a pink triangle; estimated as high as 200,000 killed
 Jews: weren’t immediately persecuted in 1933; 1939, Germans too Jewish property; were
rounded up into ghettos when war started; considered deporting the 3 million Jews to Madagascar;
began step-by-step plan known as the “Final Solution”- total extermination of European Jews;
planning conference for the Final Solution was conducted 1942 by Reinhard Heydrich, leader of
the Sicherheitsdienst or SD, or Security (Intelligence) Service of the SS
 Hitler set out to kill enemies in eastern Europe in Operation Barbarossa; Russian Jews were
considered the lowest of the low, considered Judeocommunists that must be killed at any cost
 1941 Hitler ordered propaganda campaign through army, insisting war on Soviet Union was a
“holy war”
 SS leader Heinrich Himmler executed terrible atrocities to outdo other Nazi groups; shot
Russian victims en masse and piled them in open graves; Himmler insisted on using gas, van
exhaust fumes were piped into enclosed areas that served as portable gas chambers; Himmler
replaced these with permanent gas chamber buildings in Poland using Zyklon B- a gas developed by
the chemical firm I. G. Farben for that purpose, annihilated thousands at a time
 extermination camps began 1941; first camp at Chelmno, Poland; terms genocide, judeocide,
and holocaust used to describe the mass slaughter of Jews, mostly taking place in Chelmno, Belzec,
Sobibor, Treblinka, and Auschwitz
 victims died during transportation or because of forced labor or starvation; were beaten,
humiliated, tortured, given false hope, herded into “showers” that emitted gas; ultimately killed 11
million people, including 6 million Jews
 Auschwitz- largest of the concentration camps, greatest number of people killed in single place;
sick, aged, pregnant women, women showing signs of menstruation, those who gave birth were
exterminated immediately, those who could work served temporary needs
 reasons resistance didn’t work: 1) entire German state was dedicated to the plan, most Germans
did nothing to help, no place to hide, most countries including Britain and U.S. didn’t want to deal
with the immigrated Jews; 2) Jews didn’t understand what was happening until it was too late; the
largest ghetto at Warsaw rebelled after news that “resettlement” meant death
 people inevitably knew what was going on; few did anything; Raoul Wallenberg of Sweden
provided Hungarian Jews with food and protection; the king of Denmark, when Danish Jews were
ordered to wear yellow starts, wore one himself as a “badge of honor”
 governments under the occupation of Germany implemented anti-Jewish measures as well;
Vichy France exterminated 75,000 Jews without pressure from Germany
 U.S. State Department and British Foreign Office knew about the atrocities, didn’t help
 international tribunal for war crimes met 1945 at German city of Nuremberg to record events
Soviet Union Joins Allies
 Hitler called his new empire the “New Order”
 Hitler wanted to ally Soviet Union, eliminate nations in West, backstab Soviet Union
 June 22, 1941 Germany surprise-attacked the Soviet Union; Germany had experienced war,
Soviet Union soldiers hadn’t and had suffered the Great Purge; Stalin had been warned, but refused
to believe Hitler would attack before 1942, was depressed and didn’t act for days
 Stalin allied with Great Britain, U.S. was giving supplies but not yet fighting, Great Britain and
America had been against the Soviet Union since the Bolshevik revolution in 1917
 Hitler invaded with 3 million soldiers, largest invasion in history
 Hitler went for Leningrad and oil-rich Caucasus in south; massacred Jews of west Russia
 Germans reached Moscow, Soviet Union Red Army prepared to defend it; Soviets burned
anything the Germans might use, Germans burned much in their path as well, scorched earth policy;
especially bitter Russian winter hurt the Germans; Hitler remained optimistic, advisors knew of
realities; General Heinz Guderian reported difficulties of troops in subzero temperatures; one
million German soldiers died, double that in Russians were injured or dead
 Russian troops, under Zhukov launched a counterattack, Germans retreated across the snow
covered land they had burned, similar to what Napoleon had done 130 years ago; Hitler dismissed
generals for retreating, put himself in charge
 Hitler planned a second invasion in summer 1942, went for Stalingrad, gutted the city ending in
hand-to-hand combat; defeated the Germans because of cold again, Battle of Stalingrad finished
February 1943, more than 200,000 Germans died
 Soviets won because 1) large Soviet population; 2) knowledge of Russian weather and terrain;
3) Hitler ignored: Soviet determination to sacrifice everything for the war; Hitler asked the Soviet
“brothers and sisters” to join him in waging the “the Great Patriotic War”, Russians shared same
determination and loyalty to Soviet Union
 Hitler helped Soviet Union by torturing and killing peasants that worked against Stalin; millions
of peasants joined Red Army; women worked in place of men, tractors and horses were fit for war,
women worked by hand
 20 million Russians died, many starved, 10 percent of population, 50 percent of those that died
in the war; left Soviet people afraid of invasion, falsified maps to confuse foreign nations;
Stalingrad, today Volgograd, has tanks, broken buildings, trees left as memorials
United States Joins Allies
 United States was neutral, but providing supplies to Britain and Soviet Union; U.S. Congress in
1941 passed the Lend-Lease Act which allowed the U.S. to provide supplies free of cost
 Japan’s interests: Japan wanted the Allies out of China, Indochina, and Thailand so it could
expand its interests; in September 1940, Japan joined Germany and Italy in the Tripartite Pactpromising mutual support against aggression; Japanese-American relations deteriorated when Japan
invaded Indochina in July 1941 and the U.S. suggested the open door policy; U.S. knew Japan
would attack the U.S., but didn’t know where
 December 7, 1941, Japan struck the American Pacific Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii;
2300 people were killed, eight battleships sunk; worst American lost in a single engagement; the
U.S. immediately entered the war, Japan declares war on U.S. and Britain
 within three months, Japan captured Hong Kong, Malaya, and Singapore from Britain, taking
60,000 prisoners
 Japanese controlled Thailand, defeated the British in Malaya, conquered British Borneo, drove
Dutch from most of Indonesia, pushed Americans from the Philippines, occupied Burma
 U.S. General Douglas MacArthur surrendered the Philippines and promised to return
Germany Declares War on the U.S.
 Germany congratulated Japan, declared war on the U.S. despite loss against Soviet Union;
Hitler already considered the U.S. at war with Germany because it supplied Britain
 U.S. had army smaller than Belgium’s
Ending the War With Germany
 Americans and British disagreed on where to open new theaters; British suggested a move from
North Africa to Italy, was executed in 1942, Italy withdrew from the war in September 1942,
Germans continued fight in Italy
 Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met November 1943 at Tehran, Iran; Roosevelt and Churchill
promised to open a front in France, Stalin promised to help against Japan
 June 6, 1944- Allied troops under American General Dwight D. Eisenhower executed the
largest amphibious assault in history on the beaches of Normandy in northern France, code name
was Operation Overlord; liberated Paris in August; Germans made last attempt at Battle of the
Bulge, which only slowed down the Allied advance; March 1945- Americans crossed Rhine and
entered Germany; Hitler’s own High Command attempted to assassinate him; July 1944- Russians
stormed Berlin; April 30, 1945- Hitler commits suicide in an underground bunker
Japan’s Views and Actions
 Japanese established the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere 1940, lasted til 1945, the
land in east and southeast Asia under Japan; Japanese imagined living in a romanticized society;
 Ba Maw, Burma’s leader, welcomed the Japanese liberators into Burma at the Assembly of the
Greater East Asiatic Nations; Burma later despised the Japan who abused them
 Japan wanted southeast Asia because of its goods
 people in Japanese-controlled areas had to bow when seeing a Japanese person, which was
considered pagan worship by some; Japanese holidays, such as the emperor’s birthday, became CoProsperity Sphere holidays; calendar was set to Japanese calendar
 Japanese were nicer to the Chinese because Asian civilization had its roots in China; but in
1937, Japanese took Nationalist capital of Nanjing, raped 20,000 women, killed 30,000 soldiers and
12,000 civilians
 Japanese didn’t use propaganda to label Westerners inferior; instead, labeled themselves as
people descended from divine origins and with superior morals; wanted to stop Western expansion
into Asia and take their “proper place” as leaders of Asia
 Japanese urged their people to “purify” themselves, something usually called for by religions
instead of governments; Japanese took lives of poverty and were willing to die for the emperor,
unlike Westerners; Life magazine portrayed Americans as racist toward Japanese
Ending War With Japan
 tide began to turn when Japan fails to capture Australia where Australian and American troops
under General Douglas MacArthur defeated Japanese;
 U.S. Marines won at Guadalcanal and months of bloody fighting in the Solomon Islands
 Americans under Admiral Chester Nimitz inflicted permanent damage to the Japanese at
Midway, was Pacific equivalent of the Battle of Stalingrad
 while the Soviet Union launched a program to defeat Germany, Nimitz and MacArthur
conceived a brilliant plan where American land, sea, and air forces worked together to hop from
island to island; took Japanese Island fortresses like Tarawa, and skipped Truk
 by conquering Sapain in November 1944 and Iwo Jima in March 1945, America acquired the
ability to reach Japan with B-29 bombers; summer of 1945- America launched the greatest air
offensive in history, destroying remains of Japanese navy, crippling Japanese industry, and
firebombing major population centers; finished with dropping of atomic bombs at Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
 Japan surrendered September 2, 1945 on battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay
Post World War II
 deaths: 50 million, 50% noncombatants, mostly Europeans, mostly Russians and Poles; highest
level of death and destruction in history
 mass rape: new to war, not seen in WWI; Soviets encouraged rape of German women as
payback; Japanese soldiers raped Chinese as part of spoils of war
 cities were turned to wastelands by aerial bombings; United States was untouched
 United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union- the Big Three, met three times between 1943 and
1945; Tehran in 1943; Yalta in February 1945; Potsdam in July and August 1945
 post-war deals: governments of Germany and Japan were completely abolished, no deals with
the leaders, no negotiations; Germany would disarm and denazify; leaders tried as war criminals;
the Big Three would occupy the parts of Germany, would operate as a single economic unit; Soviet
Union would collect reparations from Germany; United Nations would provide structure for lasting
peace
 Stalin expected to decide the fate of the eastern European nations it had liberated; Big Three
decided that Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland would have pro-Soviet
governments; only war would prevent this; Churchill accepted it, Roosevelt was disappointed
Cold War
 American and Soviet armies met at Elbe River in 1945, greeting each other, waiting for
instructions on how to conduct the peace; United States and Soviet Union were undisputedly the
richest and strongest nations in the world
 United States was militarily superior to the Soviet Union and had a 400 percent greater GNP
 in three years after WWII, “cold war” between communism and capitalism involved no violence
 “iron curtain”- boundaries that separated capitalist from communist states in east Europe
 Soviet Union recognized that U.S. involvement was for economic benefit; U.S. recognized that
Soviet Union wanted control of eastern Europe; Soviet Union refused to allow capitalism in the east
European nations, annexed territories it once had and East Prussia
 in order to contain the USSR, United States created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) in 1949; contained Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal; Greece and Turkey joined 1952, West Germany joined 1955;
Spain joined 1982; provided mutual assistance should any member be attacked.
 General Charles de Gaulle, president of the French Fifth Republic, rejected America’s
domination of Europe, exploded first French atomic bomb in 1960, refused to place French military
under NATO American general who served as Supreme Allied Commander; completely withdrew
from NATO in 1966
 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) 1954 and Baghdad Pact 1955 (Central Treaty
Organization after 1959) were created as well
 1949 USSR created the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, or Comecon, agreements
with eastern European nations; was response to the U.S. Marshall Plan in Western Europe;
Comecon gave USSR power over nations to benefit itself rather than provide aid
 Warsaw Pact created 1955 between USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland, and East Germany; intended to be buffer against NATO forces
Germany
 United States wanted to reconstruct Germany; USSR wanted to use German resources to rebuild
itself after WWII
 Germany was divided into four zones, American, Soviet, British, and French; Allied Control
Commission with members from each nation governed it as a whole, keeping decisions made at
Yalta; the U.S., British, and French zones were administered as a single unit in 1948, had own
currency, Russia felt threatened;
 Berlin was in the Soviet zone, but itself was divided among the four nations; Soviets blockaded
Berlin in 1948; East Berlin- Soviet controlled West Berlin- France, U.S., Britain controlled; Allies
made West Berlin capitalist, airlifted food and supplies there from Allied zones of Germany;
Russians were forced to withdraw from the blockade in 1949
 Germany was separated into the Federal Republic of Germany controlled by America and with
the Christian Democrat Konrad Adenauer as chancellor, and the German Democratic Republic
under Walter Ulbricht who took directions from the USSR (confusing huh?);
 Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania were Soviet dominated in 1947; Czechoslovakia
joined in 1948 and was important
After Stalin’s Death
 Stalin died 1953:
 USSR: struggle for power; people wanted improvements in quality of life and greater freedom;
1956, at the Twentieth Party Congress, Nikita Khrushchev, head of the Communist party, called
Stalin incompetent and cruel, assumed office of premier in 1958
 East Berlin and Poland: rioting suppressed in East Berlin over working conditions, Poland also
rioted and reformed; Wladislaw Gomulka, Communist with nationalist point of view who survived
purges, refused to be stopped, was elected as first secretary of the communist party in Poland
 Hungary: Hungary followed Poland, wanted to leave Warsaw Pact; Imre Nagy, liberal
Communist, took control of the government, attempted to introduce democratic reforms, Soviets
from Moscow came with tanks and troops to restore Soviet control
 West Berlin had better wages and standards of living than East Berlin; people from East Berlin
left to live in West Berlin; 1961 Soviets solved problem by building a defended wall in between,
called the Berlin Wall, 103 miles long
 Czechoslovakia- after Stalin’s death, Alexander Dubcek, Czech party secretary, worked at
making Czechoslovakia more democratic with power in the hands of the people through popular
nationalism, 1968, in no way attempted to defy Soviet leadership; Warsaw Pact sent tanks and
troops to Czecho. and were faced with passive resistance;
 Yugoslavia- Marshal Tito, who fought heroically against the Germans in WWII, resisted the
Soviets and was expelled in 1948 from the Cominform, the Soviet-controlled information agency
that replaced the Comintern in 1943
 Korea- separated into North Korea (communist) and South Korea (capitalist); Japan controlled
Korea until after WII; United States and Untied Nations intervened 1950 when North Korea
attacked South Korea; China, which was communist after the victory of Mao Zedong, also
intervened; after three years, Korea was divided on the 38th parallel in 1953
 Southeast Asia- United States committed to military presence in Indochina when the French
withdrew after defeat at Dien Bien Phu; U.S. believed Southeast Asian nations would fall to
Communism like dominoes (domino theory), therefore intervened in full-scale war (officially only
military action) in Laos and Cambodia against Communist guerrilla forces
 Middle East: after the British and French ended their mandate on the Middle East, the state of
Israel was created 1948 and was aided by the U.S., Egypt and Syria were given Soviet support
against Israel -- Western oil companies relied on Iran 1946, which excluded Soviets, in 1951,
Iranian government tried to evict Westerners and favor Soviets, British blockaded Iranian Trade, the
new Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) put a new shah in power to favor American interests; -1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, nationalist in power by a military coup d’etat in
1952, oversaw nationalization of the Suez Canal; British and French military forces were attacked
and forced to withdraw under pressure by the U.S. and Soviet Union
 Latin America- 1954 CIA plotted overthrow of Guatemala’s regime to keep Soviet influence out
of Western Hemisphere – 1958 Eisenhower sent his V.P. Richard M. Nixon, on tour of Latin
American countries, was not welcomed by public – 1959 revolution in Cuba off coast of Florida,
established Communist regime under middle-class lawyer Fidel Castro – 1962 confrontation
between U.S. and Soviet Union over Soviet missile installations in Cuba; John F. Kennedy and
Nikita Khrushchev pursued peaceful coexistence, came close to mutual annihilation
bold = on list of Key Terms, People and Events
underlined and italicized = on list of New Geographical Locations
underlined = new term, person, event not on list
bold and italicized = on Chapter 29 list of Key Terms, People and Events
bold and underlined = on Chapter 29 list of New Geographical Locations