Download Combination Therapy of HIV Infection

Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
Combination Therapy for HIV Infection and Resistance
Introduction
AIDS was first recognized in 1981 and HIV was identified in 1983. HIV is known
as a type of retrovirus. It is a single stranded RNA virus, which can infect a number of
different cells, including CD4 bearing macrophages and T-helper lymphocytes within the
host. There are several steps in the viral replication, which may be advantage in the
developing antiretroviral therapies such as fusion, reverse transcription, integration,
transcription, translation, assembly and maturation. Form the various potent targets in the
viral replication, an effective arsenal of drugs are developed for inhibit the infection of
HIV and help many people with HIV disease live longer and healthier lives. In early antiHIV treatment, the only drugs available for treating HIV infection, were nucleoside
reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitors. These drugs interfere with the action of specific HIV
enzyme, reverse transcriptase, involved in the replication cycle of HIV. Unfortunately,
HIV rapidly develops resistance to these and other anti-HIV drugs. Researchers have
faced to the problem of drug resistance, which is particularly harmful because of HIV’s
high rate of replication and mutation (1).
These rationales have been used in the design of combination regimens for HIV
infection. The various stages in the viral life cycle have been identified as potential targets
for antiretroviral therapy, therefore combination therapy for HIV usually entails
simultaneous therapy with drugs that have different sites or mechanisms of action (2).
Initially, the treatment of AIDS, by using regimens of multiple anti-HIV drugs, was the
combinations of AZT and other nucleoside analogues such as ddC, ddI, D4T and 3TC. It
was found that the combination of nucleoside analogues was more effective than
treatment with AZT alone. However, HIV develops resistance to these drugs. In 1995,
new drugs called protease inhibitors were approved and revolutionize the treatment of
AIDS (3). The target of these drugs is HIV-protease enzyme. The protease enzyme is
required for the cleavage of viral polyprotein precursors that generates functional proteins
in HIV-infected cells. These drugs slow down or block the action of HIV-protease,
resulting in arrest of the maturation of infectious virus (4). The protease inhibitors are
administered with the reverse transcriptase inhibitors for reducing severity of AIDS. This
combination therapy is known as a highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). It was
found that within two months of beginning the HAART, the viral load drops to
undetectable level (3).
From these rationales, it was interesting to know about the factors contributing to
treatment failure. I will focus on researchers decide to use the regimens of multiple antiHIV drugs, including studies of HIV-drug combination in the population.
Factors contributing to treatment failure
Numerous factors contribute to treatment failure of antiviral therapy, including
limited potency of anti-HIV drugs, poor adherence, pharmacological factors and
continued immunologic deterioration in the face of ongoing virus replication. In the past,
limited antiviral potency was the principal cause of treatment failure. Complete
suppression of HIV-1 replication was rarely achieved when nucleoside reverse
transcriptase (RT) inhibitors were used alone or in combination. In the absence of drug
resistance, failure to completely inhibit HIV-1 with such regimens had adverse
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consequences. Progressive depletion of CD4+ lymphocytes was slowed by partially
suppressive regimens. In some patients, persistent HIV-1 replication leads to the
emergence of more virulent T-cell tropic variants of HIV-1, which are associated with an
accelerated loss of CD4+ lymphocytes and confer a significantly increased risk of disease
progression and death (5).
The success of anti-HIV therapy depends on an individual’s adherence to a
prescribed treatment. Poor adherence can delay the onset of symptoms or the progression
of disease. Factors that contribute to poor adherence are miss timing doses, reducing the
frequency of doses or the number of medications taken and drug toxicity or side effects
(6). The relative short half-life of most anti-HIV drugs requires frequent administration (at
least twice daily) of these drugs. Therefore, the anti-HIV drugs must be taken reliably to
ensure that they reach and are maintained at high enough concentrations in infected cell to
inhibit HIV replication. Missing even a single dose can result in a drop in plasma drug
concentration required to inhibit virus replication and allows the virus to continue
replicating and provides the emergence of drug resistance (Figure 1). Side effects, due to
drug toxicity, can cause patients living with HIV to suffer. They decide to reduce or miss
doses by themselves because they feel reassured that missing doses is relatively harmless
(6). The side effects for each anti-HIV drug are summarized in Table 1 (7).
Table 1. The summary of side effects for each anti-HIV drug.
Drugs
Potential side effects
Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Neutropenia, anemia, nausea, myopathy,
Zidovudine (ZDV)
malaise, headache
Pancreatitis, peripheral neuropathy, diarrhea,
Didanosine (ddI)
abdominal pain, rash
Peripheral neuropathy, pancreatitis, aphthous
Zalcitabine (ddC)
ulcers, anemia, elevated liver enzymes
Peripheral neuropathy, elevated liver
Stavudine (d4T)
enzymes, nausea, diarrhea, myalgia
Lamivudine (3TC)
Mild rash, headache, diarrhea, hair loss
Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Rash, fever, thrombocytopenia, elevated liver
Nevirapine
enzymes
Delavirdine
Rash, fever, elevated liver enzymes
Protease Inhibitors
Saquinavir
Headache, nausea, diarrhea
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, taste disturbance,
Ritonavir
paresthesias, elevated triglycerides
Nephrolithiasis, hyperbilirubinemia, fatigue,
Indinavir
headache
Nelfinavir
Mild diarrhea
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Pharmacological factors also may contribute to treatment failure. Limited
penetration of drug into sanctuary sites such as the central nervous system may permit
rekindling of HIV-1 infection from viral reservoirs even if therapy is effective at
completely suppressing replication of the virus in peripheral lymphoid tissues. For
example, AZT and d4T can get inside the central nervous system but ddI, ddC and 3TC do
not have this ability. Difference in the intracellular metabolism of nucleoside analogues
between resting and activated cells can also account for incomplete suppression of
apparently sensitive viruses. All nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
require activation to their triphosphate forms, which are the actual inhibitors of RT.
Phosphorylation of thymidine analogues such as zidovudine (AZT; ZVD) and stavudine
(D4T) is much more efficient in activated cells as compared to resting cells, whereas nonthymidine analogues such as lamivudine (3TC) and didanosine (ddI) are efficiently
phosphorylated even in resting cells. Drug-drug interactions are another potential cause
of drug failure because they interfere with absorption or enhance elimination of antiviral
agents (5). For example, all protease inhibitors are metabolized by the hepatic cytochrome
P450 system, drugs that induce cytochrome P450 3A4 activity (eg, rifampin and rifabutin)
will reduce drug level of protease inhibitors. In contrast, the increase plasma concentration
of protease inhibitors increases when they are coadministered with ketoconazole (3). The
interaction of anti-HIV drugs and other drugs was summarized in Table 2 (7).
Table 2. Drug interactions between antiretroviral agents and other drugs.
Drugs
Drug interactions
Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Increased risk of neutropenia with
Zidovudine (ZDV)
ganciclovir and TMP-SMX
Buffer affects dapsone, ketoconazole,
protease inhibitors, quinolones (should be
Didanosine (ddI)
taken 2 hours after ddI); ganciclovir increases
ddI levels
Overlapping toxicity with ddI, d4T, and other
Zalcitabine (ddC)
drugs causing peripheral neuropathy
Overlapping toxicity with drugs that cause
Stavudine (d4T)
peripheral neuropathy
Lamivudine (3TC)
TMP-SMX increases 3TC levels
Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Nevirapine
Decreased protease inhibitor levels
Delavirdine
Increased protease inhibitor levels
Protease Inhibitors
Rifabutin, rifampin decrease saquinavir
levels; ketoconazole, itraconazole, ritonavir
Saquinavir
increase saquinavir levels; terfenadine,
astemizole increase risk of arrhythmias
Opiate analgesics, oral contraceptives,
Ritonavir
saquinavir, theophylline, rifampin, rifabutin,
terfenadine, and astemizole may interact with
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Indinavir
Nelfinavir
ritonavir
Ketoconazole increases indinavir levels;
rifabutin, rifampin decrease indinavir levels;
astemizole, terfenadine, cisapride, triazolam
increase risk of arrhythmias
Rifampin, rifabutin decrease nelfinavir
levels; terfenadine, astemizole, cisapride
increase risk of arrhythmias
Drug resistance can be more appropriately termed "altered drug susceptibility." It
is a phenomenon that can occur in vivo and in vitro, in response to the exposure of HIV to
a drug or to a combination of drugs. The high rate of viral replication found throughout
the course of HIV infection and the high frequency of virus mutations occurring during
each replication cycle due to the lack of proofreading mechanisms, are the basis for the
emergence of drug-resistant variants under the selective pressure of antiretroviral drugs.
With daily production of perhaps 108 to 1010 virions and a mutation rate of 3 x 10 -5
nucleotides per replication cycle, it is likely that any single mutation already exists before
any drug is introduced (5,8,9,10). In addition, if two HIV viruses infect the same cell, both
viruses can contribute one strand of RNA to virions produced by that cell (Figure 2).
During the next round of infection, if the reverse transcriptase that carries mutation can
jump from one RNA genome to the other, it can produce a mosaic of two genomes. This
process, called recombination, can allow HIV to spice two partially resistant viruses to
produce a highly resistant virus. These can adapt rapidly to drug selection pressure
through the emergence of drug-resistant variants. This process has substantially limited
the long-term benefit of anti-HIV drugs (9).
Resistance to antiretroviral drugs is determined by mutations in the genes that
encode the protease and reverse transcriptase enzymes. Some mutations selected by
antiretroviral drugs directly affect viral enzymes and cause resistance via decreased drug
binding, whereas others have indirect effects. It is useful to categorize resistance
mutations as primary or secondary (Figure 3). Primary mutations are generally selected
early in the process of resistance mutation accumulation, are relatively inhibitor specific,
and may have a discernible effect on virus drug susceptibility. Secondary mutations
accumulate in viral genomes already containing 1 or more primary mutations. Many
secondary mutations alone have little or no discernible effect on resistance magnitude but
may be selected because they improve viral fitness (ability to replicate) rather than
decrease drug binding to target enzymes (5,11).
The distinction between primary and secondary mutations depicted in Figure 3A
may help explain protease inhibitor cross-resistance. There seems to be little overlap in
primary mutations selected by different protease inhibitors (eg, saquinavir-selected L90M
and G48V; nelfinavir-selected D30N; and amprenavir-selected I50V). By themselves,
these primary mutations may not cause cross-resistance to other protease inhibitors.
However, there is an overlapping spectrum of secondary mutations in the protease gene
selected by all protease inhibitors. Many of the secondary changes are compensatory,
improving fitness of virus containing primary mutations without actually increasing
inhibitor resistance. The mutations may improve enzymatic function by altering protease
catalytic activity or by affecting protease substrates (eg, making sites in gag or other viral
precursor polypeptides more easily cleavable).
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Cross-resistance among NRTIs can be mediated by inhibitor-specific mutations
and less specific secondary mutations, especially among drugs that bind to similar or
adjacent viral target residues (evident for didanosine and zalcitabine, which select for
similar mutations [Figure 3B]). Similarly, the primary mutation commonly selected by
lamivudine confers high-level phenotypic resistance to this drug as well as low-level
phenotypic resistance to didanosine, zalcitabine, and abacavir in vitro. The clinical
significance of cross-resistance among these drugs has not been determined.
The NNRTIs (nevirapine, delavirdine, and efavirenz) select for mutations in 2
different reverse transcriptase regions (codons 98 to 108 and 179 to 190). None of the
mutations overlaps with mutations conferring resistance to NRTIs (Figure 3B). However,
some of the mutations cause broad cross-resistance among all members of the NNRTI
drug class (eg, K103N) (11).
Why does the combination therapy work better than individual therapy?
Scientists and physicians have several reasons for deciding to use multiple
antiretroviral drugs in AIDS’s patients. These are the most important ones:

It can decrease or stop HIV progression. HIV can make new copies of itself inside
infected cell at very fast rate. Every day, billions of new copies of HIV are made. It
also makes millions of infected T-cell die every day. Although, one drug can slow
down the fast rate of infection, two drugs can slow down more (4). Multiple drugs
often have additive or synergistic effects against the inciting infection (2). In 1995,
NIAID started the treatment with combinations of AZT and other nucleoside analogue
RT inhibitors to suppress HIV progression. It was found that combination therapy was
more effective than with AZT alone. From a report of CDC, AIDS deaths in the
United States declined significantly in the past 2 years after the combination regimen
started in 1995 as shown in Figure 4 (1).

Anti-HIV drugs from different drugs can attack the virus in different ways. HIV
is classified in a group of viruses called “retroviruses” (4). The various stages in the
HIV’s life cycle have been identified as potential targets for antiretroviral drugs as
shown in Figure 5 (2,4). The viral reverse transcriptase is a potent target for drugs,
which inhibit this enzyme ability. This enzyme is necessary for HIV to catalyze the
early transcription of RNA into DNA prior to nuclear integration. These drugs
suppress the viral replication. Another important target of anti-HIV drugs is HIV
protease enzyme, which is required for cleaving protein precursors and generating
functional proteins. In the use of these agents, HIV protease can be successfully
blocked, resulting in arrest of the maturation of infection (2). Hitting two targets
increases the probability of HIV suppression and protects new cells from infection.
From the powerful abilities of these drugs, reverse transcriptase inhibitors and
protease inhibitors are often used to work together in the combination regimens as
known in a highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

Different anti-HIV drugs can attack the virus in different types of cells and in
different part of the body. As a result of the strong immune defense from cytotoxic
B and T lymphocytes, the number of viral particles in the blood stream declines.
Little virus can now be found in the bloodstream or in peripheral blood lymphocytes.
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Nevertheless, the virus persists elsewhere, particularly in follicular dendritic cells in
lymph nodes and here viral replication continues. Virus can become trapped in the
follicular dendritic cell network of lymphoid tissues and also in brain tissues. If latent
HIV in these tissues reactive, they can spread into blood stream. The progression of
HIV infection occurs again and might be more violent (12). It was found that some
nucleoside analogues (AZT and d4T) and non-nucleosides analogues (nevirapine) can
get inside spinal cord and brain better than others (13). Besides, the activity of antiHIV drugs after get into cell is important to decline the progression of HIV.
Laboratories studies showed that AZT and d4T worked best in infected cell that are
actively producing new copies of HIV, while the nucleoside ddI, ddC and 3TC worked
best in resting cell (3). Therefore, one of these drugs is used in the combination
therapy for protecting hiding of HIV in these specific tissues.

Combination of anti-HIV drug may overcome or delay resistance. HIV is a
double-stranded RNA virus with an error-prone reverse transcriptase enzyme. Each
time HIV infects a new cell, the reverse transcriptase makes an average of one mutant
base per viral genome, while converting the viral RNA to DNA before integration into
the host cell DNA. Thus, all possible single and double mutants may already exist in
every patient who has prolonged HIV infection (9). When one drug is given by itself,
sooner or later HIV makes the necessary changes to resist that drug. But if two drugs
are given together, it takes longer for HIV to make the changes necessary for
resistance. In the study of Harrigan et al., combination therapy with abacavir plus
zidovusine was more effective in reducing virus load than abacavir monotherapy and
was associated with a lower frequency of mutation at codons K65R, L74V, or M184V
as shown in Figure 6. Mutations, which decrease in HIV susceptibility to abacavir,
were present in most subjects in whom virus suppression was incomplete. Further
more, those with double mutations, in particular the combination of L74V and
M184V, tended to show the greatest reduction in efficacy as measure in virus load
(14).
Combinations of Antiretroviral Drugs
 Combinations of Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
The nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors were the first anti-HIV drugs
available. The combinations of two nucleoside analogues are the best-studied double
therapies for HIV infection such as zidovudine (AZT) plus zalcitabine (ddC) or
didanosine (ddI) (4). Zalcitabine, didanosine and lamivudien (3TC) are used in this
regimen because they lack cross-resistance with zidovudine and had preferential
phosphorylation in resting cells, as opposed to the preferential activity of zidovudine
and stavudien (d4T) in active cells (2). Large studies in the United States, Europe and
Australia showed that AZT plus ddI or AZT plus ddC worked better than AZT alone
(15,16,17). Smaller studies showed that AZT plus 3TC, ddI plus d4T and d4T plus
3TC are effective in lowering amounts of virus in blood and helping raise CD4 cell
count (18,19).
In the United States, NIAID conducted the randomized, double blind, comparative
trial, ACTG 175. 2467 patients with a diagnosis of AIDS and CD4 count between 200
and 500 cell/mm3 were studied. In all pateints, 1067 were antiretroviral therapy naïve
and the remainders were AZT experienced. Subjects were randomized to receive AZT
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monotherapy (600 mg daily), ddI monotherapy (400 mg daily) and AZT plus ddI or
AZT plus ddC (2.25 mg daily) at standard doses. The primary end points were a 50%
decline in CD4 count, an AIDS-defining event, or death. The mean follow up was 143
weeks. It was found that the major endpoints in either of combination therapy were
similar in AZT and ddI monotherapy. Overall, the combination of AZT plus ddI and
AZT plus ddC were significantly more effective than AZT monotherapy as shown in
Figure 7 (15).
In NUCA 3001, 366 zidovidine-naïve patients (CD4 counts of 200-500 cells/mm3)
were randomized to receive either 300 mg lamividine bid, 600 mg zidovidine /day or
combinations of either high dose (300 mg bid) or low dose (150 mg bid) lamividine
with standard dose of zidovidine (200 mg tid). With in 4 weeks, both combinations
produced a 1.5 log reductionin viral RNA versus a 1.2 log reduction with lamividine
and a 0.5 log reduction with zidovidine monotherapy. The CD4 counts of patients
receiving combination drugs also increased greater than monotherapy (18).
In Thailand, there are several studies about the combinations of NRTs in Thai HIV
infected population (20,21). Thai Red Cross Research Center and Siriraj Hospital
conducted a randomized, open-label, comparative trial of AZT/3TC versus
AZT/3TC/ddI in 106 antiretroviral naïve HIV-1 patients. In this study, the treatment
was divided in 2 arms; first, AZT 300 mg plus 3TC 150 mg bid; second, AZT 300 mg
plus 3TC 150 mg plus ddI 200 mg bid and the endpoint was a suppression of plasma
HIV-RNA from baseline including changes in CD4 cell count. Reduction in viral load
was significantly greater in the AZT plus 3TC plus ddI arm compared to the AZT plus
3TC (21).
It can conclude that the different activity of each nucleoside analogue is used to
design the combination therapy for HIV infection. Drugs effecting in active infected
cells are often administered with drugs effecting in resting cells such as the
combination of AZT and ddI or d4T and 3TC. Several large studies in the Unite
Stated, Europe and Thailand showed high antiviral efficacy of the combination
therapy of nucleoside analogues in treatment-naïve AIDS patients and treatmentexperience AIDS patients. It was found that plasma CD4 cell level increases and
plasma HIV-RNA level decrease in both AIDS patients groups after treatment with the
combination of nucleoside analogues.
 Combinations of Nucleoside Analogues and Non-Nucleoside Reverse
Transcriptase Inhibitors
Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) (Nevirapine,
Delavirdine and Efavirenz) can selectively inhibit HIV-1 at nanomolar concentration.
The NNRTIs have rapid effect on HIV viral load and CD4 count whereas resistance
and loss of activity quickly ensue. The NNRTIs are synergistic with zidovidine and
other nucleoside analogues and are active against zidovudine resistant HIV-1 isolated.
However, the co-administration of zidovudine does not prevent or delay the
emergence of NNRIs resistant virus, although it may reduce the degree of resistance in
some cases (2).
The INCAS study compared treatment with AZT plus ddI with or without
nevirapine or AZT plus nevirapine in 151 antiretroviral-naïve patients with CD4
counts 200-600 cell/mm3. At 24 weeks of treatment, mean viral load changes were
1.65 log in the triple therapy versus 1.3 log in the AZT plus ddI and 0.4 log in the
AZT plus nevirapine. Plasma HIV-RNA levels had been reduced to less than 500
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
copies/ml in 60% of patients in the triple therapy group and in 30% of patients in the
AZT plus ddI group (3).
Stuart and collegues studied the safety and antiviral efficacy of a novel
combination consisting of efavirenz, nelfinavir and one or more nucleoside reversetranscriptase inhibitors in children. 57 chlidren with CD4 cell counts 699 cell/mm3 and
HIV-RNA 10,000 copies/ml plasma were treated with combinations of NNRTIs and
nucleoside analogues. In an intention-to-treat analysis, 76 % of children had plasma
HIV-RNA level of less than 400 copies/ml after 48 weeks of the therapy and 63% had
levels of less than 50 copies/ml (22).
Staszewski and collegues compared efavirenz and indinavir, both in combination
with two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in HIV-1 infected adults. In an
open-label study, 450 antiretroviral-naïve patients were randomly assigned to one of
three regimens: efavirenz (600mg daily) plus zidovudine (300 mg twice daily) and
lamivudine (150 mg twice daily); the protease inhibitors indinavir (800mg every 8
hours) plus zidovudine and lamivudine or efavirenz plus indinavir (100mg every 8
hours). In the intention-to-treat analysis, the regimen of efavirenz, zidovudine and
lamivudine was proved to be more effective in adults than the standard highly active
antiretroviral therapy regimen (indinavir, zidovudine and lamivudine). The each time
point in reducing the viral load to less than 50 HIV-RNA copies/ml was shown in
Figure 8 (23).
According to the same target as nucleoside analogues, non-nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors are administered with nucleoside analogues. The synergistic
effect can inhibit the replication of HIV. Several studies showed the combination of
two nucleoside analogues and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor could
decrease plasma HIV-RNA level.
 Combinations of Protease Inhibitors with Nucleoside Analogues and/or
Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Because of the rapid resistance of HIV to NRTIs and NNRTIs, the HIV protease
enzyme is a new potential target for antiretroviral therapy. Inhibition of protease
activity in vitro causes generation of immature non-infectious virus and interruption of
viral spread. The protease inhibitor was first approved in 1995 (3). Saquinavir was the
first protease inhibitor to be licensed by FDA for use in combination with nucleoside
analogue therapy in the treatment of HIV infection. Other agents, such as ritonavir and
indinavir, which have also been designed specifically to mimic the binding site of the
protease enzyme are of even greater potency than saquinavir (2).
Several studies in the United Stated and Europe showed the beneficial effect of
protease inhibitors when were used with other anti-HIV drugs (24,25,26). In the
United States, NIAID conducted a 24-week trial comparing the combinations of
zidovudine and zalcitabine or zidovudine and saquinavir to the triple combination of
zidovudine, zalcitabine and saquinavir, also known as ACTG 229. The study included
302 patients who had been on zidovudine therapy for almost 2 years. The triple
combination was associated with greater increase in CD4 cell counts and larger
reductions in viral load than the former regimen. At 24 week, the CD4 cell counts of
the patients receiving the triple combination returned to baseline level, compared with
37% of the saquinavir and zidovudine patients and 55% of those receiving zidovudine
and zalcitabine (25).
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
In a Swiss cohort study, Opravil and his colleagues assessed the effect of antiretroviral therapy on cell-free and cell-associated load in blood and lymphoid tissues
(27). The effect of double drugs, zidovudine (2300 mg/day) plus laminvudine (2150
mg/day), was compared with the effect of triple drugs, zidovudine plus laminvudine
plus ritonavir (2600 mg/day), in treatment-naïve, asymptomatic patients with CD4
count > 400 cells/μl. The end points were HIV-RNA concentration in plasma,
peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and sequential tonsil or lymph node. At
24 weeks, the proportion with plasma HIV-RNA <50 copies/ml was 16% and 74%
among 42 randomized patients (Figure 9). Similary in plasma, cell-associated HIVRNA decreased sharply by approximately 1.3 log10 copies/ml in PBMC and 1.7 log10
copies/ml in the lymphoid tissue in patients on triple therapy. These decreases were
less pronounced in patients on double therapy (0.5 log 10 copies/ml).
Indinavir has been studied at various doses and dosing schedules and has been
shown to exert a clear dose response in term of antiviral activity and immunologic
effect. In Hirsch et al., a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of indinavir,
zidovudine and lamivudine was conducted in 320 adults with HIV-1, 50 CD4
cells/mm3 and extensive prior zidovudine therapy. Patients received indinavir, 800 mg
every 8 hour; zidovudine, 200 mg every 8 hour, and lamivudine, 150 mg twice daily
or all 3 drugs for 24 weeks. At week 24, patients in the indinavir, zidovudine and
lamivudine group had the greatest mean decrease in plasma HIV RNA level and mean
increase in plasma CD4 cell count as shown in figure 10 and 11 (28).
It can summarize that the combination of protease inhibitors and reverse
transcriptase inhibotrs has higher efficacy on the inhibition of HIV replication because
they can inhibit the activity of HIV reverse transcriptase and protease. Several studies
showed that the combination of protease inhibitors and reverse transcriptase inhibitors
can suppress the HIV replication.
Conclusion
The potent antiretroviral regimens now available have proven capable of effecting
a dramatic suppression of HIV viral replication and a delay in the emergence of drug
resistance. Clinical end point studies showed the potential benefit of NRTIs combination in intermediate-stage
HIV infection and in treatment-naive individual. The triple drugs (protease inhibitors plus reverse transcriptase
inhibitors) have the clinical benefit in late-stage HIV infection. However, side effects, high cost, large number of
pills, complicated dosing schedules and drug resistance can make poor adherence in the HAART regimen.
Therefore, it is necessary to develop more potent therapies that have low cost, fewer toxic effects and are easier to
administer such as vaccine, fusion inhibitors.
________________________________________________________________________
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
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T, Walker A. Zidovudine (AZT) versus AZT plus didanosine (ddI) versus AZT plus
zalcitabine (ddC) in HIV infected adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; 2:
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Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
18. Eron JJ, Benoit SL, Jemsek J. Treatment with lamivudine, zidovudine, or both in HIV
positive patients with 200 to 500 CD4+ cells per cubic millimeter. N J Med 1995; 333:
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19. Monno L, Cargnel A, Soranzo ML, Chirianni A, Ferraro T, Di Stefano M, Angarano
G. Comparition of one and twice daily dosing of didanosine in combination with
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4(4): 195-202. Abstract.
20. Satasit P, Kunanusont C, Phoolhaburi W. An effectiveness trial comparing AZT/ddI to
AZT/ddC in Thailand. Int Conf AIDS 1998; 12: 822. Abstract 131/42244
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Newell M, Lange J MA, Cooper DA. A randomized, open-label, comparative trial of
AZT/3TC versus AZT/3TC/ddI in antiretroviral naïve HIV-1 infected Thai patients.
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Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
Question & Answer

When should the antiretroviral therapy start?
Most experts recommend starting antiretroviral therapy if you have significant
symptoms related to HIV disease, if your CD4 cell ("T-cell") count is less than 500, or
if your viral load titer (level of virus in blood) is more than 5,000 to 10,000.
There is ongoing debate about the best course of action if viral load is between
5,000 and 10,000 and patients have no symptoms and a normal CD4 count. Doctor may
recommend either starting therapy or monitoring the CD4 count and viral load titer
every three months off of therapy.

What agents should be used?
In general, a combination of two NRTIs and a PI is recommended. Examples of
such a regimen include AZT/ddI/nelfinavir and d4T/3TC/indinavir. Occasionally other
types of combinations, such as two NRTIs and an NNRTI or dual protease inhibitor
therapy, may be suggested. An example of the former regimen is AZT/3TC/efavirenz,
and an example of the latter is saquinavir/ritonavir. Decisions about which agents to
use should be based not only on their effectiveness but also on their potential side
effects and patient’s ability to take them reliably.

How should patients be monitored when on antiretroviral therapy?
Before starting combination antiretroviral therapy, doctor will perform baseline
laboratory studies, including a complete blood count, chemistries, CD4 count, and viral
load titer. These laboratory studies will be repeated about four weeks later. An effective
regimen should lower the viral load significantly, gradually raise the CD4 count, and
not cause important side effects or laboratory abnormalities. If an antiretroviral
regimen is successful, it will be continued, with laboratory studies repeated every three
to four months thereafter. The roles of genotypic testing (profile of virus mutations)
and phenotypic testing (profile of virus resistance pattern to drugs) in clinical care have
yet to be determined.

When should an antiretroviral regimen be changed?
The combination of antiretroviral drugs should be changed if patients are
experiencing serious side effects, if viral load titer is rising and CD4 count is dropping,
or if patients develop significant new complications of HIV disease.

What new drug combination should patients receive?
There are no firm recommendations for modifying antiretroviral treatments that
are not working. However, there are some generally accepted rules for doing so based
upon an understanding of HIV pathophysiology. These include: 1) changing at least
two agents at the same time; and 2) choosing drugs that are unlikely to share crossresistance with current ones. Cross-resistance refers to when a viral strain resistant to
one drug is also resistant to another.
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Figure 1. The importance of regular dosing. As drug levels in the body drop, due to missed or delayed
dosing, replication and mutation takes place. Mutations lead to drug resistance, which increases the amount
of drug needed to prevent replication (IC100). The time spent when the body’s drug concentration is lower
than the IC100 therefore increases, allowing replication to continue for longer. Eventually, the IC100 will
rise above the maximum drug concentration in the body and the drug will have no affect on viral
replication..(6)
Figure 2. A highly drug resistant viral strain can emerge through recombination.
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
Figure 3. The most common human immunodeficiency virus 1 mutations selected by protease
inhibitors (A), and nucleoside and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (B). For each
amino acid residue listed, the letter above the listing indicates the amino acid associated with the
wild-type virus. The italicized letter below the residue indicates the substitution that confers drug
resistance. The drug-selected mutations are categorized as "primary" (black bars) or "secondary"
(white bars). (The black-and-white bar indicates a mutation selected in vitro, but rarely seen in
specimens from patients in whom therapy fails.) Primary mutations generally decrease inhibitor
binding and are the first mutations selected. For indinavir, the mutations listed as primary may not
be the first mutations selected, but they are selected in most patients' isolates in combination with
other mutations. For zalcitabine, all mutations are listed as secondary because of inadequate
clinical data to determine a common initial mutation. For nevirapine and delavirdine, each
mutation can occur as either an initial or subsequent mutation and affect inhibitor binding. The
asterisk indicates that the mutation has been reported in vitro, but relevance for clinical drug
failure is uncertain. Amino acid abbreviations are as follows: A, alanine; C, cysteine; D, aspartate;
E, glutamate; F, phenylalanine; G, glycine; H, histidine; I, isoleucine; K, lysine; L, leucine; M,
methionine; N, asparagine; P, proline; Q, glutamine; R, arginine; S, serine; T, threonine; V, valine;
W, tryptophan; Y, tyrosine. Multinucleoside resistance viruses have phenotypic resistance to most
nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors.
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
50
AIDS Deaths ( x 1000)
40
30
20
10
0
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
Figure 4. The AIDS death includes deaths for all ages, races and both gender since 1987.
Figure 5. Nucleoside and non-nucleoside drugs interfere with the action of an HIV enzyme called
reverse transcriptase, just after HIV enters a cell. Reverse transcriptase is necessary for HIV to
change its genetic material into a form that gets inside the cell nucleus, where it becomes part of
the cell's genetic material and makes long chains of proteins. The HIV enzyme protease cleaves
these long chains into short chains. Short protein chains are needed to form active new copies of
HIV. Protease inhibitors stop protease from cutting up the long chain of proteins. As a results, the
new copies of HIV are empty an can’t go on to infect new cells.
Ormrat Kampeerawipakorn
Figure 6. Virus load responses in human immunodeficiency virus type 1infected subjects shown as
percentage of maximal observable drop to limit of detection (400 RNA copies/mL) at 12 weeks (y
axis) in relation to treatment arm (12 weeks of abacavir monotherapy or 4 weeks of abacavir
monotherapy followed by 8 weeks of abacavir/zidovudine combination therapy) compliance and
development of abacavir mutations. *Abacavir dose reductions of any duration >24 h; filled bars,
presence of abacavir mutations; ND, not determined; WT, wild type.
50% decline CD4 counts (%)
50
38
40
30
27
26
23
22
17
14
20
10
10
0
AZT
ddI
AZT+ddI
AZT+ddC
Treatment
Treatment-naive volunteers
Treatment-experienced volunteers
Figure 7. The 50% decline CD4 cell counts in volunteers in ACTG 175 after treating with monotherapy and
combinations of NRTIs
Efavirenz+AZT
+3TC
Enfavirenz+IDV
Efavirenz+3TC+IDV
Percent with HIV-1 RNA Level of <400 copies/ml
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100
80
60
40
20
0
0
2
4
8
12
16
20
24
36
48
Week
Efavirenz+zidovudine and lamivudine
Efavirenz+indinavir
Efavirenz+indinavir and lamivudine
Figure 8. Percentage of patients with plasma HIV-RNA levels of less than 400 copies per
milliliter among efavirenz plus AZT and 3TC group, enfavirenz plus indinavir group and
efavirenz plus 3TC plus indinavir group.
Proportion of Patients with RNA <50 cop./ml
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
AZT+ 3TC
0.4
AZT + 3TC + RTV
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
4
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
Weeks
Figure 9. Proportion of patients with serum HIV-1 RNA in the AZT/3TC/RTV group compared
with the AZT/3TC group.
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Figure 10. Mean changes from baseline in serum human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) RNA levels.
Figure 11. Mean changes from baseline in serum CD4 cell count levels
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