Download Aaron Feuer November 6, 2006 Chapter 13 Notes – October

Aaron Feuer
November 6, 2006
Chapter 13 Notes – October-November 2006
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Written on Board | possible fill-in-the-blank answer | listed as a key term on paper |* good pop/essay topic
Vulgate Bible –first bible edition, by Saint Jerome in 4th century
sola scriptura – by the scriptures (Word of God) alone – scriptures are important
o people now focused on the Bible and studied it together
Printing Press – perfected by Johannes Gutenberg, whose first run was of Bibles
o Movable Type Printing – you can reuse cutouts, developed in China, perfected in EU by Gutenberg
o Developed because people needed copies of manuscripts and traditional printing was too expensive
 People experimented with movable type and paper made the press possible
o Enabled everyone to get a copy of the bible, so they could assess it for themselves without relying on blind
faith in the interpretations of the priest
 Could priests could refer directly to the text for their sermons and messages
o Rise of vernacular languages – bibles could be printed in lots of different local languages because there now
was an audience for the translations
o Caused a renewed interest in spirituality now that everything focused on the power of the individual to
analyze the bible, and lay people could get together and write commentaries
 People realized that many of the accepted church practices were not in the Bible
 Priest became less special and become more like common people now that the average person
could also interpret the bible; clergy began to lose special privileges like lack of taxation, and the
common people were OK with that because they were jealous anyways
o Increased literacy, because now more people could afford reading material and had an incentive to be
literate
o Ideas could also spread quickly in Europe and reach the common person
 1/3 of all books in 1518-1525 were written by Luther
 Erasmus was another bestselling author
o Law could now be compiled and distributed to everyone so it would be evenly enforced
o Spread ideas about the new world and maps
Cicero – classical author with most printed books in 1500s
Christian Humanism – the application of humanist ideas to theology and Christianity
o Aimed to produce better Christians though better education
Thomas More – executed in England because he was Catholic under Henry VIII
o His “Utopia” described a perfect society with no social classes or distinctions among people; 7 deadly sins
were abolished and it was the perfect Christian society – it was a nowhere that could not exist
o Educated his daughters
Vives – Spanish humanist who wrote “Instruction of a Christian Woman”, a handbook for women of elite orders,
commissioned by Catherine of Aragon
Scholasticism – study of biblical texts through generations of commentary
Desiderius Erasmus – raised in catholic school and spent time in monastery
o Learned techniques for education children in classical stuff and Christian morals
o Also very interested in education of women, dedicated books to female patrons/scholars
o “In Praise of Folly” – satire of conversations with Thomas More -criticized church esp. indulgences
o Wrote how-to books
Marguerite of Navarre – sister of Francis I, writer, interceded on behalf of French humanists and Lutherans who got
on wrong side of Church authorities – created own court in France with humanist works – “Mirror of the Sinful Soul”
inspired female reformers and was translated into English by Elizabeth I
d'Étaples –French humanist who worked to establish the university of France
Polyglot Bible –literally “many languages” – led by Cisneros
o for Old Testament, had Hebrew, Latin Vulgate, and Greek
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o for New Testament, had Latin Vulgate and Greek
o finally allowed people to analyze religion for themselves and determine if Church interpreted it correctly
Simony – selling church offices / income streams
Nepotism – powerful church leaders’ relatives got offices, not the most qualified people
Pluralism –clergyman got more revenue streams and offices than they could handle
chantries – shrine, temple, chapel, etc. where prayers would be said
penance – the performance of acts of contrition assigned after confession; cleansed sins
o Good works – what Christians are supposed to do in addition to confession as part of penance
indulgences – a portion of the “Treasury of Merit” and effectively was used in place of penance (though it was
supposed to only supplement penance) – became pardons for sins sold by church – printing presses made them
cheaper to produce
contrite, contrition– describes sinners who repent for their sins, state of being …
Wittenberg – where Luther was from and where he posted the Ninety-Five Theses
Prince Albert of Brandenburg – assigned by pope to sell infamous indulgence to finance St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
o Johan Tetzel – hired to preach benefits of said indulgence, who kind of misled followers about its power,
and people thought they were buying unconditional remission of sin
Frederick III “the Wise” of Saxony – owned one of largest relic collections, banned sale of this papal indulgence
o Often intervened to protect Luther, one of 7 HRE electors
Martin Luther – professor at Wittenberg University - posted on the Wittenberg Castle Church:
o Ninety-five Theses – documents attacking sale of indulgences – posted on 10/31/1517
o Also, a priest at castle church; widely respected
o Saint Paul – inspired Martin Luther about:
 Justification by faith alone – sola fide – eternal salvation came from faith in God’s goodness, not
doing good works; sin was present and inescapable
 Challenged the necessity of the Church, whose primary purpose was to do these works e.g.
sacraments and acts of charity and devotion
o Scripture/Bible – only thing needed to understand god is the Word of God – sola scriptura
o Believed in equality of all followers, so priests were not more special than lay people
o Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation – Luther calls German princes to take reform of
religion into their own hands – 1520 – one of main reasons Luther became a fugitive
o Instructed rebels to lay down arms and succumb to law of the land, quoting the bible
o 1/3 of books printed at a certain time were authored by him
Pope Leo X – excommunicated Luther when he wouldn’t recant views
Emperor Charles V – asked Luther to recant views than ordered him to appear at the:
o Diet of Worms – assembly where Luther refuses to recant his views
o Declared Luther and outlaw and enemy of the empire, esp. for his book to German Princes
 After Luther died, people suggested that he exhume him and burn him, but Charles decided to not
wage war on a dead man
Lutheranism – the religion based on Luther’s ideas – branch of Protestantism
Protestantism –the religious movement and dissent from Church that Luther inspired
Germany –where Protestantism began and blossomed from
The Lutheran Reformation – inspired by Luther, movement aimed at reforming church
Anticlericalism – feelings against the clergy, supported by Luther’s belief that the clergy was equal to the people
o In England, some people refused to pay priests for their services
Mary of Hungary – in HRE – sister of Charles V and Ferdinand I, queen of Hungary and later regent of Netherlands
o Acted as patron to Hungarian reformers, although she was more humanist than protestant
o Infuriated her bros.
Bona –wife of Sigismund I of Poland – important in Eastern reform – spread Renaissance and humanist ideas to
Poland and initiated agricultural and economic reforms – personal confessor was a leading protestant
Family life – became focus for Protestants now that faith not the Church was required for eternal salvation
Teutonic Knights –established Lutheran services that were influential in Baltic
Gdansk – port city seized by Lutheran followers
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Christian III of Denmark –impressed by Luther @ Worms, so he confiscated church lands and created a reformed
religion under Luther’s supervision in Denmark
Petri –studied in Wittenberg and trained as a humanist; translated bible into Swedish
Gustav I Vasa –led uprising against Danes, became king of Sweden, encourage spread of Protestant ideas
Jan Hus – Hussitism – condemned by church bad was the main religion in most of bohemia
o Agreed with Luther than pope or kings cannot alter God’s word and implemented many of Luther’s reforms
like vernacular services, but disagreed on most else and rejected justification by faith alone
Hussites – main religion in most of Bohemia, included many of Luther’s reforms including mass and Bible in
vernacular (Czech) – wine + bread at communion - shared Lutheran belief that clergy could not alter God’s word or
preempt / add to the bible.
Zwingli – brought reformed religion to Zurich – preacher for mercenaries – met Erasmus – influenced by Luther and
his defiance of pope – stricken by pope and came to life-and-death realizations
o Marburg – where Luther and Zwingli met to see if they could reconcile their differences; they couldn’t
o Believed that church had to revert to its former purity and reverse recent corruption
o Stressed equality of all believers, justification by only faith, and the sole authority of scriptures
 Same top 3 as Luther
o Condemned indulgences, penance, clerical celibacy, prayers to Virgin and use of images
o Believed that mass did not involve real presence of Christ, renamed Mass “Lord’s Supper”
o His views were adopted by Zurich’s town council
o His ideas spread, and his ideas for a simple unadorned rituals were popular
o Stressed unification of church and state, used Protestantism to militarily ally Swiss towns
 Believed that civil government was divine by nature
Protestant Reformation – originally people just wanted to reform church, but eventually it became clear that they’d
have to reject the Catholic church
o people had to not just criticize old ideas: they had to create a viable new structure
Geneva – jointly ruled by Duchy of Savoy and Catholic bishop; also had town council that struggled with bishop;
council confiscated church lands and evicted bishop, so war with Savoy followed
o Survived because they allied with Bern, a strong military power, and Zwingli made Bern protestant
o Had strong protestant sentiments but no religious leader to manifest them
John Calvin – humanist Lutheran priest who became a lawyer – in France protestants were persecuted, and his close
friend was executed – travel was dangerous, but he ended up in Geneva
o Farel - one of Geneva’s leading protestant reformers who convinced Calvin to remain in Geneva
o Reformed Geneva church, implemented church structure and discipline, believed that salvation came from
God’s grace
o Predestination – Calvin believed that salvation or damnation was determined at birth
o “The Elect of God” – who Calvin believed would go to Heaven and were obliged to govern; everyone else
was condemned to hell and should be governed
o Structured church in four parts:
 Pastors preached Word of God to congregants
 Doctors – studied and wrote, scholars who taught the pastors; Calvin was initially only doctor, but
he established U. of Geneva to educate and train more doctors
 Deacons – lay people who ran social welfare institutions of the churches, incl. hospitals and schools
 Elders [of the Church] –moral governors in Calvinism, controversial, enforced Calvin’s moral code
 Consistory – body of elders and pastors that met weekly to examine violations on gods laws
and asses punishments, including excommunication for harshest offences
o Calvin’s Geneva church became a model for reforms across Europe
o Services were segregated and organized by rank, but people could rise ranks
o Appealed to townsman because it endorsed making money by working
Henry VIII - 2nd born son, entered clergy initially but renounced vows to assume the throne when his bro dies
o “Defender of the Faith” – title he gets for persecuting Lutherans as heretics
o Wants to marry his bro’s wife Catherine of Aragon but is prohibited by Canon Law, so he seeks a Papal
Dispensation and gets it
o
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Has Mary with Catherine, but wants divorce with her on the grounds that they should never have married in
the first place (but really because she birthed no male heirs)
o She was Charles V’s aunt, he took her side, Italy was strong so pope didn’t really care to help Henry
 Also, papal infallibility says that pope cannot be
Henry already impregnated Anne Boleyn so the marriage would have to be legit for him to be heir
o Parliament legislated to prevent papal interference
o Thomas Cranmer – archbishop of Canterbury, annulled first marriage and married Anne to Henry
 Executed under Mary I
o Act of Supremacy - Parliament made Henry VIII head of Church of England (Anglican Church), making him
wealthy; ironically Church of England uses Lutheran services
o Anne Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth I
o Henry accuses her of adultery and she is executed
o Wife #3 Jane Seymour dies while giving birth to Edward VI
Bilney – protestant killed by Henry VIII when Henry was attacking Lutheranism
Tyndale – wrote first English translation of New Testament – smuggled it into England
Thomas Cromwell – helped sponsor Lutheran reforms, proposed legislation that created Church of England
English Reformation – Church of England established to replace Roman Catholic Church in Britain
o Church lands confiscated and distributed to nobles
Edward VI – 1547-1553 made major doctrinal changes to Anglican Church:
o Abolished chantries, masses for the dead, services were in English, mass->Lord’s Supper, priest->minister
o Preaching became center of service, scholars reformed and examined clergy
o Protestant
Pilgrimage of Grace – in 1536, people who didn’t acknowledge Henry VIII’s church rebelled but were suppressed by
Henry VIII
Mary I – Catholic – married Philip II of Spain England was protestant and wouldn’t recognize her as a legitimate
heir, so she reestablished Papal sovereignty and brought England back to Catholicism because they never
acknowledged her parents’ annulment so she was still a legitimate child and heir – a.k.a. Mary Tudor
o Got name “Bloody Mary” for killing lots of Protestants
Marian Exiles – Protestants (Lutherans) who fled to Switzerland to escape Mary I and were influenced by Calvinism
there; they returned to England under Elizabeth and influenced her church
Elizabeth I – Protestant – succeeded Mary I and reversed her changes so that:
o Imagery is limited in church, incl. of Virgin Mary
o Services now in English
o Priest can marry
o Against Elizabeth’s wishes, Calvinist predestination appeared
o Mary Queen of Scots – Henry VII’s niece, Catholic, married into Scottish line – Catholics wanted her to
succeed Mary I
 Executed by Elizabeth
o Violently suppressed dissent but didn’t get “bloody” nickname because “victors write history”
o Known as “Virgin Queen” because she has no kids and ends Tudor line
 James Stewart – Mary of Scot’s son who gets throne after Elizabeth dies and starts Stewart Dynasty
Philip II – Catholic, after wife Mary dies he proposed to Elizabeth. She doesn’t want to marry him, but she has no
choice because if she says “no” he will invade. So, Elizabeth says “maybe,” but Philip II realizes that its effectively no
when Elizabeth executes Mary of Scots and he invades England but fails
Thirty-Nine Articles – discussed/disputed doctrine and made compromises – established tenets of Anglican church
and difference with other churches
Anabaptist
o Inaccurately used a term of abuse against extreme groups; persecuted by Catholics and Protestants alike
o Believed strongly in justification by faith alone so they thought that only true believers should be baptized,
so they wanted adult baptism
 All other sects believed in infant baptism because of the bible and because infant mortality was high
and only baptized babies could go to heaven
o Amish began as Anabaptists
o
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Other extremist sects thought that everyone who wasn’t devout should be expelled from church, while
some refused to accept secular authority or had weird biblical interpretations
Hubmaier and Hutter – spread Anabaptism to Moravia in Bohemia and converted a number of nobility
Moravian Brethren – Anabaptist? Sect in Moravia – Moravian church? (TODO)
Menno Simons – Dutch Anabaptist who founded the Mennonites
Catholic Reformation – Catholic efforts to reform the Catholic church rather than branching off
New Piety – the Catholic spiritual movement for individual fulfillment influenced by the Protestants
o Acknowledges overemphasis on material things and set out to simplify practices. Main advocates:
 Cisneros, Colet, and Giberti
Brethren of the Common Life – lay organization in Germany that stressed personal meditation on life of Jesus
o Imitation of Christ – book by Thomas à Kempis that was most influential spiritual work of age
o Taught that Christians should follow Jesus’ dictates from the Sermon on the Mount
o Emphasized a simple ascetic life with personal devotion at the core
Jiménez de Cisneros - worked to establish University of Alcala in Spain – Cardinal – Archbishop of Toledo and
Primate of Spain – organized the creation of the Polyglot Bible
o Initiated reforms in Spain and emphasized that priests must explain gospel to congregations
o Inquisitor-general of the Spanish Inquisition
Colet – greatest educational reformer in England, dean of St Paul’s, London’s cathedral church
Gian Giberti of Verona – believed that a bishop had to be a pastor not just an admin: visited churches in his area and
used his life as an example to enforce vows – founded charities for the poor and established a printing press
Capuchins – religious order founded by peasant de Bascio – followed strict rule of life of St. Francis of Assisi
o Helped the poor and plague victims; did lots of good works
o Accept life of extreme poverty
Theatines – a group of well-off Italian priests decided to live a more austere life in the traditional fashion
o Accepted life of extreme poverty with begging only as a last resort
o Had a small house in Rome that became an intellectual center and nurtured 2 popes
Saint Teresa of Ávila – had mystical visions and entered a convent
o Organized dozens of religious houses and convents for women
o Carmelite order - Revitalized and reformed by her, who founded first institution for nuns in this order
Ursuline order –established by Merici – composed of young unmarried girls who remained with their families but
lived chaste lives devoted to instruction of other women – center on education of women
o Rejected cloistering of women and the monastic life
Ignatius Loyola – Spanish solder who was injured and was inspired by Christian books to become spiritual
o Renounced worldly good, accepted abstinence, deprived himself of food and sleep, prayed for 7 hours daily
o The Spiritual Exercises – a book for Catholic devotion explaining techniques Loyola used
Society of Jesus / Jesuits – Catholic order Loyola established with his priest-friends; still exists today
o Emphasized education and had rigorous schools to train priests; most Catholic schools today are Jesuit
o Xavier –sent to Portugal where he embarked for the East and converted people in Portugese Eastern trading
cities to Catholicism
Counter-Reformation - Church’s aggressive campaign to meet Protestantism head-on, repel it, and reverse impact
o Church Militant – term for this aggressive campaign?
o Revived the inquisition
o Index of Prohibited Books – established as a list of works that good Catholics shouldn’t read
Ferdinand I – king of Bohemia – wanted: bring Hussites back into the fold, both kinds of communion, priest marry
Council of Trent – mtg. from 1545-1563 in Trent, an Italian city under HRE control
o >2/3 of delegates were from Italy
o Correct abuses and made reforms:
 Banned sale of indulgences
 Developed better regulations for parish priests
 Inspired by the Jesuits, ordered for seminaries on every diocese where there was not already a
university so that priests can study
 Seminary – theological school for training priests
 Updated Index to include all Protestant writings
Papacy effectively won by making no major concessions to Protestantism
 Justifications by faith and works –Scripture and Church tradition are important – reaffirmed
 Confirmed Vulgate as only acceptable Bible text
o Clearly defined doctrine to try to eliminate debate and confusion; polarized Catholics vs. Protestants
France – Catholic but supported protestants for political reasons
Peace of Augsburg – emperor conceded to princes and allowed them to choose their religion
Edict of Worms – made Martin Luther an outlaw
Sects – terms for the different religious groups under Christianity
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DIGRESSION ABOUT REBELLION: p450-1
 Peasants War – name of peasant uprisings in Germany, inspired by Reformation supported by Zwingli and:
o Müntzer - led +supported peasant revolts, preached in places like Frankenhausen
 Thuringia(n) – peasant army in 1525 had surprising success overpowering feudal lords
o army merged everyone into a common league but they all had different desires and grievances, so the army
ended up ransacking everywhere and “redistributing” wealth
o defeated by nobles eventually and thousands of peasants were slaughtered
 Peasant revolts riddled Germany as a reaction to increasing taxes, feudal dues, and ecclesiastical tithes
 Swabia – rebellions led to the calling of a “peasant parliament” and:
o Twelve Articles – a program for social change – complained of feudal grievances and used bible for
justification of the common obligations that fellow Christians had toward one another
 Became the common demands of peasants who revolted everywhere
 Sometimes were legitimate complaints, sometimes they were just symbolic bitter fighting among
classes
Class Notes
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Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri – 3 most important senate seats for democrats to win
Demographic political tendencies:
o Urban areas – democratic
o Suburban Areas – democratic
o Women – democratic
o (soccer mom – democratic)
o White men – republican
o Evangelical Christians / churchgoing whites – republican
o Rural - republican
“security moms” – Bush’s terms for soccer moms who should vote for him because he’ll keep us safe
“Nascar Dads” – rural white men who vote Republican
Ford -Tennessee - wants to be 1st black senator from a confederate state since reconstruction; target of racial TV ad
Alabama – in 2000, a ballot measure to unban interracial marriages met with 40% opposition but passed
Wood Block Printing – carved out entire pages on wood blocks that could not be reused for another book
Huntington library – has a 1st edition Gutenberg Bible
Vellum – calf skin used as paper
Parchment – sheep skin used as paper
Vernacular languages – local languages spoken by the common people
Protestant Churches:
o Swiss Reformed Church – Calvinist churches in Switzerland
o Dutch Reformed Church – Calvinist churches in low counties (Netherlands)
o Presbyterian Church - Calvinist churches in Scotland
Huguenots – Calvinists/Protestants in France
Puritans – Calvinists in America – also, wanted to purify Anglican church to replace lingering Catholic ideas with
Protestant one
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o Congregationalist Church
Edmund Gerald Brown Jr. - Jerry Brown – has strong lead for Attorney General
o Trained as a Jesuit priest, worked with Mother Teresa
o Former government of CA, sec of state for CA, mayor of Oakland, and presidential candidate
o Pat Brown – his father, governor from 1958-1966 but lost to Reagan for 3rd term
Missouri – most important state for democrats to win
Kerry – made joke about uneducated people ending up in Iraq, apologized
Sen. Allen - Virginian incumbent who made “macacca” joke and let supporters tackle a Dem. asking a question
o Webb – his opponent, accused of immorality for sex scenes in a novel
Michael J. Fox – actor with Parkinson’s who appeared in ad advocating for stem-cell research
o Rush Limbaugh – pundit who accused Fox of exaggerating his condition
CA, Washington, Maine – only states with 2 female senators
Robinson – 1st openly gay Episcopalian bishop
Episcopalian Church – Anglican Church in U.S.
o Pastor – the religious leader for Anglicans/Episcopalians
o Schori – Presiding Bishop – female
All-Saints Episcopal Church, Pasadena – threatened by IRS for having a semi-political sermon
E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial – was chastised by church when it first came out because it portrays adults as bad people
and encouraged kids to keep secretes from their parents
6 – number of seat democrats need to gain a majority
30 Years’ War – series of wars in central Europe stemming from conflict btwn. Catholics and Protestants
Satires – what “Utopia” and “In Praise of Folly” are
Wycliffe – English theologian who influenced Protestant ideas
1966 – year with 79% voter turnout
Chapter 13 Summary (From the Publisher)
I.
Sola Scriptura
In the sixteenth century the Bible left the church and cloister and became the common reading material for
homes all over Europe. The principles of humanism were applied to biblical studies. Commentaries and
interpretations of Scripture became popular among the general population. The new emphasis on the Bible
as the basis of religious studies was typical of the renewal of spirituality found in European culture.
II.
The Intellectual Reformation
A.
Introduction
Religious reform, whether Protestant or Catholic, was a common element of the sixteenth-century
intellectual tradition. The introduction of the printing press permitted the distribution of new ideas
throughout society.
B.
The Print Revolution
Printing developed out of a series of related technological advances. Gradually, paper replaced
sheepskin, or vellum, as the primary material for the recording of copyists’ work. Metalsmiths also
perfected the use of moveable type to allow the mechanical reproduction of manuscripts, which was
much more rapid and accurate than hand copying. The best known of the early printers was Johannes
Gutenberg. Because of the expense of paper and skilled labor necessary for the production of metal
type, printing remained expensive. Printing spread rapidly from Germany to neighboring countries.
It quickly revolutionized education, scientific study, and legal training. The ease of repetition also
standardized language and created an international community of literate scholars.
C.
Christian Humanism
Humanism, as defined in the Italian Renaissance, benefited from the print revolution. In northern
Europe, humanistic techniques of text reproduction and evaluation were applied to religious
documents. Christian humanists wished to better society through education based on examination
and critique of religious texts. The humanistic approach to education began to diverge from that of
the Catholic Church. Scholasticism remained the principal form of ecclesiastical training.
D.
The Humanist Movement
Humanist scholars criticized the Church for intellectual crudity and superstition. The two great
humanists, Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More, both questioned the authenticity of relics.
Humanists were not isolated, but corresponded across state boundaries. The New Monarchs tended
to support and protect humanists from ecclesiastical interference. Christian humanists concentrated
on the translation of religious texts. The Polyglot Bible, produced in Spain in 1522, offered
comparative versions of the Scriptures in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.
E.
The Wit of Erasmus
The man most closely associated with Christian humanism is Desiderius Erasmus. Educated in a lay
brotherhood, the Brothers of Common Life, Erasmus set out on an international career that took him
to France and then England. He published two popular works of humanistic criticism, In Praise of
Folly and Adages. After studying Greek, Erasmus offered a critical edition of the New Testament,
followed shortly by a new Latin translation of the same. Like most humanists, Erasmus had little
patience for Scholasticism and the traditional forms of education in the Church. He hoped that the
practice of Christian education could be extended to the masses.
III.
The Lutheran Reformation
A.
Introduction
The Church survived the late medieval crises of the Babylonian captivity and the Schism to
reemerge as a powerful factor in sixteenth-century politics. The popes in Rome survived the Italian
Wars and maintained their independence. Despite the majesty of the Church, many demanded
reforms of abuses—inordinate wealth of clergymen, ignorant priests, pluralism, and sale of Church
offices.
B.
The Spark of Reform
Generally speaking, sixteenth-century Europe was experiencing a revival of religious fervor.
Religious pilgrimage sites were active; ecclesiastical endowments rose. As religious demands for
reform grew, so did demands for traditional religious services. The search for spiritual fulfillment led
to great abuses of church practices and teaching such as indulgences. Indulgences were a portion of
the treasure of merit earned by the saints that Christians could dip into to be released of their time in
Purgatory. Although the Church taught that indulgences were only a dispensation for punishment in
purgatory after contrition for sins, people came to view them as a quick solution to ensure salvation
of themselves and their loved ones. In the lax Church environment of the late middle ages the sale of
indulgences came to replace confession and penance with a (hopefully) pious contribution. And
people began to buy these dispensations for their own sins or those of their loved ones. In an attempt
to reduce the abuses, an earlier reform decreed that the papacy alone could issue indulgences through
licensed agents. The sale of indulgences to fund the rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome in
1517 provoked a revolutionary response. Although ostensibly a strictly religious question, the furor
over the sale of indulgences was, at least in part, a competition between two German lords in
possession of relics suitable for the indulgence business. Into the dispute stepped Martin Luther, a
professor of theology at Wittenberg University. He attacked the theological basis for indulgences in
a series of 95 theses or arguments. Luther’s attack on indulgences was rapidly translated into
German and received wide dissemination throughout Germany. The assault on indulgences as
ineffective nostrums for the superstitious met with the approval of Christian humanists, but earned
the enmity of the papacy who depended on the income from the sale to rebuild St. Peter’s.
C.
Martin Luther’s Faith
Martin Luther began his ecclesiastical career as an Augustinian monk and priest. He continued his
studies at the universities at Erfurt and Wittenberg. In 1512 he became a professor at the latter
school. He was a renowned teacher and debater. Luther suffered, however, from inner doubts
concerning the safety of his soul. Through his studies of the Bible, Luther resolved his doubt and, in
the process, created a theological revolution. Following a critical review of the Pauline Epistles,
Luther developed a series of fundamental beliefs. Justification, or salvation, came only from faith,
not good works. All that anyone needed to know concerning religion could be found in the Bible, the
sole authority for all spiritual matters. All men and women who had achieved faith were on an equal
footing, and no man or woman could hold supernatural powers over another. All men were equally
priests. Each of Luther’s fundamental beliefs challenged the traditional doctrines of the Church.
Justification by faith made the works of the Church—particularly the sacraments—useless. Sola
scriptura, or the Bible as sole authority, struck at the collective authority of interpretation and
regulation, including the canon law. The priesthood of all believers destroyed the superiority of all
clerics. Luther’s arguments reached a population ready to receive them. The concept of faith alone
alleviated the oppressive burdens of confession, penance, and indulgence placed on Christians by the
Church. His emphasis on the Bible echoed the concerns of the humanists and was fueled by the
printing revolution. Luther’s call for a spiritual elite fulfilled the desires of Germans for
independence from an Italian clergy. Luther, himself, did not realize the impact of his theology.
D.
Lutheranism
Both the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor challenged Luther’s theology. Their attacks led
Luther to increasingly radical statements including a condemnation of the papacy and general
Church councils. In his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, Luther requested
that princes in Germany take over their local churches and initiate religious reform. In response, the
pope excommunicated Luther in 1521. Under external military and political pressures, neither pope
nor emperor was free to dispose of Luther as they wished. In addition, the electoral prince of Saxony
offered Luther protection within his domain. The reformer became an effective pamphleteer,
publishing many works that were distributed throughout Europe. Luther’s work attracted the support
of additional German princes and the cities. To the princes of the fragmented territories of Germany,
Luther’s religion offered an opportunity to free themselves from papal taxation and interference. To
the independent imperial cities, Luther’s theology stressed the superiority of civil power over the
Church and gave the city governments access to Church properties. The reform doctrine spread more
rapidly in the cities as reformed clergy married and became townsmen. The reform message was
particularly attractive to the middle orders of towns—the lesser merchants and craftsmen. Women
also responded favorably to the reform movement. Some aristocratic women saw Lutheranism as
another form of humanism. The doctrine of the equality of all Christians made women theoretically
the equals of men, although the tradition of a male priesthood continued. Education for women
improved. In contrast, because of the loss of the model of the female saints, Lutheranism tended
toward male dominance in spiritual matters. The decline of the convent deprived women of the only
spiritual calling outside of marriage.
E.
The Spread of Lutheranism
Lutheranism spread rapidly throughout the decentralized Holy Roman Empire and from there to the
states bordering the empire. Luther’s students, printed materials, and merchants carried the reform
message outward from Germany. Poland-Lithuania, the lands of the Teutonic Knights, and Prussia
all established Lutheran churches. In Scandinavia, the monarchs of both Denmark and Sweden
embraced the new reform religion. In each state it was seen as a means of expressing
independence—in Denmark from the Roman church, in Sweden from Denmark. In the Swiss towns,
Luther’s reforms were radicalized. The leader of the radical reform movement was Huldrych
Zwingli of Zurich. Trained as a humanist, Zwingli sought to reestablish the purity of the ancient
Church and reject the innovations of the medieval Church. Zwingli adopted the three foundation
beliefs of Lutheranism and attacked the “superstitious acts” of Catholicism. He departed from Luther
in reducing the significance of the mass as something done in remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice
rather than a literal reenactment of the sacrifice. In Swiss towns that adopted Zwingli’s radical
reform, the members of the new church became the civil government and created a theocracy.
IV.
The Protestant Reformation
A.
Introduction
Luther had attacked Catholicism, but had offered almost nothing as a constitutional structure to
replace it. The Protestant reformers who came after Luther undertook the task of creating forms of
ecclesiastical government for the new reformed churches.
B.
Geneva and Calvin
In the sixteenth century Geneva successfully freed itself from the overlordship of both the Catholic
Church and the duke of Savoy. In 1536 the citizens of Geneva voted to embrace Protestantism on the
model proposed by Zwingli. As a director for the newly accepted Protestantism, Geneva turned to
John Calvin, a French lawyer and the author of The Institutes of the Christian Religion. Calvin’s
theology differed from Luther’s primarily in the emphasis he placed on the doctrine of
predestination—the belief that only some are predestined from the moment of creation for salvation.
This permitted the formation of a spiritual and political elite of those sure of salvation—the “elect.”
The elect were divided into four governing offices: pastors to preach, doctors to develop theology,
deacons to oversee the public institutions of Geneva, and elders to govern the population in matters
of morality. Power to discipline offenders was vested in the consistory, a meeting of elders and
pastors. With its strong constitutional structure, Calvinism was an effective evangelical church. It
spread from Geneva to France and the Low Countries as well as parts of Germany.
C.
The English Reformation
The catalyst for the English Reformation was Henry VIII’s need for a divorce. Without male heirs,
Henry wanted to rid himself of his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn. The papacy,
heavily involved in the diplomacy of the Italian Wars, dragged its feet on the issue. Frustrated by
delay, Henry VIII took the issue to Parliament. By statute, papal interference was denied. The case
was handed over to the jurisdiction of the head of the English church, Archbishop of Canterbury
Thomas Cranmer. Once the divorce was granted, Henry’s chief minister, Thomas Cromwell,
continued to construct a national church system independent of Rome. The king became head of the
Anglican church, Catholic properties were confiscated, monasteries were dissolved, and a Lutheran
form of church service was imposed. Nevertheless, the basic tenor of the Anglican church was close
to Catholicism. The identity of church and state government in England meant that continued
demands for reform were actually assaults on the state. In the reign of Edward VI, further reforms
were initiated. The Anglican church under Thomas Cranmer adopted the Zwinglian interpretation of
the Eucharist, services were conducted in English rather than Latin, and the priesthood was
converted to a Protestant ministry. With the reforms, Catholics remaining in England began to be
persecuted. There were even major Catholic revolutions. Under Mary I, Catholicism was temporarily
restored as the official religion in England. Archbishop Cranmer, the architect of the Anglican
church, was burned at the stake as were some other leading Protestants. Other Protestants fled to the
reformed communities of the Continent. Under Mary’s successor, Elizabeth I, the Anglican church
was brought back to Protestantism. While the restored Anglicanism continued to reflect deliberate
moderation when compared to radical Protestantism, some Calvinist doctrines entered the
Elizabethan church.
D.
The Reformation of the Radicals
Protestantism rapidly fragmented into various theologies, despite Luther’s warnings concerning
sectarianism. Various radical interpretations of scripture emerged, the most virulent of which were
the groups called Anabaptists—those who baptized adults. Arising on the border of Switzerland and
Germany, Anabaptists believed in an exclusive membership of the spiritual elite. Adult baptism was
the rite through which one entered the elite. As infant baptism was one of only two sacraments that
the other Protestant groups retained, all of the major Protestant groups rejected the Anabaptists.
Anabaptists also tended to mysticism and claimed to be commanded by direct communications from
God. Many rejected entirely the authority of the state and refused to pay taxes, abide by the
decisions of the courts, or perform military service. Both Protestants and Catholics regarded
Anabaptists with horror and persecuted them for heresy. The largest groups of Anabaptists, the
Moravian Brethren, were eventually driven to the eastern edges of Europe, to Bohemia and Hungary.
Smaller pockets of Anabaptists—the Mennonites, for example—settled in the Low Countries.
V.
The Catholic Reformation
A.
Introduction
The Protestant reform movement failed to eradicate Catholicism. Much of Europe remained
resolutely Catholic. Within Catholicism, reform and renewed zeal for evangelism brought about a
complete reform of the Catholic church.
B.
The Spiritual Revival
Late medieval Europe saw a renewed search for personal piety. This new piety led to the formation
of communal societies of lay brethren, the most influential of which was the Brethren of the
Common Life. Christian humanism was also very influential within Catholicism. The leading
Humanists, such as Erasmus, who were the leading proponents of reform rejected Protestantism.
These two movements defined the nature of early Catholic reform. Bishops took up the call for
reform. Their concern was improving the quality of pastoral care provided by parish priests. New
religious orders abounded in the sixteenth century. The Capuchins were an example of attempts to
return to principles of asceticism, poverty, and devotion. Women were also engaged in the reform of
religious orders. Teresa of Avila led the reform of the Carmelite order. In Italy Angela Merici
founded the Ursulines.
C.
Loyola’s Pilgrimage
Ignatius Loyola began his life as a member of the Spanish aristocracy and as a soldier. A war injury
led him to a religious life. During his convalescence, Loyola discovered the spiritual discipline
necessary for Christian devotion. He recorded his methodology in The Spiritual Exercises. While
seeking an education in France, Loyola gathered a small group of priests dedicated to the Spaniard’s
form of religious discipline. In 1540 the papacy recognized Loyola’s brotherhood as the Society of
Jesus, or Jesuits. The Jesuits became the principal arm of Catholic evangelism. Jesuits served as
missionaries in the Orient and in the colonies and wilderness of the New World. The Jesuits
continued Loyola’s initial concepts of a disciplined society marshaled against the world’s evils.
D.
The Counter-Reformation
The Jesuits reflected the Catholic Church’s desire to confront Protestantism aggressively. Before an
effective challenge on Protestants could be waged, reforms within Catholicism were necessary. The
push for church reform was complicated by the relationships among the major Catholic monarchs of
Europe and the Italian Wars in which they were enemies. These conflicts within Catholicism delayed
the calling of a general council of reform until 1545. The Council of Trent (1545-1563), dominated
by Italian clergymen, recognized the demands of the papacy for a restatement of traditional
orthodoxy. Reforms removed the most obvious abuses, such as indulgences. The early Catholic
emphasis on pastoral care was recognized and reinforced. The council rejected Protestant theology
outright.
E.
The Empire Strikes Back
Divisions within Protestantism and the fragmented nature of the Holy Roman Empire prevented the
outbreak of warfare between Catholic and Protestant forces. Only after Luther’s death did Charles V
initiate an assault on Protestant territories in Saxony and Thuringia. Protestants then joined with the
Catholic monarch of France and the Muslim Ottoman Empire in an alliance that drove Charles V to
negotiation. In the Treaty of Augsburg of 1555, the emperor granted the princes of Germany the
right to determine religion within their principalities.