Download Radiology www.AssignmentPoint.com Radiology is a medical

Radiology
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Radiology is a medical specialty that uses imaging to diagnose and treat
diseases seen within the body. Radiologists use a variety of imaging techniques
such as X-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), nuclear
medicine including positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) to diagnose and/or treat diseases. Interventional
radiology is the performance of (usually minimally invasive) medical
procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies.
The acquisition of medical imaging is usually carried out by the radiographer,
often known as a radiologic technologist. Depending on location, the diagnostic
radiologist, or reporting radiographer, then interprets or "reads" the images and
produces a report of their findings and impression or diagnosis. This report is
then transmitted to the physician who ordered the imaging, either routinely or
emergently. Imaging exams are stored digitally in the picture archiving and
communication system (PACS) where they can be viewed by all members of
the healthcare team within the same health system and compared later on with
future imaging exams.
Diagnostic imaging modalities
Projection (plain) radiography
Radiographs (originally called roentgenographs, named after the discoverer of
X-rays, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen) are produced by transmitting X-rays through
a patient. The X-rays are projected through the body; an image is formed based
on which rays pass through (and are detected) versus those that are absorbed or
scattered in the patient (and thus are not detected). Röntgen discovered X-rays
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on November 8, 1895 and received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for their
discovery in 1901.
In film-screen radiography, an X-ray tube generates a beam of X-rays, which is
aimed at the patient. The X-rays that pass through the patient are filtered
through a device called an grid or X-ray filter, to reduce scatter, and strike an
undeveloped film, which is held tightly to a screen of light-emitting phosphors
in a light-tight cassette. The film is then developed chemically and an image
appears on the film. Film-screen radiography is being replaced by computed
radiography (CR) but more recently by digital radiography (DR) and the EOS
imaging. In the two latest systems, the X-rays strike sensors that converts the
signals generated into digital information, which is transmitted and converted
into an image displayed on a computer screen. In digital radiography the sensors
shape a plate, but in the EOS system, which is a slot-scanning system, a linear
sensor vertically scans the patient.
Plain radiography was the only imaging modality available during the first 50
years of radiology. Due to its availability, speed, and lower costs compared to
other modalities, radiography is often the first-line test of choice in radiologic
diagnosis. Also despite the large amount of data in CT scans, MR scans and
other digital-based imaging, there are many disease entities in which the classic
diagnosis is obtained by plain radiographs. Examples include various types of
arthritis and pneumonia, bone tumors (especially benign bone tumors),
fractures, congenital skeletal anomalies, etc.
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Mammography and DXA are two applications of low energy projectional
radiography, used for the evaluation for breast cancer and osteoporosis,
respectively.
Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in
which a fluorescent screen and image intensifier tube is connected to a closedcircuit television system. This allows real-time imaging of structures in motion
or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Radiocontrast agents are usually
administered by swallowing or injecting into the body of the patient to delineate
anatomy and functioning of the blood vessels, the genitourinary system, or the
gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Two radiocontrast agents are presently in
common use. Barium sulfate (BaSO4) is given orally or rectally for evaluation
of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple proprietary forms, is given by oral, rectal,
intra-arterial or intravenous routes. These radiocontrast agents strongly absorb
or scatter X-rays, and in conjunction with the real-time imaging, allow
demonstration of dynamic processes, such as peristalsis in the digestive tract or
blood flow in arteries and veins. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in
abnormal areas more or less than in normal tissues and make abnormalities
(tumors, cysts, inflammation) more conspicuous. Additionally, in specific
circumstances, air can be used as a contrast agent for the gastrointestinal system
and carbon dioxide can be used as a contrast agent in the venous system; in
these cases, the contrast agent attenuates the X-ray radiation less than the
surrounding tissues.
Computed tomography
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CT imaging uses X-rays in conjunction with computing algorithms to image the
body. In CT, an X-ray tube opposite an X-ray detector (or detectors) in a ringshaped apparatus rotate around a patient, producing a computer-generated crosssectional image (tomogram). CT is acquired in the axial plane, with coronal and
sagittal images produced by computer reconstruction. Radiocontrast agents are
often used with CT for enhanced delineation of anatomy. Although radiographs
provide higher spatial resolution, CT can detect more subtle variations in
attenuation of X-rays. CT exposes the patient to more ionizing radiation than a
radiograph.
Spiral multidetector CT uses 16, 64, 254 or more detectors during continuous
motion of the patient through the radiation beam to obtain fine detail images in
a short exam time. With rapid administration of intravenous contrast during the
CT scan, these fine detail images can be reconstructed into three-dimensional
(3D) images of carotid, cerebral, coronary or other arteries.
CT scanning has become the test of choice in diagnosing some urgent and
emergent conditions, such as cerebral hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism (clots
in the arteries of the lungs), aortic dissection (tearing of the aortic wall),
appendicitis, diverticulitis, and obstructing kidney stones. Continuing
improvements in CT technology, including faster scanning times and improved
resolution, have dramatically increased the accuracy and usefulness of CT
scanning, which may partially account for increased use in medical diagnosis.
Ultrasound
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Medical ultrasonography uses ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) to
visualize soft tissue structures in the body in real time. No ionizing radiation is
involved, but the quality of the images obtained using ultrasound is highly
dependent on the skill of the person (ultrasonographer) performing the exam
and the patient's body size. Examinations of larger, overweight patients may
have a decrease in image quality as their subcutaneous fat absorbs more of the
sound waves. This results in fewer sound waves penetrating to organs and
reflecting back to the transducer, resulting in loss of information and a poorer
quality image. Ultrasound is also limited by its inability to image through air
pockets (lungs, bowel loops) or bone. Its use in medical imaging has developed
mostly within the last 30 years. The first ultrasound images were static and twodimensional (2D), but with modern ultrasonography, 3D reconstructions can be
observed in real time, effectively becoming "4D".
Because ultrasound imaging techniques do not employ ionizing radiation to
generate images (unlike radiography, and CT scans), they are generally
considered safer and are therefore more common in obstetrical imaging. The
progression of pregnancies can be thoroughly evaluated with less concern about
damage from the techniques employed, allowing early detection and diagnosis
of many fetal anomalies. Growth can be assessed over time, important in
patients with chronic disease or pregnancy-induced disease, and in multiple
pregnancies (twins, triplets, etc.). Color-flow Doppler ultrasound measures the
severity of peripheral vascular disease and is used by cardiologists for dynamic
evaluation of the heart, heart valves and major vessels. Stenosis, for example, of
the carotid arteries may be a warning sign for an impending stroke. A clot,
embedded deep in one of the inner veins of the legs, can be found via ultrasound
before it dislodges and travels to the lungs, resulting in a potentially fatal
pulmonary embolism. Ultrasounds is useful as a guide to performing biopsies to
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minimise damage to surrounding tissues and in drainages such as thoracentesis.
Small, portable ultrasound devices now replace peritoneal lavage in trauma
wards by non-invasively assessing for the presence of internal bleeding and any
internal organ damage. Extensive internal bleeding or injury to the major organs
may require surgery and repair.
Magnetic resonance imaging
MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen
protons) within body tissues, then uses a radio signal to disturb the axis of
rotation of these nuclei and observes the radio frequency signal generated as the
nuclei return to their baseline states. The radio signals are collected by small
antennae, called coils, placed near the area of interest. An advantage of MRI is
its ability to produce images in axial, coronal, sagittal and multiple oblique
planes with equal ease. MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all the
imaging modalities. With advances in scanning speed and spatial resolution, and
improvements in computer 3D algorithms and hardware, MRI has become an
important tool in musculoskeletal radiology and neuroradiology.
One disadvantage is the patient has to hold still for long periods of time in a
noisy, cramped space while the imaging is performed. Claustrophobia severe
enough to terminate the MRI exam is reported in up to 5% of patients. Recent
improvements in magnet design including stronger magnetic fields (3 teslas),
shortening exam times, wider, shorter magnet bores and more open magnet
designs, have brought some relief for claustrophobic patients. However, for
magnets with equivalent field strengths, there is often a trade-off between image
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quality and open design. MRI has great benefit in imaging the brain, spine, and
musculoskeletal system. The use of MRI is currently contraindicated for
patients with pacemakers, cochlear implants, some indwelling medication
pumps, certain types of cerebral aneurysm clips, metal fragments in the eyes
and some metallic hardware due to the powerful magnetic fields and strong
fluctuating radio signals to which the body is exposed. Areas of potential
advancement include functional imaging, cardiovascular MRI, and MRI-guided
therapy.
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine imaging involves the administration into the patient of
radiopharmaceuticals consisting of substances with affinity for certain body
tissues labeled with radioactive tracer. The most commonly used tracers are
technetium-99m, iodine-123, iodine-131, gallium-67, indium-111, thallium-201
and fludeoxyglucose (18F) (18F-FDG). The heart, lungs, thyroid, liver,
gallbladder, and bones are commonly evaluated for particular conditions using
these techniques. While anatomical detail is limited in these studies, nuclear
medicine is useful in displaying physiological function. The excretory function
of the kidneys, iodine-concentrating ability of the thyroid, blood flow to heart
muscle, etc. can be measured. The principal imaging device is the gamma
camera, which detects the radiation emitted by the tracer in the body and
displays it as an image. With computer processing, the information can be
displayed as axial, coronal and sagittal images (single-photon emission
computed tomography - SPECT). In the most modern devices, nuclear medicine
images can be fused with a CT scan taken quasisimultaneously, so the
physiological information can be overlaid or coregistered with the anatomical
structures to improve diagnostic accuracy.
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Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, also a nuclear medicine
procedure, deals with positrons. The positrons annihilate to produce two
opposite traveling gamma rays to be detected coincidentally, thus improving
resolution. In PET scanning, a radioactive, biologically active substance, most
often 18F-FDG, is injected into a patient and the radiation emitted by the patient
is detected to produce multiplanar images of the body. Metabolically more
active tissues, such as cancer, concentrate the active substance more than
normal tissues. PET images can be combined (or "fused") with anatomic (CT)
imaging, to more accurately localize PET findings and thereby improve
diagnostic accuracy.
The fusion technology has gone further to combine PET and MRI similar to
PET and CT. PET/MRI fusion, largely practiced in academic and research
settings, could potentially play a crucial role in fine detail of brain imaging,
breast cancer screening, and small joint imaging of the foot. The technology
recently blossomed after passing the technical hurdle of altered positron
movement in strong magnetic field thus affecting the resolution of PET images
and attenuation correction.
Interventional radiology
Interventional radiology (IR or sometimes VIR for vascular and interventional
radiology) is a subspecialty of radiology in which minimally invasive
procedures are performed using image guidance. Some of these procedures are
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done for purely diagnostic purposes (e.g., angiogram), while others are done for
treatment purposes (e.g., angioplasty).
The basic concept behind interventional radiology is to diagnose or treat
pathologies,
with
the
most
minimally
invasive
technique
possible.
Interventional radiologists and interventional radiographer diagnose and treat
several disorders, including peripheral vascular disease, renal artery stenosis,
inferior vena cava filter placement, gastrostomy tube placements, biliary stents
and hepatic interventions. Images are used for guidance, and the primary
instruments used during the procedure are needles and catheters. The images
provide maps that allow the clinician to guide these instruments through the
body to the areas containing disease. By minimizing the physical trauma to the
patient, peripheral interventions can reduce infection rates and recovery times,
as well as hospital stays. To be a trained interventionalist in the United States,
an individual completes a five-year residency in radiology and a one- or twoyear fellowship in IR.
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