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Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe
The Virginia Dynasty
The Election of 1800
Prior to the election the Federalists had been damaged by several key events:
a) Adams not declaring war against the French
b) They had used taxes to build a navy, but then not used it – increasing the public debt
c) Adams and Hamilton feuded over key issues
d) The Alien and Sedition Acts
They also accused Jefferson of being an atheist
The “Revolution of 1800”
The Democratic-Republican candidates Jefferson and Burr received the same number of
Electoral votes. The decision went to the Federally-controlled House of Representative. After
many ballots and because of Hamilton’s persuasion, Jefferson was selected to be president and
Burr the vice president. The Federalists did not like Jefferson, but many of them, including
Hamilton hated Burr. (A consequence was the XII Amendment (1804) requiring separate
ballots for the president and vice president)
Adams would be the last Federalist president, and after 1800 the party gradually started to lose
its influence. The “revolution of 1800” referred to the fact that there had been a complete
change of political power (Federalists to Democratic-Republicans) and the transition had
happened peacefully and been accepted by the people
Thomas Jefferson
On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated in the new capital of Washington D.C.
as the third president
Jefferson had great faith in the common people and the ideals of democracy.
He wanted to protect the civil liberties of the people from the power of the government
He was a person who believed in the strict interpretation of the Constitution
Jefferson was child of the Enlightenment who, in his mind achieved far more before and after
his presidency – The Declaration of Independence and the founding the University of Virginia
In his inaugural address, to unify the country, he said, “ We are all Republicans, we are all
Federalists”
Jefferson’s First Acts
He repealed the excise tax on whiskey, but kept many of Hamilton’s programs
Reduced the size of the army and the navy
Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin sought to reduce government spending to eliminate
the public debt and balance the budget
Pardoned those sentenced under the Alien and Sedition Acts and allowed the Sedition Acts to
expire
Midnight Judges
By the Judiciary Act of 1801, Adams had been able to appoint 15 Federalist judges
before he left office – hence “midnight judges”
Adams appointed Virginia Federalists, and relative to Jefferson, John Marshall as the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
Marshall dominated the Supreme Court and allowed Federalists principles to limit the
president and the Congress
Jefferson and the Pirates
Pirates from the North African Barbary coast continued to loot American ships and demand
tribute
In 1801, the pasha of Tripoli declared war on the United States
Jefferson, a pacificist, sent a squadron of warships to North Africa
In 1805 the pasha agreed to peace terms
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Once in office Jefferson determined to block the appointment of the Federalist
“midnight judges” appointed by Adams before he handed over the presidency
Jefferson ordered Secretary of State Madison not to deliver the commissions to the
appointments
William Marbury sued and the case went to the Supreme Court in 1803
Chief Justice Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to receive his commission
according to the Judiciary Act of 1789 – but the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional
since it had give the Courts more power than allowed by the Constitution
Therefore Marbury could not receive his commission
By declare the work of the Congress as unconstitutional, Marshall established the
doctrine of judicial review – the Supreme Court would rule on the Congress or the
president as their work related to the Constitution
The Louisiana Purchase
The Louisiana territory stretched roughly from the Mississippi River to the Rockies
The true extent and wealth of the area was unknown, but the most significant part was the
mouth of the Mississippi River at New Orleans
Control of New Orleans meant control of the whole region
In 1800 Napoleon forced the Spanish to cede control of the region back to France as he hoped
to create a vast French empire in America
By 1803 he had lost interest because of:
a) the need to focus his energies and resources against the British
b) a slave rebellion in Santo Domingo, led by Toussaint l’Ouverture, which had resulted in
heavy loses for the French
In 1802 the Spanish, still in control of New Orleans closed the port to Americans – a right,
which had been guaranteed by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795
In 1803, Jefferson sent ministers, James Monroe and Robert Livingston to France to negotiate
with Napoleon and to offer $10 million for the land from the port eastward to Florida
Napoleon, needed funds for his war effort offered to sell the whole territory for $15 million
The Americans jumped at the chance
Although Jefferson approved of the purchase he was troubled by the constitutionality of the
deal. Jefferson always applied a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and the Constitution
said nothing about the purchase of land from a foreign power
Despite criticisms from Federalist senators the purchase was ratified
The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, for approximately 3 cents per
acre
Lewis and Clark
The acquisition of the Louisiana territory gave Jefferson hope that the United States might be
an agrarian-based society
Before the purchase Jefferson had persuaded Congress to support a scientific expedition across
the region
Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804 and traveled all the way to the Pacific coast
before turning around and completing the mission in 1806 – the journey laid the foundation for
American claims to the Oregon territory as well revealing what, exactly had been purchased
At the same time Zebulon Pike was sent to find the source of the Mississippi
He later followed the Arkansas River as far as Colorado where he discovered Pike’s Peak
Pike’ reports confirmed that the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains were unfit for humans
The Duel
With the addition of the new land the power base of the New England Federalists was shrinking
Senator Thomas Pickering led a group of Massachusetts Federalists – the Essex Junto who even
considered seceding for the Union
They tried to ally themselves with New York and hatched a plan that required Burr get elected
governor in 1804
Burr lost. Hamilton, who hated Burr, called him a “dangerous man” after the comments
appeared in the local newspaper Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel
Burr killed Hamilton, but the death of Hamilton meant the end of the Essex Junto and the end
of Burr’s political career
1804 Election
Jefferson easily won the election over Charles Pinckney; Burr was not nominated for a second
term
Aaron Burr
Burr was determined to remain in politics and developed a scheme to take Mexico from
Spain and join it with Louisiana under his control
When Jefferson heard of the plan he had Burr arrested for treason
The presiding officer in the trial was Marshall, who acquitted Burr since there were no
witnesses
England and France
As England and France fought in Europe so both nations sought to stop the economic
activity of the other country
Americans ships were regularly stopped, cargo was seized, and sailors were impressed
into the British navy
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807)
In 1807 off the coast of Virginia the US warship Chesapeake was stopped by the
British warship Leopard
Three Americans were killed in the action and several others injured, while four were
taken captive on suspicion of being deserters
Anti-British feeling erupted as Americans demanded war
Jefferson knew a war would be a disaster and resorted to sanctions and diplomacy
Embargo Act (1807)
In 1806 the British government issued the Orders in Council, which initiated a paper
blockade of European ports. All vessels heading to European ports had to get a license
and were subject to being searched (Even the British did not have enough ships to
completely enforce the blockade)
In response Napoleon created the Continental System
These pieces of legislation hurt the Americans who were caught in the middle
In 1807 Jefferson issued the Embargo Act, which stopped American ships from visiting
foreign ports
The act was a disaster for Americans even though many merchants openly defied or
found ways to circumvent the legislation. Trade through Canada boomed
The act gave new life to the Federalists in New England, who accused Jefferson of
being pro-French
In 1809 before Jefferson left office, the act was repealed
But in its place Congress passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with every
country except Britain and France
Had the embargo remained in place longer and had American traders supported the embargo it
probably would have been more successful, but it did help promote industrialization in the
United States
In 1812, Britain suspended the Orders in Council
Election of 1808
Jefferson decided to follow the example of Washington and not seek a third term
Jefferson retired to Monticello and made friends with his long-time political enemy, John
Adams
He spent his remaining years corresponding with major figures across the world and creating
the University of Virginia – which he said, along with the Declaration of Independence was on
of his greatest legacies
Jefferson and John Adams both died on July 4, 1826
To succeed him Jefferson selected another Virginian, his Secretary of State James Madison
In the election Madison was able to defeat the Federalist candidate, Charles Pinckney, but the
Federalist benefited from public unhappiness caused by the Embargo Act
James Madison
Madison was not your typical president, he was short, bald, and he was not a great speaker, but
he made up for any deficiencies with hard work
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)
In 1810 Macon’s Bill No. 2 proposed the restoration of trade with Britain or France if either
country agreed to respect American neutrality, also trade would be still prohibited with the
country that did not accept the proposal
Almost immediately Napoleon announced that France would accept the terms of Macon’s Bill
No. 2
Madison instigated a policy of non-intercourse with Britain
Napoleon’s plan was merely a trick; he wanted to use the United States to punish the British but
had no intention of complying with Macon’s Bill No. 2 and the French continued to seize
American ships
In many respects the Napoleon’s plan worked because a wave of pro-French sentiment swept
the country and people became increasing angry at Britain
The Causes of the War of 1812
In 1812 few in Congress or Parliament wanted war. Britain was busy with Napoleon and the
United States was unprepared
1. Neither Britain nor France had any intention of respecting the rights of American on the high
seas or stopping the practice of impressment
2.
The majority of Americans were pro-French, if not anti-British. Jefferson was a
Francophile and people in America sympathized with the French people who had also just had
a revolution and removed a monarch
3.
People on the western frontier blamed the British for aiding the Indians. The Shawnee
chief, Tecumseh, urged the tribes to unite and take back their land. The governor of Indiana
Territory, William Henry Harrison led an expedition against the Indians. At the Battle of
Tippecanoe in 1811 Harrison destroyed the Indians and ended all attempts to form an Indian
Confederacy.
4.
A group of young western politicians, led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and known as
the war hawks, persuaded many in Congress that war was the only viable option to stop the
British
5.
There was also the possibility of adding Canada to the United States
Just before Madison declared against the British, the British naval blockade was lifted, but it
was too late, Americans wanted war!
The Election of 1812
America was divided on the issue of war. The Jefferson-Republican western and
southern states, along with Vermont and Pennsylvania all called for war. The
Federalist New England states along with New York and New Jersey objected to war.
Madison was the candidate for the Republicans; DeWitt Clinton from New York
represented the Federalists. Those who opposed the war, mostly New England
merchants, saw the struggle as “Mr. Madison’s War”. A third group, known as the
Quids also opposed the war. The Quids were Republicans who had split with the party
before the election of 1808 and who wanted to limit the federal government. However,
like most third-parties they proved unsuccessful.
Mr. Madison’s War
American endeavors to capture Canada failed miserably. But Oliver Hazard Perry did
manage to a capture a British fleet on Lake Eerie and thereby stopped the British from
re-supplying their troops. General William Harrison’s defeated the British at the Battle
of the Thames and removed them from the northwest. During the battle Tecumseh,
who had fled to Canada to help the British, was killed. While the British were
struggling in the north they were able to embarrass the Americans in Washington D.C.
when they burned the White House and most of the buildings in the capital.
The British attempted to capture Baltimore. Fort McHenry held out throughout the
bombardment causing Francis Scott Key to write the “The Star Spangled Banner.”
In the South, General Andrew Jackson, was able to defeat the Creek Indians, who were
allies of the British
He invaded Spanish Florida and captured Pensacola before moving towards New
Orleans
In 1815 Jackson defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans simply because the
British were too contemptuous of Jackson’s men
The sad irony was the American success came two weeks after the war had actually
ended so it had no effect on the outcome of the fighting
The Treaty of Ghent
Peace efforts had in fact been going on for many years. But by 1814 the British were
much more concerned with the Congress of Vienna
The Treat of Ghent was an armistice, which ended the fighting but it did not address the
issues, which caused the war
The main agreements were to restore the pre-war boundaries and return prisoners
Hartford Convention
With the Americans failing to gain the upper hand in the war and with no end in sight
several New England states: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Rhode Island held a secret meeting in Hartford
Led by the Federalists the states talked about wanting compensation for their losses
caused by the war and even the possibility of secession
The Convention included a group of extremists called the Essex Junto, but the more
moderates simply wanted something similar to the Virginia Resolutions
When the delegates heard about the victory at New Orleans the meeting ended and all
talk of secession disappeared
The Hartford Convention proved fatal for the Federalist Party, who were seen as
traitors
The war had been a disaster for the British and the Americans but it did create a unique
sense of patriotism and nationalism in the United States
It also launched the political careers of future presidents like Andrew Jackson and
William Henry Harrison
Industry also boomed during and after the war as American manufacturers were forced
to develop their own goods
The Canadians sought to create their own treaty with the United States – and in 1817
they signed the Rush-Bagot Treaty
Indians, abandoned by their British allies were left to the fend for themselves
Nationalism
Perhaps the greatest impact of the war was on the development of American
nationalism
Almost immediately the American navy attacked the Barbary pirates. In 1815 the
Algerian pirates promised not to attack American ships and returned all American
prisoners
The war also forced Madison to be re-federalized. He realized the nation needed a
national bank, a stronger army and navy, and internal improvements
(Ironically, in a political reversal, the Federalists were then forced to seek a strict
interpretation of the Constitution and to advocate stronger states’ rights)
Authors like Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper gained international
recognition and for the first time American history was written by Americans
The National Bank
The charter for the First National Bank had expired in 1811
Consequently state-chartered banks appeared all over the country with no uniform or
regulated paper currency
In 1816 Congress accepted provisions for a new National Bank, to be located in
Philadelphia. Similar to Hamilton’s bank but:
a) capitalized at $35 million
b) with a 20 year charter
c) the government owned one-fifth of the stock
d) the government appointed 5 of the 25 directors
e) the bank served as the depository for government funds without charge
Westerner politicians claimed that people in the west would be at the financial mercy of
the large eastern institutions
The bank debate promoted Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, John C. Calhoun of South
Carolina, and Henry Clay of Kentucky into national prominence
The Cumberland Road
As the nation expanded it became obvious that newer, better roads were needed
In 1803, Ohio became a state and Congress dictated that part of the money from
the sale of land would go towards a National Road from the coast to Ohio
1806 Congress approved the construction of a road from Cumberland, Maryland
to Wheeling
Work started on the first federally financed interstate road in 1811
By 1818 the road stretched from Cumberland to Wheeling
Work stopped because of the financial crisis in 1819, by 1838 the road went as far
Illinois
In 1817 Calhoun proposed a bill to have the government use payments from the
National Bank to pay for internal improvements
The move had strong support in the west, but was opposed in the northeast and
south
Madison vetoed the bill on his last day in office, because it was not addressed in
the Constitution
The Election of 1816
Madison continuing the Virginia dynasty selected his fellow Virginian and
secretary of state James Monroe as his successor
The Federalists selected Rufus King
By 183 electoral votes to 34 Monroe was elected president
The Era of Good Feelings
Monroe surrounded himself with some of the greatest minds in American politics
John Quincy Adams was secretary of state
William Crawford was secretary of the treasury
John C. Calhoun headed the war department
Henry Clay was Speaker of the House
When Monroe visited Boston he saw a sign saying “Era of Good Feelings” which
became the catchphrase of his presidency
For the early part of his tenure the country enjoyed great prosperity and harmony
and basically a one-party political system
The Tariff of 1816
After the war the British eager to make up for the financial losses caused by the war
started to dump cheap British good on the American market. Congress raised tariffs to
protect domestic industry
The tariff was the first American tariff designed to protect domestic industry
American Boundaries (North)
The Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 completed part of the Treaty of Ghent
Britain and the United States agreed to limit naval vessels on the Great Lakes and
helped establish the border between Canada and the United States – the longest
unfortified border in the world
The Convention of 1818 established the northern limits of the Louisiana Purchase
along the 49th parallel until it reached the Rocky Mountains (after that the area
would be settled jointly by British and Americans)
American Boundaries (South)
Florida was still controlled by Spain, but it was in name only
The area had been a problem during the war as the British and their allies could
always find a safe haven
Also, runaway slaves and criminals could head south and find freedom and safety
In 1816 the Seminole Indians were fighting white settlers
In 1817 Americans attacked and destroyed a Seminole village
Secretary of War Calhoun authorized General Jackson to chase the Indians into
Spanish territory – but not to attack any Spanish building or fort
Jackson and his men were ruthless
They pushed across Florida rounding up suspects. They hanged two Indians
without a trial
In four months the Florida panhandle was in American hands
Spain demanded compensation, an apology, and for Jackson to be reprimanded –
they got nothing
Secretary of state Adams wanted to extend the border from Louisiana to the
Pacific Ocean
Gradually he recognized that Spain would not concede Texas
In 1819 Spain gave up Florida in return for the assumption of $5million of
American claims against Spain
The western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase would be the Sabine River, the
Red River, and the Arkansas River to the 42nd parallel, which would extend to the
Pacific
Final ratification of the Adam’s Transcontinental Treaty came in 1821 and in
1845 Florida became a state
The Panic of 1819
Good times continued for several years before the era of good feelings ended with the
Panic of 1819, which caused the first major financial panic for America since the
ratification of the Constitution
In 1819 the cost of cotton dropped dramatically
The Tariff of 1816 had only exasperated the problem by eliminating competition,
which in turn led to an unprecedented and unsustainable growth in American
industry
Banks had freely extended credit, but when the bubble burst the Second National
Bank tightened credit to stop inflation
Many state banks went out of business as the value of the dollar fell
The west was hurt the most because of land speculation and because farmers
tended to need credit
The panic caused people to re-evaluate their faith in banks
The Missouri Compromise
In 1819 there were an equal number of slave and free states (11 each)
East of the Mississippi the country was divided at the southern border of
Pennsylvania
West of the Mississippi and in the Louisiana Territory there was no such
distinguishing line
Many of the settlers in the west owned slaves, especially those who had moved to
the Missouri area
In 1819 the House of Representatives was asked to approved legislation to allow
Missouri to write a constitution since the population had reached 60,000
James Tallmadge of New York proposed legislation to forbid the introduction of
more slaves and to free those who reached 25 after the state was formed
The House passed the measure, but the Senate rejected it – both voted on
sectional lines
Since the Senate was based on equal representation (2 members for each state) it
was clear that only in the Senate could the slave states defend their peculiar
institution
At the same time Maine applied for statehood
Congress allowed both states to maintain the balance in the Senate
Maine was obviously a free state – Missouri would be a slave state
An amendment was added that declared all new states north of 36°30’ line would
be free
The Compromise only stalled the slavery question
The Missouri Constitution
During the time Missouri was a territory those who supported slavery dominated
the legislature and the constitutional convention
The proposed writing a constitution which banned free blacks from the state, but
this violated the Constitution which said people should receive the same treatment
in all states – free blacks were citizens
Henry Clay suggested a second Missouri compromise – Missouri would be
admitted as a state so long as it never denied rights guaranteed by the Constitution
In 1821 Missouri became the twenty-fourth state
Jefferson said the Missouri Compromise was “like a firebell in the night” and he
thought it would mean the end of the Union
The Election of 1820
Monroe was reelected in 1820
The Federalists didn’t even nominate a candidate
When the Electoral votes were counted Monroe received every vote except one
which was not given to Monroe so that history could say Washington was the
only president elected unanimously by the Electoral College
The Marshall Court
While Marshall was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court the Court handed
down several major decisions many of which helped to maintain the influence of
the Federalists and increase the power of the federal government at the expense of
the states
Marbury v. Madison (1803) – affirmed the principle of judicial review
Fletcher v. Peck (1810) – The first time the Supreme Court ruled that a state law
was unconstitutional
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) - The Court struck down another state
law because a contract for a private individual could not be altered by the state
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) – Marshall declared the states could loosely
interpret the Constitution and use their implied powers to create the bank. Also
determined that federal law superceded state law
Cohens v. Virginia (1821) – Established the fact the Supreme Court could review
a state courts’ decision involving the powers of the federal government
Gibbons v. Ogden (1821) – Marshall established the authority of the federal
government to regulate interstate trade
The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
In 1823 French troops invaded Spain and restored an absolute monarch to the
throne
Americans worried that Spain might want to retake control of her former
possessions in the Americas
Although John Quincy Adams thought the move was not very realistic and he
urged Monroe to not get involved in European affairs
In the presidential message to Congress in 1823, Monroe espoused a philosophy
that later (1852) became known as the Monroe Doctrine
a) The American continent will not be subject to colonization by European
powers ever again
b) Any attempt to incorporate a European political system in the Americas would
be considered a danger to the United States
c) The United States would not interfere in existing European colonies
d) The United States would not become involved in European issues or wars
When Monroe gave the speech few countries even considered it important,
European powers did not even acknowledge the speech
The doctrine was not based on international law but was simply a statement of
United States policy
It was not used until President Polk in the 1840s
“The American System”
Henry Clay from Kentucky who was Speaker of the House, proposed a program called
the American System to advance the American economy
He called for:
a) protective tariffs
b) a national bank (Congress had created the Second National Bank in 1816)
c) internal improvements (both Madison and Monroe objected to internal improvements
because the Constitution did not address using federal funds for state improvements)
All of these proposals would help American industry and stimulate economic activity
Alaska
After Spain had abandoned its claim on Oregon in 1819, the Russians claimed the
region
In 1821 the Czar of Russia claimed all of the Oregon territory north of the 51st parallel
Secretary of State Adams refuted the claim
In 1824 the United States and Russia signed an agreement in which the Russians
accepted the southern boundary of their claim as 54 40
The Election of 1824
Monroe had run opposed in 1820 but well before 1824 several strong candidates
emerged
Monroe decided to follow the two-term precedence and declared that he would not seek
re-election
Speaker of the House Henry Clay (Kentucky) - west
Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford (Georgia) - south
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts) - north
Senator from Tennessee Andrew Jackson (Tennessee) - west
They were all Republicans
Crawford was an advocate of states’ rights and had the support of the Old Republicans
But Crawford fell ill during the race and was left half-paralyzed
Jackson was selected primarily on his war record and he offered the vice presidency to
Calhoun, who accepted the offer
Clay advocated his American System
Adams also wanted internal improvements but would not support tariffs
The Corrupt Bargain
The result of the election was inconclusive but Jackson won the popular vote and the
electoral vote, but no one received a majority
So the process moved to the House and only involved the top three candidates –
Jackson, Adams, and Crawford
Clay was eliminated and the results proved the death knell for his American System
The House selected Adams to be president
Almost immediately Adams appointed Speaker of the House Clay to be his Secretary of
State
Jackson and his supporters claimed they had been a ‘corrupt bargain’
The animosity that followed the election led to the formation of new political parties
National Republicans (later called Whigs) led by Clay and Adams and supported a
strong central government and business interests (very Hamiltonian)
Democrats led by Jackson and Van Buren who gained support from the small farmers,
opposed large government, and claimed to support the common man (very
Jeffersonian)