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Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe The Virginia Dynasty The Election of 1800 Prior to the election the Federalists had been damaged by several key events: a) Adams not declaring war against the French b) They had used taxes to build a navy, but then not used it – increasing the public debt c) Adams and Hamilton feuded over key issues d) The Alien and Sedition Acts They also accused Jefferson of being an atheist The “Revolution of 1800” The Democratic-Republican candidates Jefferson and Burr received the same number of Electoral votes. The decision went to the Federally-controlled House of Representative. After many ballots and because of Hamilton’s persuasion, Jefferson was selected to be president and Burr the vice president. The Federalists did not like Jefferson, but many of them, including Hamilton hated Burr. (A consequence was the XII Amendment (1804) requiring separate ballots for the president and vice president) Adams would be the last Federalist president, and after 1800 the party gradually started to lose its influence. The “revolution of 1800” referred to the fact that there had been a complete change of political power (Federalists to Democratic-Republicans) and the transition had happened peacefully and been accepted by the people Thomas Jefferson On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated in the new capital of Washington D.C. as the third president Jefferson had great faith in the common people and the ideals of democracy. He wanted to protect the civil liberties of the people from the power of the government He was a person who believed in the strict interpretation of the Constitution Jefferson was child of the Enlightenment who, in his mind achieved far more before and after his presidency – The Declaration of Independence and the founding the University of Virginia In his inaugural address, to unify the country, he said, “ We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists” Jefferson’s First Acts He repealed the excise tax on whiskey, but kept many of Hamilton’s programs Reduced the size of the army and the navy Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin sought to reduce government spending to eliminate the public debt and balance the budget Pardoned those sentenced under the Alien and Sedition Acts and allowed the Sedition Acts to expire Midnight Judges By the Judiciary Act of 1801, Adams had been able to appoint 15 Federalist judges before he left office – hence “midnight judges” Adams appointed Virginia Federalists, and relative to Jefferson, John Marshall as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Marshall dominated the Supreme Court and allowed Federalists principles to limit the president and the Congress Jefferson and the Pirates Pirates from the North African Barbary coast continued to loot American ships and demand tribute In 1801, the pasha of Tripoli declared war on the United States Jefferson, a pacificist, sent a squadron of warships to North Africa In 1805 the pasha agreed to peace terms Marbury v. Madison (1803) Once in office Jefferson determined to block the appointment of the Federalist “midnight judges” appointed by Adams before he handed over the presidency Jefferson ordered Secretary of State Madison not to deliver the commissions to the appointments William Marbury sued and the case went to the Supreme Court in 1803 Chief Justice Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to receive his commission according to the Judiciary Act of 1789 – but the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional since it had give the Courts more power than allowed by the Constitution Therefore Marbury could not receive his commission By declare the work of the Congress as unconstitutional, Marshall established the doctrine of judicial review – the Supreme Court would rule on the Congress or the president as their work related to the Constitution The Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana territory stretched roughly from the Mississippi River to the Rockies The true extent and wealth of the area was unknown, but the most significant part was the mouth of the Mississippi River at New Orleans Control of New Orleans meant control of the whole region In 1800 Napoleon forced the Spanish to cede control of the region back to France as he hoped to create a vast French empire in America By 1803 he had lost interest because of: a) the need to focus his energies and resources against the British b) a slave rebellion in Santo Domingo, led by Toussaint l’Ouverture, which had resulted in heavy loses for the French In 1802 the Spanish, still in control of New Orleans closed the port to Americans – a right, which had been guaranteed by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795 In 1803, Jefferson sent ministers, James Monroe and Robert Livingston to France to negotiate with Napoleon and to offer $10 million for the land from the port eastward to Florida Napoleon, needed funds for his war effort offered to sell the whole territory for $15 million The Americans jumped at the chance Although Jefferson approved of the purchase he was troubled by the constitutionality of the deal. Jefferson always applied a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and the Constitution said nothing about the purchase of land from a foreign power Despite criticisms from Federalist senators the purchase was ratified The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, for approximately 3 cents per acre Lewis and Clark The acquisition of the Louisiana territory gave Jefferson hope that the United States might be an agrarian-based society Before the purchase Jefferson had persuaded Congress to support a scientific expedition across the region Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804 and traveled all the way to the Pacific coast before turning around and completing the mission in 1806 – the journey laid the foundation for American claims to the Oregon territory as well revealing what, exactly had been purchased At the same time Zebulon Pike was sent to find the source of the Mississippi He later followed the Arkansas River as far as Colorado where he discovered Pike’s Peak Pike’ reports confirmed that the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains were unfit for humans The Duel With the addition of the new land the power base of the New England Federalists was shrinking Senator Thomas Pickering led a group of Massachusetts Federalists – the Essex Junto who even considered seceding for the Union They tried to ally themselves with New York and hatched a plan that required Burr get elected governor in 1804 Burr lost. Hamilton, who hated Burr, called him a “dangerous man” after the comments appeared in the local newspaper Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel Burr killed Hamilton, but the death of Hamilton meant the end of the Essex Junto and the end of Burr’s political career 1804 Election Jefferson easily won the election over Charles Pinckney; Burr was not nominated for a second term Aaron Burr Burr was determined to remain in politics and developed a scheme to take Mexico from Spain and join it with Louisiana under his control When Jefferson heard of the plan he had Burr arrested for treason The presiding officer in the trial was Marshall, who acquitted Burr since there were no witnesses England and France As England and France fought in Europe so both nations sought to stop the economic activity of the other country Americans ships were regularly stopped, cargo was seized, and sailors were impressed into the British navy Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807) In 1807 off the coast of Virginia the US warship Chesapeake was stopped by the British warship Leopard Three Americans were killed in the action and several others injured, while four were taken captive on suspicion of being deserters Anti-British feeling erupted as Americans demanded war Jefferson knew a war would be a disaster and resorted to sanctions and diplomacy Embargo Act (1807) In 1806 the British government issued the Orders in Council, which initiated a paper blockade of European ports. All vessels heading to European ports had to get a license and were subject to being searched (Even the British did not have enough ships to completely enforce the blockade) In response Napoleon created the Continental System These pieces of legislation hurt the Americans who were caught in the middle In 1807 Jefferson issued the Embargo Act, which stopped American ships from visiting foreign ports The act was a disaster for Americans even though many merchants openly defied or found ways to circumvent the legislation. Trade through Canada boomed The act gave new life to the Federalists in New England, who accused Jefferson of being pro-French In 1809 before Jefferson left office, the act was repealed But in its place Congress passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with every country except Britain and France Had the embargo remained in place longer and had American traders supported the embargo it probably would have been more successful, but it did help promote industrialization in the United States In 1812, Britain suspended the Orders in Council Election of 1808 Jefferson decided to follow the example of Washington and not seek a third term Jefferson retired to Monticello and made friends with his long-time political enemy, John Adams He spent his remaining years corresponding with major figures across the world and creating the University of Virginia – which he said, along with the Declaration of Independence was on of his greatest legacies Jefferson and John Adams both died on July 4, 1826 To succeed him Jefferson selected another Virginian, his Secretary of State James Madison In the election Madison was able to defeat the Federalist candidate, Charles Pinckney, but the Federalist benefited from public unhappiness caused by the Embargo Act James Madison Madison was not your typical president, he was short, bald, and he was not a great speaker, but he made up for any deficiencies with hard work Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) In 1810 Macon’s Bill No. 2 proposed the restoration of trade with Britain or France if either country agreed to respect American neutrality, also trade would be still prohibited with the country that did not accept the proposal Almost immediately Napoleon announced that France would accept the terms of Macon’s Bill No. 2 Madison instigated a policy of non-intercourse with Britain Napoleon’s plan was merely a trick; he wanted to use the United States to punish the British but had no intention of complying with Macon’s Bill No. 2 and the French continued to seize American ships In many respects the Napoleon’s plan worked because a wave of pro-French sentiment swept the country and people became increasing angry at Britain The Causes of the War of 1812 In 1812 few in Congress or Parliament wanted war. Britain was busy with Napoleon and the United States was unprepared 1. Neither Britain nor France had any intention of respecting the rights of American on the high seas or stopping the practice of impressment 2. The majority of Americans were pro-French, if not anti-British. Jefferson was a Francophile and people in America sympathized with the French people who had also just had a revolution and removed a monarch 3. People on the western frontier blamed the British for aiding the Indians. The Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, urged the tribes to unite and take back their land. The governor of Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison led an expedition against the Indians. At the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 Harrison destroyed the Indians and ended all attempts to form an Indian Confederacy. 4. A group of young western politicians, led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and known as the war hawks, persuaded many in Congress that war was the only viable option to stop the British 5. There was also the possibility of adding Canada to the United States Just before Madison declared against the British, the British naval blockade was lifted, but it was too late, Americans wanted war! The Election of 1812 America was divided on the issue of war. The Jefferson-Republican western and southern states, along with Vermont and Pennsylvania all called for war. The Federalist New England states along with New York and New Jersey objected to war. Madison was the candidate for the Republicans; DeWitt Clinton from New York represented the Federalists. Those who opposed the war, mostly New England merchants, saw the struggle as “Mr. Madison’s War”. A third group, known as the Quids also opposed the war. The Quids were Republicans who had split with the party before the election of 1808 and who wanted to limit the federal government. However, like most third-parties they proved unsuccessful. Mr. Madison’s War American endeavors to capture Canada failed miserably. But Oliver Hazard Perry did manage to a capture a British fleet on Lake Eerie and thereby stopped the British from re-supplying their troops. General William Harrison’s defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames and removed them from the northwest. During the battle Tecumseh, who had fled to Canada to help the British, was killed. While the British were struggling in the north they were able to embarrass the Americans in Washington D.C. when they burned the White House and most of the buildings in the capital. The British attempted to capture Baltimore. Fort McHenry held out throughout the bombardment causing Francis Scott Key to write the “The Star Spangled Banner.” In the South, General Andrew Jackson, was able to defeat the Creek Indians, who were allies of the British He invaded Spanish Florida and captured Pensacola before moving towards New Orleans In 1815 Jackson defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans simply because the British were too contemptuous of Jackson’s men The sad irony was the American success came two weeks after the war had actually ended so it had no effect on the outcome of the fighting The Treaty of Ghent Peace efforts had in fact been going on for many years. But by 1814 the British were much more concerned with the Congress of Vienna The Treat of Ghent was an armistice, which ended the fighting but it did not address the issues, which caused the war The main agreements were to restore the pre-war boundaries and return prisoners Hartford Convention With the Americans failing to gain the upper hand in the war and with no end in sight several New England states: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island held a secret meeting in Hartford Led by the Federalists the states talked about wanting compensation for their losses caused by the war and even the possibility of secession The Convention included a group of extremists called the Essex Junto, but the more moderates simply wanted something similar to the Virginia Resolutions When the delegates heard about the victory at New Orleans the meeting ended and all talk of secession disappeared The Hartford Convention proved fatal for the Federalist Party, who were seen as traitors The war had been a disaster for the British and the Americans but it did create a unique sense of patriotism and nationalism in the United States It also launched the political careers of future presidents like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison Industry also boomed during and after the war as American manufacturers were forced to develop their own goods The Canadians sought to create their own treaty with the United States – and in 1817 they signed the Rush-Bagot Treaty Indians, abandoned by their British allies were left to the fend for themselves Nationalism Perhaps the greatest impact of the war was on the development of American nationalism Almost immediately the American navy attacked the Barbary pirates. In 1815 the Algerian pirates promised not to attack American ships and returned all American prisoners The war also forced Madison to be re-federalized. He realized the nation needed a national bank, a stronger army and navy, and internal improvements (Ironically, in a political reversal, the Federalists were then forced to seek a strict interpretation of the Constitution and to advocate stronger states’ rights) Authors like Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper gained international recognition and for the first time American history was written by Americans The National Bank The charter for the First National Bank had expired in 1811 Consequently state-chartered banks appeared all over the country with no uniform or regulated paper currency In 1816 Congress accepted provisions for a new National Bank, to be located in Philadelphia. Similar to Hamilton’s bank but: a) capitalized at $35 million b) with a 20 year charter c) the government owned one-fifth of the stock d) the government appointed 5 of the 25 directors e) the bank served as the depository for government funds without charge Westerner politicians claimed that people in the west would be at the financial mercy of the large eastern institutions The bank debate promoted Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, and Henry Clay of Kentucky into national prominence The Cumberland Road As the nation expanded it became obvious that newer, better roads were needed In 1803, Ohio became a state and Congress dictated that part of the money from the sale of land would go towards a National Road from the coast to Ohio 1806 Congress approved the construction of a road from Cumberland, Maryland to Wheeling Work started on the first federally financed interstate road in 1811 By 1818 the road stretched from Cumberland to Wheeling Work stopped because of the financial crisis in 1819, by 1838 the road went as far Illinois In 1817 Calhoun proposed a bill to have the government use payments from the National Bank to pay for internal improvements The move had strong support in the west, but was opposed in the northeast and south Madison vetoed the bill on his last day in office, because it was not addressed in the Constitution The Election of 1816 Madison continuing the Virginia dynasty selected his fellow Virginian and secretary of state James Monroe as his successor The Federalists selected Rufus King By 183 electoral votes to 34 Monroe was elected president The Era of Good Feelings Monroe surrounded himself with some of the greatest minds in American politics John Quincy Adams was secretary of state William Crawford was secretary of the treasury John C. Calhoun headed the war department Henry Clay was Speaker of the House When Monroe visited Boston he saw a sign saying “Era of Good Feelings” which became the catchphrase of his presidency For the early part of his tenure the country enjoyed great prosperity and harmony and basically a one-party political system The Tariff of 1816 After the war the British eager to make up for the financial losses caused by the war started to dump cheap British good on the American market. Congress raised tariffs to protect domestic industry The tariff was the first American tariff designed to protect domestic industry American Boundaries (North) The Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 completed part of the Treaty of Ghent Britain and the United States agreed to limit naval vessels on the Great Lakes and helped establish the border between Canada and the United States – the longest unfortified border in the world The Convention of 1818 established the northern limits of the Louisiana Purchase along the 49th parallel until it reached the Rocky Mountains (after that the area would be settled jointly by British and Americans) American Boundaries (South) Florida was still controlled by Spain, but it was in name only The area had been a problem during the war as the British and their allies could always find a safe haven Also, runaway slaves and criminals could head south and find freedom and safety In 1816 the Seminole Indians were fighting white settlers In 1817 Americans attacked and destroyed a Seminole village Secretary of War Calhoun authorized General Jackson to chase the Indians into Spanish territory – but not to attack any Spanish building or fort Jackson and his men were ruthless They pushed across Florida rounding up suspects. They hanged two Indians without a trial In four months the Florida panhandle was in American hands Spain demanded compensation, an apology, and for Jackson to be reprimanded – they got nothing Secretary of state Adams wanted to extend the border from Louisiana to the Pacific Ocean Gradually he recognized that Spain would not concede Texas In 1819 Spain gave up Florida in return for the assumption of $5million of American claims against Spain The western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase would be the Sabine River, the Red River, and the Arkansas River to the 42nd parallel, which would extend to the Pacific Final ratification of the Adam’s Transcontinental Treaty came in 1821 and in 1845 Florida became a state The Panic of 1819 Good times continued for several years before the era of good feelings ended with the Panic of 1819, which caused the first major financial panic for America since the ratification of the Constitution In 1819 the cost of cotton dropped dramatically The Tariff of 1816 had only exasperated the problem by eliminating competition, which in turn led to an unprecedented and unsustainable growth in American industry Banks had freely extended credit, but when the bubble burst the Second National Bank tightened credit to stop inflation Many state banks went out of business as the value of the dollar fell The west was hurt the most because of land speculation and because farmers tended to need credit The panic caused people to re-evaluate their faith in banks The Missouri Compromise In 1819 there were an equal number of slave and free states (11 each) East of the Mississippi the country was divided at the southern border of Pennsylvania West of the Mississippi and in the Louisiana Territory there was no such distinguishing line Many of the settlers in the west owned slaves, especially those who had moved to the Missouri area In 1819 the House of Representatives was asked to approved legislation to allow Missouri to write a constitution since the population had reached 60,000 James Tallmadge of New York proposed legislation to forbid the introduction of more slaves and to free those who reached 25 after the state was formed The House passed the measure, but the Senate rejected it – both voted on sectional lines Since the Senate was based on equal representation (2 members for each state) it was clear that only in the Senate could the slave states defend their peculiar institution At the same time Maine applied for statehood Congress allowed both states to maintain the balance in the Senate Maine was obviously a free state – Missouri would be a slave state An amendment was added that declared all new states north of 36°30’ line would be free The Compromise only stalled the slavery question The Missouri Constitution During the time Missouri was a territory those who supported slavery dominated the legislature and the constitutional convention The proposed writing a constitution which banned free blacks from the state, but this violated the Constitution which said people should receive the same treatment in all states – free blacks were citizens Henry Clay suggested a second Missouri compromise – Missouri would be admitted as a state so long as it never denied rights guaranteed by the Constitution In 1821 Missouri became the twenty-fourth state Jefferson said the Missouri Compromise was “like a firebell in the night” and he thought it would mean the end of the Union The Election of 1820 Monroe was reelected in 1820 The Federalists didn’t even nominate a candidate When the Electoral votes were counted Monroe received every vote except one which was not given to Monroe so that history could say Washington was the only president elected unanimously by the Electoral College The Marshall Court While Marshall was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court the Court handed down several major decisions many of which helped to maintain the influence of the Federalists and increase the power of the federal government at the expense of the states Marbury v. Madison (1803) – affirmed the principle of judicial review Fletcher v. Peck (1810) – The first time the Supreme Court ruled that a state law was unconstitutional Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) - The Court struck down another state law because a contract for a private individual could not be altered by the state McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) – Marshall declared the states could loosely interpret the Constitution and use their implied powers to create the bank. Also determined that federal law superceded state law Cohens v. Virginia (1821) – Established the fact the Supreme Court could review a state courts’ decision involving the powers of the federal government Gibbons v. Ogden (1821) – Marshall established the authority of the federal government to regulate interstate trade The Monroe Doctrine (1823) In 1823 French troops invaded Spain and restored an absolute monarch to the throne Americans worried that Spain might want to retake control of her former possessions in the Americas Although John Quincy Adams thought the move was not very realistic and he urged Monroe to not get involved in European affairs In the presidential message to Congress in 1823, Monroe espoused a philosophy that later (1852) became known as the Monroe Doctrine a) The American continent will not be subject to colonization by European powers ever again b) Any attempt to incorporate a European political system in the Americas would be considered a danger to the United States c) The United States would not interfere in existing European colonies d) The United States would not become involved in European issues or wars When Monroe gave the speech few countries even considered it important, European powers did not even acknowledge the speech The doctrine was not based on international law but was simply a statement of United States policy It was not used until President Polk in the 1840s “The American System” Henry Clay from Kentucky who was Speaker of the House, proposed a program called the American System to advance the American economy He called for: a) protective tariffs b) a national bank (Congress had created the Second National Bank in 1816) c) internal improvements (both Madison and Monroe objected to internal improvements because the Constitution did not address using federal funds for state improvements) All of these proposals would help American industry and stimulate economic activity Alaska After Spain had abandoned its claim on Oregon in 1819, the Russians claimed the region In 1821 the Czar of Russia claimed all of the Oregon territory north of the 51st parallel Secretary of State Adams refuted the claim In 1824 the United States and Russia signed an agreement in which the Russians accepted the southern boundary of their claim as 54 40 The Election of 1824 Monroe had run opposed in 1820 but well before 1824 several strong candidates emerged Monroe decided to follow the two-term precedence and declared that he would not seek re-election Speaker of the House Henry Clay (Kentucky) - west Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford (Georgia) - south Secretary of State John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts) - north Senator from Tennessee Andrew Jackson (Tennessee) - west They were all Republicans Crawford was an advocate of states’ rights and had the support of the Old Republicans But Crawford fell ill during the race and was left half-paralyzed Jackson was selected primarily on his war record and he offered the vice presidency to Calhoun, who accepted the offer Clay advocated his American System Adams also wanted internal improvements but would not support tariffs The Corrupt Bargain The result of the election was inconclusive but Jackson won the popular vote and the electoral vote, but no one received a majority So the process moved to the House and only involved the top three candidates – Jackson, Adams, and Crawford Clay was eliminated and the results proved the death knell for his American System The House selected Adams to be president Almost immediately Adams appointed Speaker of the House Clay to be his Secretary of State Jackson and his supporters claimed they had been a ‘corrupt bargain’ The animosity that followed the election led to the formation of new political parties National Republicans (later called Whigs) led by Clay and Adams and supported a strong central government and business interests (very Hamiltonian) Democrats led by Jackson and Van Buren who gained support from the small farmers, opposed large government, and claimed to support the common man (very Jeffersonian)