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CHAPTER 13
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL AND
NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter outlines the primary features of neurodevelopmental disorders, with a
particular emphasis on attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, specific learning disorders, autism
spectrum disorders, and intellectual disability. Major features of each of these disorders are
outlined within a developmental framework, including integrative coverage of biological,
psychological, and sociocultural variables that cause and/or maintain them. Available biological
and psychosocial treatments for the developmental disorders are described, including efforts
underway to prevent such problems. In addition, this chapter outlines the primary features of
neurocognitive disorders, which involve delirium and major and mild neurocognitive disorders. In
so doing, forms of each of these cognitive disorders are described, with an emphasis on
Alzheimer’s disease. Coverage also includes discussion of known biological, environmental, and
psychosocial factors that cause, maintain, or are related to the prevention and alleviation of
neurocognitive disorders.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Describe why knowledge of critical developmental stages is important for
understanding neurodevelopmental disorders.
Describe the central defining features of ADHD.
Identify the main features of specific learning disorder, and explain how it is
typically treated.
Identify the major characteristics of autism spectrum disorder.
Define intellectual disability, and identify the categories used to classify
intellectual disabilities.
Identify major prevention efforts for the neurodevelopmental disorders.
Identify the defining features of neurocognitive disorders.
Describe the symptoms of delirium, and describe how it is typically treated.
Describe the symptoms of the major and mild neurocognitive disorders, and
explain how they are typically treated.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
OVERVIEW OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Clinical Description
Statistics
Causes
Treatment of ADHD
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER
Clinical Description
Statistics
Causes
Treatment of Learning Disorders
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
Clinical Description
Statistics
Causes: Psychological and Social Dimensions
Causes: Biological Dimensions
Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER)
Clinical Description
Statistics
Causes
Treatment of Intellectual Disability
PREVENTION OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
OVERVIEW OF NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS
DELIRIUM
Clinical Description and Statistics
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Causes
Treatment
Prevention
MAJOR AND MILD NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS
Clinical Description and Statistics
Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Alzheimer’s Disease
Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder
Other Medical Conditions That Cause Neurocognitive Disorder
Substance/Medication-Induced Neurocognitive Disorder
Causes of Neurocognitive Disorder
Treatment
Prevention
DETAILED OUTLINE
Overview of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Why is knowledge of critical developmental stages important for understanding
neurodevelopmental disorders?
 Developmental psychopathology is the study of how disorders arise and change with time.
These changes usually follow a pattern, with the child mastering one skill before acquiring
the next. This aspect of development is important because it implies that any disruption in the
acquisition of early skills will, by the very nature of the developmental process, also disrupt
the development of later skills.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
What are the central defining features of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
 The primary characteristics of people with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
are a pattern of inattention (such as not paying attention to school- or work-related tasks),
impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity. These deficits can significantly disrupt academic efforts
and social relationships.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
What are the possible explanations for gender differences in the diagnosis of ADHD?
Specific Learning Disorder
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What is specific learning disorder, and how is it typically treated?
 DSM-5 describes specific learning disorder as academic performance that is substantially
below what would be expected given the person’s age, intelligence quotient (IQ) score, and
education. These problems can be seen as difficulties with reading, mathematics, and/or
written expression. All are defined by performance that falls short of expectations based on
intelligence and school preparation.
 Communication and motor disorders seem closely related to specific learning disorder. They
include childhood speech fluency disorder (stuttering), a disturbance in speech fluency;
language disorder, limited speech in all situations but without the types of cognitive deficits
that lead to language problems in people with intellectual disability or one of the pervasive
developmental disorders; and Tourette’s disorder, which includes involuntary motor
movements such as head twitching and vocalizations such as grunts that occur suddenly, in
rapid succession, and in idiosyncratic or stereotyped ways.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
What are the benefits of “mainstreaming” children with learning disorders versus
delivering special education services? What are the drawbacks of this approach?
Autism Spectrum Disorder
What are the major characteristics of autism spectrum disorder?
 People with ASD all experience trouble progressing in language, socialization, and cognition.
This is not a relatively minor problem (like specific learning disorder) but is a condition that
significantly affects how individuals live and interact with others.
 Autistic spectrum disorder is a childhood disorder characterized by significant impairment in
social communication skills and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or
activities. This disorder does not have a single cause; instead, a number of biological
conditions may contribute, and these, in combination with psychosocial influences, result in
the unusual behaviors displayed by people with ASD.
 Impressive advances have been made in improving outcomes for many young children with
ASD using early intervention programs. Treatment for older children involves behavioral
interventions focused on their social communication deficits and the restricted, repetitive
patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.
Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder)
How is intellectual disability defined, and what categories are used to classify intellectual
disabilities?
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 The definition of intellectual disability has three parts: significantly sub-average intellectual
functioning, concurrent deficits or impairments in present adaptive functioning, and an onset
before the age of 18.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
What are the possible causes of the Flynn effect?
 Down syndrome is a type of intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra 21st
chromosome. It is possible to detect the presence of Down syndrome in a fetus through a
process known as amniocentesis.
 Two other types of intellectual disability are common: Fragile X syndrome, which is caused
by a chromosomal abnormality of the tip of the X chromosome, and cultural–familial
intellectual disability, a rare problem resulting from adverse environmental conditions.
Prevention of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
What prevention efforts for the neurodevelopmental disorders have taken place?
 Prevention efforts for the neurodevelopmental disorders are in their early stages. These
efforts include early intervention. Although many children can make significant progress if
interventions are initiated early in life, not all children benefit significantly from such efforts.
Given recent advances in genetic screening and technology, it may someday be possible to
detect and correct genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.
Overview of Neurocognitive Disorders
What are the defining features of neurocognitive disorders?
 Most neurocognitive disorders develop much later in life. Two classes of neurocognitive
disorders exist: delirium and mild or major neurocognitive disorder.
Delirium
What are the symptoms of and treatment for delirium?
 Delirium is a temporary state of confusion and disorientation that can be caused by brain
trauma, intoxication by drugs or poisons, surgery, and a variety of other stressful conditions,
especially among older adults.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
Delirium was one of the first psychological disorders to be recognized and described over
2,500 years ago. Why might this be the case?
Major and Mild Neurocognitive Disorders
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What are the symptoms of and treatment for major and mild neurocognitive disorders?
 Major neurocognitive disorder is a progressive and degenerative condition marked by
gradual deterioration of a range of cognitive abilities including memory, language, and
planning, organizing, sequencing, and abstracting information.
 Mild neurocognitive disorder is a condition in which there are early signs of cognitive
decline such that it begins to interfere with activities of daily living.
 Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of neurocognitive disorder, affecting approximately
4 million Americans; there is currently no known cause or cure.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
Describe to the class the Nun Study, the longitudinal study of aging and Alzheimer’s disease
conducted by David A. Snowdon with the School Sisters of Notre Dame.
What are some of the ethical issues involved in the Nun Study? Do the findings from this
study outweigh these ethical considerations?
 To date, there is no effective treatment for the irreversible neurocognitive disorder caused by
Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy bodies, vascular disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s
disease, and various less common conditions that produce progressive cognitive impairment.
Treatment often focuses on helping patients cope with the continuing loss of cognitive skills
and helping caregivers deal with the stress of caring for affected individuals.
 DISCUSSION POINT:
How can non-medical clinicians aid in the treatment and prevention of neurocognitive
disorder?
KEY TERMS
neurodevelopmental disorders, 481
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), 483
copy number variants, 486
specific learning disorder, 489
childhood-onset speech fluency disorder
(stuttering), 491
language disorder, 491
Tourette’s disorder, 493
autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 493
childhood disintegrative disorder, 493
Rett syndrome, 493
pervasive developmental disorder, not
otherwise specified, 493
joint attention, 494
prosody, 495
naturalistic teaching strategies, 498
intellectual disability (ID), 499
phenylketonuria (PKU), 502
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, 503
Down syndrome, 503
amniocentesis, 503
chorionic villus sampling (CVS), 503
fragile X syndrome, 504
cultural-familial intellectual disability, 504
delirium, 507
major neurocognitive disorder (dementia),
510
mild neurocognitive disorder, 510
agnosia, 512
202
facial agnosia, 512
Alzheimer’s disease, 513
neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer’s
type, 513
vascular neurocognitive disorder, 514
head trauma, 515
frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder, 515
Pick’s disease, 515
traumatic brain injury (TBI), 515
neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic
brain injury, 515
neurocognitive disorder due to Lewy body
disease, 516
neurocognitive disorder due to Parkinson’s
disease, 516
Parkinson’s disease, 516
human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV1), 516
neurocognitive disorder due to HIV infection,
516
aphasia, 516
Huntington’s disease, 516
neurocognitive disorder due to Huntington’s
disease, 516
neurological disorder due to prion disease,
517
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 517
substance/medication-induced
neurocognitive disorder, 518
deterministic, 518
susceptibility, 519
IDEAS FOR INSTRUCTION
1.
Activity: Would You Want to Know? Genetic research raises several interesting ethical
questions, particularly with regard to the disorders discussed in this chapter. Ask students
to consider whether they would want to know as parents whether their unborn child would
have Down syndrome or perhaps even autism (if such a test were available). Also ask
students to consider the ethical implications involved if and when routine genetic testing
for development disorders comes of age. Would such testing be advantageous or
potentially harmful?
2.
Activity: The Movie Rainman. In the film Rainman, Dustin Hoffman plays the role of
Raymond, a man with autism spectrum disorder. Many students will likely be familiar
with the film, but what they may not know or appreciate is whether Hoffman’s character
accurately depicts the condition. Most experts agree that Hoffman’s character does not
accurately represent autism spectrum disorder, and the textbook similarly reinforces this
point. After discussing the diagnosis, show the film and ask students to identify whether
Raymond displays the three main features of autism spectrum disorder and whether the
film fits the facts with regard to autistic behavior. You may also open the discussion to
issues related to media depiction of persons with other neurodevelopmental disabilities.
3.
Activity: Guest Lecture by a Special Education Instructor. Ask a special education
instructor to visit the class to talk about the intervention methods he or she uses to assist
people with neurodevelopmental disorders. You may also supplement this with a speaker
from your college or university student disabilities services.
4.
Video Activity: Autism and Mainstreaming. Show the segment titled “Autism,” from
Abnormal Psychology: Inside/Out. In this segment, Dr. Durand discusses the nature of
autism, its characteristics, and symptoms. There is live footage of a public school in New
203
York where the teachers and children with autism are in a mainstreamed setting with
other students. Aside from the real footage, this segment highlights the ongoing
controversy regarding whether such children should be mainstreamed into regular classes
or placed in special education classes. You may use this segment as a springboard to
discuss student reactions to the idea of mainstreaming, particularly in light of the assets
and liabilities of this approach. Stress that there are no right or wrong answers.
5.
Activity: Warning Signs of Alzheimer’s. The Alzheimer’s Association developed a list
of warning signs for the disease. Because normal forgetfulness and early dementia are not
easily distinguished, mistaken worry about Alzheimer’s is commonplace. Also common
is ignoring the early signs of the disease. A handout is provided with the association’s
warning signs for Alzheimer’s disease. Caution students that this information does not
qualify them to engage in amateur diagnostics. Nevertheless, it can help them determine
whether an impairment is of potential concern or not.
Source Information: The Alzheimer’s Association, Inc., Chicago, Illinois. Reprinted by
permission.
6.
Activity: Guest Lecture by a Local Advocate. Invite a guest speaker from your local
Council on Aging organization or Alzheimer’s support group to talk to the class about the
many problems that face the elderly in the areas of health and mental health. The speaker
should also discuss the kinds of services available in your area for individuals with
Alzheimer’s and their families, as well as other services for the elderly. Several of your
students might work for assisted living or nursing homes, so ask them for their input on
cognitive disorder and old age. Use http://www.alz.org/index.asp as a reference site for
you lectures on Alzheimer’s disease and old age.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL
Additional Readings:
Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford.
Barkley, R. A. (2010). Taking charge of adult ADHD. New York: Guilford Press.
Caplan, L. R., Dyken, M. L., & Easton, J. D. (1994). American Heart Association family
guide to stroke treatment, recovery, and prevention. New York: Time Books.
Christophersen, E. R., & Mortweet, S. L. (2001). Treatments that work with children.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Clipson, C., & Steer, J. (1998). Case studies in abnormal psychology. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company. Chapter 14, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: All
Wound Up and Out of Control.
204
Clipson, C., & Steer, J. (1998) Case studies in abnormal psychology. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company. Chapter 16, Dementia of the Alzheimer's Type: Descent
into Darkness.
Cohen, S. (2006). Targeting autism: What we know, don't know, and can do to help
young children with autism spectrum disorders (3rd ed.). Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Cummings, J. L. (Ed.) (1990). Subcortical dementia. New York: Oxford University Press.
Davies, P. (1994). Starting again: Early rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury or
other severe brain lesion. New York: Springer.
Edwards, A. J. (1994). When memory fails: Helping the Alzheimer’s and dementia patient.
New York: Plenum.
Eide, M. (1987). Alzheimer’s disease. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
Fisher, J. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (1990). Behavior management of the dementias.
Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 611-629.
Fouse, B. A. (1997). Treasure chest of behavioral strategies for individuals with autism.
Arlington, TX: Future Horizons.
Frith, U. (Ed.) (1991). Autism and Asperger’s syndrome. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Gatz, M., & Smyer, M. A. (1992). The mental health system and older adults in the 1990s.
American Psychologist, 47, 741–751.
Hantz, P., Caradoc-Davies, G., Caradoc-Davies, T., Weatherall, M., & Dixon, G. (1994).
Depression in Parkinson’s disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1010–1014.
Jackson, J. E., Katzman, R., & Lessin, P. J. (Eds.) (1992). Alzheimer’s disease: Long term
care. San Diego: San Diego State University Press.
Jordan, D. R. (1992). Attention deficit disorder: ADHD and ADD syndromes. Austin,
TX: PRO-ED.
Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Psychotherapy for children and adolescents. Annual Review of
Psychology, 41, 21–54.
Klin, A., Volkmar, F. R., & Sparrow, S. S. (Eds.) (2000). Asperger syndrome. New
York: Guilford.
205
Kozloff, M. A. (1998). Reaching the autistic child: A parent training program.
Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Kurlan, R. (2005). Handbook of Tourette's syndrome and related tic and behavioral
disorders (2nd ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Mace, N., & Rabins, P. (2011). The 36-hour day: A family guide to caring for people who
have alzheimer disease, related dementias, and memory loss (5th ed.). Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
McGowin, D. F. (1993). Living in the labyrinth: A personal journey through the maze of
Alzheimer’s. New York: Delacorte.
Pliszka, S. R., Carlson, C. L., & Swanson, J. M. (1999). ADHD with comorbid disorders:
Clinical assessment and management. New York: Guilford.
Quay, H. C., Routh, D. K., & Shapiro, S. K. (1988). Psychopathology of childhood: From
description to validation. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 491–532.
Sacks, O. (1998). The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales. New
York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Sattler, D., Shabatay, V., & Kramer, G. (1998). Abnormal psychology in context: Voices
and perspectives. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Chapter 11, Cognitive
Disorders.
Sattler, D., Shabatay, V., & Kramer, G. (1998). Abnormal psychology in context: Voices
and perspectives. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Chapter 12, Disorders of
Childhood and Adolescence, Mental Retardation, and Eating Disorders.
Seifert, C. D. (1990). Theories of autism. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Shapiro, E. (2011). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and
intervention (Fourth ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Siegel, B. (1996). The world of the autistic child: Understanding and treating autistic
spectrum disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shonkoff, J., & Meisels, S. (2000). Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed.).
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Silverman, F. (2004). Stuttering and other fluency disorders (3rd ed.). Long Grove, Ill.:
Waveland Press.
206
Storandt, M., & VandenBos, G. R. (Eds.) (1994). Neuropsychological assessment of
dementia and depression in older adults: A clinician’s guide. New York: American
Psychological Association.
Teeter, P. A. (2000). Interventions for ADHD: Treatment in developmental context. New
York: Guilford.
Weiner, M. (2003). The dementias: Diagnosis, treatment, and research (3rd ed.).
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub.
Wright, L. K. (1993). Alzheimer’s disease and marriage: An intimate account. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Zigler, E., & Hodapp, R. M. (1991). Behavioral functioning in individuals with mental
retardation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 29–50.
SUGGESTED VIDEOS
As many of the names of these disorders have changed, some of these videos may appear to be
out of date. Please be selective in which you choose to use based on good information with older
names and advise your students of such.
Abnormal Psychology Inside/Out. (Available through your Cengage Learning
representative). An interview with a patient named Mike is presented. Mike suffered a brain
injury after racing his car and cannot learn or remember new information. However, he has
retained over-learned memories, such as how to build an engine. He carries a notebook with him
at all times containing information regarding activities he must do every half hour. Consequences
of the brain injury include development of a temper control problem, depression, loss of his job,
wife, and home. (14 min)
Abnormal Psychology Inside/Out. (Available through your Cengage Learning
representative). The segment titled, “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,” presents Jim
Swanson of the University of California, Irvine, interviewing the parent of an 11-year-old child
with ADHD. This segment covers the DSM-IV characteristics of attention deficit/ hyperactivity
disorder, and shows how this child behaved at ages 5 and 6, prior to behavioral treatment
combined with medication. Dr. Swanson discusses the theories of neuropsychological causes of
ADHD and the role of dopamine as well.
A second segment titled, “Autism,” presents an interview with V. Mark Durand of
SUNY-Albany. Dr. Durand discusses the nature of autism, its characteristics, and symptoms.
There is live footage of a public school in New York where the teachers and children with autism
are in a mainstreamed setting with other students. The footage also shows the clinical, school,
and home settings of the child, giving a full picture of how this child’s behavior changed pre- to
post-therapy.
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ADHD: Adolescence to Adulthood. (Insight Media). In this program, a panel of key
experts and opinion leaders outlines the characteristics of ADHD; examines diagnosis; and
discusses appropriate treatment options for children, adolescents, and adults with the disorder. (53
min)
Agitation...it’s a sign. (Fanlight Productions). A variety of caregivers share their
experiences and thoughts on providing for residents with Alzheimer’s disease while providing
vivid examples of the techniques and concepts that have worked in their facilities. (14 min)
Autism: A world apart. (Fanlight Productions). This film depicts the stories of three
families and what it is like to love and care for children with autism. (29 min)
Communicating with older adults: Dementia. (Insight Media). This program explores the
communication barriers posed by sensory and memory impairments. It outlines the principles of
good communication and shows how to clarify one’s message when communicating with
dementia patients. (30 min)
Dress him while he walks. (Fanlight Productions). This sensitive and realistic video
addresses several difficult behavior patterns of Alzheimer's patients. It demonstrates practical
ways of dealing with behaviors such as wandering, angry outbursts, and delusions. For example,
in the case of one patient who constantly paces around the facility, staff have developed methods
of dressing him "on the run." Another patient is offered finger food while she wanders.
Although not easy to watch at times, this video shows caring and concerned staff dealing with
difficult situations in a practical manner and with a sense of humor. Though designed primarily
for nursing home staff, it will be a valuable training and discussion tool for family caregivers as
well. (20 min)
Dyslexia. (Fanlight Productions). This film, part of the The Doctor Is In series, examines
the experiences of people with learning disabilities as well as the potential value to society of
their alternative ways of learning. (30 min)
Forrest Gump. This film traces the life of a character named Forrest Gump, with an IQ of
75. The film is useful to examine stereotypes about intellectual disability.
He’s doing this to spite me. (Fanlight Productions). In this frank video, three caregivers
openly share their experiences of conflict and frustration in interactions with their loved one who
has a neurocognitive disorder. These scenes are integrated with comments and guidance from
professionals in neurocognitive disorder care. The result is a program that teaches both family
and professional caregivers how to reframe the dynamic into one which is more comfortable and
productive for both caregiver and patient. (22 min)
Philadelphia. This film, starring Tom Hanks, depicts a young man who suffers from AIDS
and the effects of the illness on his neurological functioning.
One of us. (Fanlight Productions). This film depicts four stories about integrating people
with developmental disabilities into mainstream society. (27 min)
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Rainman. In this film, Dustin Hoffman stars as Raymond, a man with autism spectrum
disorder and savant syndrome. On one hand, the film nicely illustrates some of the more salient
features of autistic behavior. On the other, it also misrepresents the nature of autism spectrum
disorder.
Raymond’s portrait. (Fanlight Productions). Raymond Hu is an accomplished artist who
was born with Down syndrome. This moving documentary looks at what can happen when a
child is encouraged to develop to his full potential. (27 min)
Regarding Henry. This film depicts a man who experienced a stroke as a result of a
gunshot wound and the impact it had on his family and how they learned to cope.
Wandering: Is it a problem? (Fanlight Productions). A variety of caregivers share their
experiences and thoughts on providing for residents with Alzheimer’s disease while providing
vivid examples of the techniques and concepts that have worked in their facilities. (14 min)
What’s eating Gilbert Grape. This film portrays a 17-year-old boy with intellectual
disability and how he and his family attempt to cope with his problems.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Alzheimer’s Association
http://www.alz.org/
The Alzheimer’s Association website contains information on local chapters, coping
strategies for caregivers, and scientific progress toward effective treatment and understanding of
this disorder.
The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Homepage
http://www.aacap.org/
This site provides information for children and their families (including research,
education, and treatment) on many childhood disorders.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
http://www.mentalhealth.com/home/dx/adhd.html
This site contains a wealth of scholarly information and links related to ADHD.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
http://www.mentalhealth.com/home/dx/autistic.html
This site contains a wealth of scholarly information and links related to autism spectrum
disorder.
Autism Speaks
http://www.autismspeaks.org/
209
The website for the Autism Speaks non-profit organization contains scholarly
information, scientific news, personal stories, and information about advocacy and events related
to autism spectrum disorder.
Center for Autism and Related Disabilities
http://www.albany.edu/psy/autism/autism.html
This site provides a wealth of information related to research and treatment of autism.
CH.A.D.D. (Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
http://www.chadd.org/
CH.A.D.D. is a non-profit organization devoted to educating the public about attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorders. This site includes information on the symptoms of ADHD,
treatments, and CH.A.D.D. chapters throughout the country.
Delirium
http://www.mentalhealth.com/home/dx/delirium.html
This webpage provides diagnostic and clinically relevant research information and links
about delirium.
The Division for Early Childhood
http://www.dec-sped.org/
This website provides links related to early intervention information for developmental
disorders.
Learning Disabilities Association of America
http://ldaamerica.org/
This website provides information and news updates on learning disabilities. This site is
aimed at parents, teachers, and other professionals.
Lewy Body Dementia Association
http://www.lbda.org/
This website offers a wealth of information and resources related to Lewy body dementia.
Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Alzheimer’s Disease
http://www.mentalhealth.com/home/dx/dementiaalzheimer.html
This webpage provides diagnostic and clinically relevant research information and links
about dementia of the Alzheimer’s type.
NLDline
http://www.NLDline.com
This is a non-verbal learning disabilities website with a huge array of information about
learning disabilities common in people with pervasive developmental disorders.
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WARNING SIGNS OF
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
 Often fidgeting with hands or feet, or squirming while seated
 Difficulty remaining seated when required to do so
 Easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
 Difficulty awaiting turn in games or group activities
 Often blurting out answers before questions are completed
 Difficulty in following instructions
 Difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
 Often shifting from one uncompleted task to another
 Difficulty playing quietly
 Often talking excessively
 Often interrupting or intruding on others
 Often not listening to what is being said
 Often forgetting things necessary for tasks or activities
 Often engaging in physically dangerous activities without considering
possible consequences
211
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WARNING SIGNS OF
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY (PRESCHOOL)
Does the child have trouble with or delayed development in the following?
 Learning the alphabet
 Rhyming words
 Connecting sounds and letters
 Counting and learning numbers
 Being understood when he or she speaks to a stranger
 Using scissors, crayons, and paints
 Reacting too much or too little to touch
 Using words or, later, stringing words together into phrases
 Pronouncing words
 Walking forward or up and down stairs
 Remembering the names of colors
 Dressing self without assistance
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WARNING SIGNS OF
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY (ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL)
Does the child have trouble with the following?
 Learning new vocabulary
 Speaking in full sentences
 Understanding the rules of conversation
 Retelling stories
 Remembering newly learned information
 Playing with peers
 Moving from one activity to another
 Expressing thoughts orally or in writing
 Holding a pencil
 Handwriting
 Computing math problems at his or her grade level
 Following directions
 Self-esteem
 Remembering routines
 Learning new skills
 Understanding what he or she reads
 Succeeding in one or more subject areas
 Drawing or copying shapes
 Understanding what information presented in class is important
 Modulating voice (may speak too loudly or in a monotone)
 Keeping notebook neat and assignments organized
 Remembering and sticking to deadlines
 Understanding how to play age-appropriate board games
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WARNING SIGNS OF
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY (ADULTHOOD)
Does the adult have trouble with the following?
 Remembering newly learned information
 Staying organized
 Understanding what he or she reads
 Getting along with peers or coworkers
 Finding or keeping a job
 Sense of direction
 Understanding jokes that are subtle or sarcastic
 Making appropriate remarks
 Expressing thoughts orally or in writing
 Following directions
 Basic skills (such as reading, writing, spelling, and math)
 Self-esteem
 Using proper grammar in spoken or written communication
 Remembering and sticking to deadlines
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WARNING SIGNS OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
 Difficulty interacting with other children
 Insistence on sameness; resists changes in routine
 Inappropriate laughing and giggling
 No real fear of dangers
 Little or no eye contact
 Sustained odd play
 Apparent insensitivity to pain
 Echolalia (repeating words or phrases in place of normal language)
 Prefers to be alone; aloof manner
 May not want cuddling or act cuddly
 Spins objects
 Not responsive to verbal cues; acts as though deaf
 Inappropriate attachment to objects
 Difficulty in expressing needs; uses gestures or pointing instead of words
 Noticeable physical overactivity or extreme underactivity
 Tantrums; displays extreme distress for no apparent reason
 Unresponsive to normal teaching methods
 Uneven gross/fine motor skills (e.g., may not want to kick ball but can stack
blocks)
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“EARLY” WARNING SIGNS OF
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
If your child displays any of these signs, bring it to the attention of your doctor:
 No babbling by 12 months
 No pointing, waving, and other gesturing by 12 months
 No single words by 16 months
 No two-word spontaneous (not echoed) phrases by 24 months
 Any loss of language or social skills at any age
 Inability to make or hold eye contact
 Inability to respond to the child’s name being called
 Inability to look where you point
 Lack of interest in pretend play by 18 months
 Arches back to avoid touch
 Rocks or bangs head
 Makes little attempt to communicate
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WARNING SIGNS OF
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 Memory loss that affects job skills
 Difficulty performing familiar tasks
 Problems with language
 Disorientation of time and place
 Poor or decreased judgment
 Problems with abstract thinking
 Misplacing things
 Changes in mood or behavior
 Changes in personality
 Loss of initiative
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