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CHAPTER 4 LECTURE OUTLINE
I. WHY IS SOCIALIZATION IMPORTANT?
A. Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals
acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival
in society. It is the essential link between the individual and society – absolutely
essential for the survival of both.
B. Human Development: Biology and Society
1. Every human being is a product of biology (genetics or nature), society
(environment or nurture), and personal experiences.
a. Sociology focuses on how humans design their own culture and transmit it
from generation to generation through socialization.
b. Sociobiology is the systematic study of how biology affects, and may
underlie, social behaviour such as war, peace, envy and cooperation
(Edward O.Wilson)
c. Most sociologists disagree with the idea that biological principles can be
used to explain all human behaviour, since, with the exception of simple
reflexes, such as dilation of the pupils and knee-jerk responses, virtually all
human behaviour is influenced socially. For example we cry because
someone has hurt us, we brush our teeth because our parents told us to.
d. Biological and emotional needs are related – children whose needs are met in
settings characterized by warmth see the world as safe, and others as
trustworthy; children who receive less than adequate care, are emotionally
rejected or abused, view the world as hostile and have feelings of suspicion
and fear.
C. Problems Associated with Social Isolation and Maltreatment
1. Social environment is a crucial part of an individual’s socialization; people need
social contact with others in order to develop properly.
2. Researchers have demonstrated the effects of social isolation on nonhuman
primates raised without contact with others of their own species (e.g., the
Harlows’ experiments with young rhesus monkeys). Deprived for the first six
months of life they never learned how to relate to others, nor did they become
well-adjusted adults.
3. Social scientists have documented the detrimental, often permanent, effects of
extreme isolation on children’s development
a. When Anna was found at age six she had no speech; couldn’t feed herself;
couldn’t walk; had no idea of cleanliness; and was so apathetic that it was
difficult to tell if she could hear or see.
b. When Genie was found at age thirteen she: could not talk or stand erect;
salivated continuously; had no urinary or bowel control; could not chew solid
food and had the height/weight of a child half her age.
4. Our self-identity is our perception about what kind of person we are, socially
isolated children do not have typical self-identities because they lack exposure to
“humanness”. ‘Self’ and self-concept require interaction.
5. The term child abuse or child maltreatment refers to the violence,
mistreatment, or neglect that a child may experience while in the care of someone
they trust – the most frequent form of abuse is neglect (when a child’s basic
needs are not met, regardless of cause).
6. Throughout history and across cultures, perceptions of what constitutes abuse or
neglect have differed. Sociologists argue that child abuse today can be linked to
inequalities in our society (ethnic/race, gender, class) and to the power imbalance
that exists between adults and children.
7. The term survivor is used instead of victim to describe individuals who have
lived through abuse. Unlike the word victim, survivor focuses on the strengths of
resilient individuals who have suffered abuse as children and grown into happy
successful adults.
II. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
A. Agents of socialization are the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we
need to know in order to participate in society.
B. The family is the most important agent of socialization in all societies.
1. Functionalists emphasize that families are the primary locus for the procreation
and socialization of children, as well as the primary source of emotional support.
Family is where we acquire our specific social position in society, where ethnic,
class, economic, religious, subcultural and gender factors all impact the
individual for the first time.
2. Sociologist Melvin Kohn‘s studies suggest ethnicity and class strongly influence
what and how parents teach their children
a. working-class parents who are closely supervised typically emphasize the
importance of obedience and conformity to their children.
b. middle and professional class parents who have greater flexibility and
freedom at work tend to give their children more freedom to make their own
decisions an be creative.
3. Conflict theorists stress that socialization reproduces the class structure in the
next generation rather than challenging the conditions that presently exist.
a. poor and low-income families may unintentionally socialize children to
believe that education goals and future ambitions are meaningless because of
existing economic conditions in the family
b. middle and upper income families typically instill ideas of monetary and
social success in their children., as well as emphasizing thinking and
behaving in socially acceptable ways.
4. Symbolic Interactionist theory focuses on the mutual dynamics of relationships
within the family.
a. In the context of family life grandparents and other relatives have a strong
influence on how parents socialize their children.
b. In families with personal conflict the birth of an infant may intensify the
discord.
c. In families where partners feel personally satisfied the birth of an infant may
contribute to marriage success.
d. Children’s behaviour may have an effect on how parents, siblings, and
grandparents get along with one another.
C. Schools continue to play an increasingly important role in the socialization process
since the amount of time a child will spend in educational settings has expanded with
the amount of specialized technical, and scientific knowledge, modern living
demands.
1. Schools teach specific knowledge and skills; they also have a profound effect on
a child’s self-image, beliefs, and values.
2. Daycare and preschool programs are especially beneficial for children from lessadvantaged backgrounds since they may provide valuable learning experiences
not available at home.
3. From a functionalist perspective, schools are responsible for:
a. socialization — teaching students to be productive members of society
b. transmission of culture
c. social control and personal development
d. the selection, training, and placement of individuals on different rungs in the
society.
4. According to conflict theorists such Stephen Richer, success in school may be
based on students’ ability to conform to a hidden curriculum—the process by
which children learn to value competition, materialism, work over play,
obedience to authority, and attentiveness—attributes that are important for later
roles in the work force.
D. Peer group is a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social
position, and (usually) similar age.
1. Peer groups function as agents of socialization by contributing to our sense of
“belonging” and our feelings of self-worth.
2. Individuals must earn acceptance with their peers by meeting the group’s
demands (peer pressure) for a high level of conformity to its own norms,
attitudes, speech, and dress code.
E. Mass media refers to large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means
(radio, television, film, Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people – both
children and adults. The media function as socializing agents in several ways:
a. they inform us about events;
b. they introduce us to a wide variety of people;
c. they provide an array of viewpoints on current issues;
d. they make us aware of products and services that, if we purchase them,
supposedly will help us to be accepted by others;
e. they entertain us by providing the opportunity to live vicariously (through
other people’s experiences).
1. According to media educator Arlene Moscovitch media encounters are an
inescapable part of everyday family life:
a. The average 16 year old will have spent more time in front of a television or
computer than attending school.
b. Some scholars suggest, wisely used, television can enhance children’s
language abilities; concept formation skills; reading skills; and encourage
prosocial development.
b. Other studies have shown a correlation between hours spent watching
television and lower grades at school; reduced reading; less exercise; obesity
(p.113).
2. While too new for systematic studies, public opinion surveys suggest that many
people believe the Internet and the World Wide Web can negatively affect the
socialization process – pointing for example to the tragedy at Columbine in
1999.
III. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
A. Without social contact, we cannot form a self-concept—the totality of our beliefs and
feelings about ourselves.
B. Cooley , Mead and the Symbolic Interactionists:
1. According to Charles Horton Cooley’s looking-glass self, self-concept is
derived from a three step process:
a. We imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people.
b. We imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we
think we present.
c. We develop a self-concept. If we think the evaluation of others is favourable,
our self-concept is enhanced. If we think the image is unfavourable, our
self-concept is diminished.
2. George Herbert Mead linked the idea of self-concept to role-taking—the
process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person in order
to understand the world from that person’s point of view.
a. Significant others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are
especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self;
these individuals are extremely important in the socialization process.
b. Mead divided the self into the “I”—the subjective element of the self that
represents the spontaneous and unique traits of each person—and the “me”—
the objective element of the self, which is composed of the internalized
attitudes and demands of other members of society and the individual’s
awareness of those demands.
c. The “I” and the “me” take form during three stages of self development:
i. preparatory stage — up to about age three, children largely imitate the
people around them.
ii. play stage (from about age 3 to 5) — children learn to use language and
other symbols, thus making it possible for them to pretend to take the
roles of specific people
iii. game stage — children understand not only their own social position but
also the positions of others around them. At this time, the child develops
a generalized other—an awareness of the demands and expectations of
the society as a whole or of the child’s subculture.
C. Recent Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives emphasize that socialization is a
collective process in which children are active and creative agents, no passive
recipients.
a. Childhood is a socially constructed category where children actively construct
their own shared meanings.
b. William A. Corsaro’s orb web model illustrates that children’s cultural
knowledge reflects not only the beliefs of the adult world but also the unique
interpretations and aspects of the children’s own peer culture.
c. Corsaro believes the peer group is the most significant public realm for children,
its peer culture emerging as children borrow from the adult culture and then
transform it to fit their own situation.
D. The ecological perspective, Urie Bronfenbrenner, emphasizes the impact of culture
on human development. The four ecological systems it refers to are:
a. The microsystem: immediate face-to-face interaction between the child and their
immediate family.
b. The mesosystem: where a child’s interactions with family are influenced by the
interaction between family members eg. How mother reacts to son depends on
how she’s getting on with father.
c. The exosystem: relates to how immediate family members may be influenced by
other settings, such as the mother’s job.
d. The macrosystem: relates to how interaction with the child is affected by all the
components of the larger society (i.e. public policy, legislation).
V. GENDER AND RACIAL-ETHNIC SOCIALIZATION
A. Gender socialization is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages
and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or
society.
1. Gender socialization is important in determining what we think the “preferred”
sex of a child should be and in influencing our beliefs about acceptable
behaviours for males and females.
2. Gender socialization may start before birth (ultrasound, amniocentesis). One
study found that higher-income families were more likely than low-income to
give male-oriented toys to children of both sexes, whereas working-class families
tended to adhere to more rigid gender expectations.
3. From kindergarten through college, teachers and peers reward gender-appropriate
attitudes and behaviour.
4. Sports reinforce traditional gender roles through a rigid division of events into
male and female categories.
5. The media also are a powerful source of gender socialization; from an early age,
children’s books, television programs, movies, and music provide subtle and
not-so subtle messages about masculine and feminine behaviour.
B. Scholars hesitate to point out differences in socialization practices among diverse
ethnic and social class groupings. These differences have been interpreted by others
to be a sign of inadequate, or inferior, socialization.
VI. SOCIALIZATION THROUGH THE LIFE COURSE
A. Socialization is a lifelong process: each time we experience a change in status, we
learn a new set of rules, roles, and relationships.
1. Even before we enter a new status, we often participate in anticipatory
socialization—the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future
roles.
2. The most common categories of age are infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood (often subdivided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and older
adulthood).
B. Infancy and Childhood
1. During early childhood, family support and guidance are crucial to a child’s
developing self-concept. Families in which children are provided with emotional
warmth, feelings of mutual trust, and a sense of security come closest to our ideal
cultural beliefs about childhood.
2. However, other families reflect the discrepancy between cultural ideals and
reality—children grow up in a setting characterized by fear, danger, and risks that
are created by parental neglect, emotional maltreatment, or premature economic
and sexual demands.
3. Abused children often experience low self-esteem, inability to trust, and feelings
of powerlessness.
4. The intergenerational hypothesis – that abused children will become abusive
parents – has been supported by some studies, not by others.
C. Adolescence
1. In industrialized societies adolescence is a buffer between childhood and
adulthood.
2. Without specific rites of passage young people are forced to pursue their own
routes to self-identity and adulthood – routes that frequently include anticipatory
socialization for adult roles.
3. Adolescence is often associated with emotional and social unrest as young people
develop their own identities and sometimes find themselves in conflict with
parents, teachers, and other authority figures who attempt to restrict their
freedom.
4. Individual experiences vary according to ethnicity, class and gender.
5. Upper-middle-class and upper-class families may extend adolescence into the
late twenties or early thirties through graduate or professional school, continuing
support as their adult offspring start their own businesses or careers.
D. Adulthood
1. Major difference between child and adult socialization is the degree of freedom
of choice.
2. In early adulthood (usually until about age forty), people work toward their own
goals of creating meaningful relationships with others, finding employment, and
seeking personal fulfillment.
Workplace or occupational socialization is one of the most important types of adult
socialization.
3. Wilbert Moore divided workplace, or occupational, socialization into four
phases:
a. career choice;
b. anticipatory socialization (learning different aspects of the position before
entering it);
a. conditioning and commitment (learning the “ups” and “downs” of the
occupation and remaining committed to it);
b. continuous commitment (remaining committed to the work even when
problems or other alternatives may arise).
4. Between the ages of 40 and 60, people enter middle adulthood, and many begin
to compare their accomplishments with their earlier expectations. This is the
point at which people either believe that they have reached their goals, or that
they have attained as much as they are likely to achieve.
5. In older adulthood, some people are quite happy and content; others are not.
Difficult changes in adult attitudes and behaviour may occur in the last years of
life when people experience decreased physical ability and, in industrialized
societies, social devaluation.
E. It is important to note that everyone does not go through certain passages or stages of
a life course at the same age and that life course patterns are strongly influenced by
race, ethnicity, and social class, as well.
VII. RESOCIALIZATION
A. Resocialization is the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values,
and behaviours from those in one’s previous background and experience.
B. Voluntary resocialization occurs when we enter a new status of our own free will
(e.g., medical or psychological treatment or religious conversion).
C. Involuntary resocialization occurs against a person’s wishes and generally takes
place within a total institution—a place where people are isolated from the rest of
society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run
the institution (e.g., military boot camps, prisons, concentration camps, and some
mental hospitals).
a. After stripping individuals of their former identities (through a degradation
ceremony) the institution attempts to rebuild a more compliant person.
b. The ability of total institutions to effectively alter behaviour outside their walls
has been widely questioned.
VIII. SOCIALIZATION IN THE FUTURE
A. Families are likely to remain the institution that most fundamentally shapes and
nurtures personal values and self-identity.