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Ingrid Figueroa
Biology AP
Period 3
Introduction
As an enfant, our intuitions lead us to discover our
bodily functions. This initial curiosity arouses the scientific
nature within each individual. During this period of growth
we learn that our world is mostly based on scientific
breakthroughs. For example, my first scientific
breakthrough took place when I combined two different
crayons to create one particular color. From then on, I
realized that I was born a scientist.
My ambition in life is to become a superior architect
by combining the use of science and mathematics. By
doing so, my goal to create the world’s ultimate structure
will be accomplished. In my life and work place science
will always play a crucial role.
Education has been one of my most important assets.
It has allowed me to expand my mind, and will help me
reach my goals. Since we are constantly learning,
education will forever be a part of me. This is why I
believe in the importance of academic achievements.
None of these aspirations would be possible without
motivation. I obtain my motivation from my determination
to succeed in life. Another aspect that drives me is the
desire to become a wealthy adult.
Chapter One
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Life is organized in many structural levels. Each level of biological organization
has emergent properties. Cells are an organisms basic unit of structure and funtion
The hierarchy of structural levels is as follows:
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The properties of life emerge from complex organization by the interaction
between components in different levels in the hierarchy.
Seven emergent properties associated with life include order, reproduction,
growth and development, energy utilization, response to the environment,
homeostasis, and evolutionary adaptation.
When Robert Hooke first encountered a cell in a slice of cork, he used a
microscope that magnified 30 times. Anton van Leeuwenhoek later discovered a
single cell organism with a magnifying glass that magnified 300 times. These
technological advances contributed to our current cell theory which states that all
living things consist of cells and that all cells come from other cells.
Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells can be distinguished based on structural
organization. The cells of the microorganisms known as bacteria are prokaryotic.
The eukayotic cell is subdivided by internal membranes into many different
functional compartments, or organelles, making the cell more complex than the
prokaryotic cell.
The meaning of form fits function is that the form of a cell goes accordingly with
the basic functions needed for the cell to live.
The five kingdoms of life include:
 Monera: microorganisms known as bacteria.
 Protist: consists mostly of eukaryotic
organisms that are unicellular.
 Fungi: consists of multicellular eukaryotic
cells that decompose and absorb nutrients by
breaking down the complex molecules of
dead organisms and waste.
 Plantae: characterized by photosynthesis.
 Animalia: obtain food by ingestion, which is
the eating and digesting of other organisms.
The scientific method has no real strict method but almost all scientist use the
same format which I know by hard and therefore won’t go through it.
Inductive is reasoning from a set of specific observations to reach a general
conclusion. In deductive reasoning the direction of reasoning goes from the
general to the specific.
The way science and technology is interdependent is quite obvious so I will not
discuss it.
Chapter Two
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An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by
chemical reactions. A compound is two or more elements that combine in a fix
ratio to produce another chemical.
 Four elements essential for life that make up 96% of living matter are carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
 The structure of an atom consists of subatomic particles known as protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
 The atomic number refers to the number of subatomic particles in an atom. The
mass number is the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. The
atomic weight is often used to refer to what is technically the total atomic mass, or
mass number. The bonding capacity of an atom is called its valence.
o The atomic number tells us the number of protons and electrons in an electrically
neutral atom. We can deduce the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic
number from the mass number.
 I know the octet rule.
 Electronegativity is the attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond.
It influences the formation of chemical bonds by pulling shared electrons towards
itself.
 In a nonpolar covalent bond, electrons are shared equally. When one atom is
more electronegative than the other and electrons of the bond will not be shared
equally it is called a polar covalent bond. The attraction of opposite charges,
cations and anions attract each other in what is called ax ionic bond.
 A hydrogen bond occurs when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one
electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. It
influences the formation of chemical bonds by reinforcing the three- dimensional
shape of a large molecule. It differs from covalent and ionic bonds because it
shares electronegativity.
Examples of Five Themes in the Chapter:
1. Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combination called
compounds.
2. Life requires about 25 chemical elements.
3. Chemical conditions on the Earth set the stage for the origin and evolution of
life.
4. Sructure and function are correlated at all levels including in elements.
5. Life consists of many chemical reactions.
Chapter Three
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Four water properties that contribute to the fitness of Earth as an environment for
life are: water’s cohesive behavior, its ability to stabilize temperature, its
expansion upon freezing, and its versatility as a solvent for life.
Water molecules are shaped something like a right angle. The properties of water
arise from the attractions formed among polar molecules that have opposite
charges at both ends.
The relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form
hydrogen is that as a result the oxygen region of the molecule has a slight
negative charge while the hydrogen has a slight positive charge.
Five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen
bonding are its polar molecules, the ability for cohesion, the ability for adhesion,
its surface tension, and the ability to form up to four hydrogen bonds.
The biological significance of the cohesiveness of water is that it allows plants to
transport water against gravity.
Water’s high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon freezing
affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem by allowing both ecosystems to
survive the different temperatures through changes in its molecular structure.
Water is a versatile solvent because its polarity attracts it to charge and polar
substances.
The equation for the dissociation of water isH20=H+OH-. What is actually
transferred is a hydrogen ion.
The basics for the pH scale is the measurement of hydrogen ion concentration
equaled to –log [H+] and raging in value from 0-14.
Examples of Five Themes in the Chapter:
1. Organisms depend on the cohesion of water.
2. Water contributes to Earth’s habitability by moderating temperatures.
3. Floating ice allows life to exist under the frozen surfaces of lakes and polar seas.
4. Following the theme of emergent properties, we can trace water’s unique
behavior to the structure and interactions of its molecules.
5. Life began in water and evolved there for three billion years before spreading
into land.
Chapter Four
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Carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds
carbon will form by the sharing of its four valence electrons with other atoms to
complete the eight electrons that it is supposed to hold, thus completing its
valence electrons.
Carbon skeletons may vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged
in closed rings. Some carbon skeletons have double bonds, which vary in number
and location. Such variation in carbon skeletons is one important source of the
molecular complexity and diversity of organic molecules.
The major functional groups are:
 Hydroxyl Group- In this bond a hydrogen
atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, which in
turn is bonded to the carbon skeleton of the
organic molecule.
 Carbonyl Group- Consists of a carbon atom
joined to an oxygen atom by a double bond.
 Carboxyl Group- It is when an oxygen atom
is double bonded to a carbon atom that is
also bonded to a hydroxyl group.
 Amino Group- Consists of a nitrogen atom
bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the
carbon skeleton.
 Sulfhydryl Group- Consists of a sulfur atom
bonded to an atom of hydrogen.
 Phosphate Group- Is a phosphate ion
covalently attached by one of its oxygen
atoms to the carbon skeleton.
Examples of Five Themes in the Chapter:
1. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
2. Carbon plays a prominent role in the evolution of life on Earth.
3. The variation in organic carbon skeletons contributes to the molecular diversity of
organic molecules.
4. The different actions of sex hormones, which are organic molecules with a
carbon skeleton, help produce the contrasting features of females and males.
5. 15%-30% of a cell consist is composed of carbon based compounds.
Chapter Five
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The four major classes of biomolecules are not found in the text so therefore I did
not answer it.
Covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers by means of
condensation reaction, in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each
other through loss of a small molecule, usually water. Polymers are disassembled
by monomers by hydrolysis.
The distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates include:
 Monosaccharides- single sugars also known
as simple sugar.
 Disaccharides- double sugars consisting of
two monosaccharides joined by
condensation.
 Polysaccharides- polymers of many sugars.
A glycosidic linkage is two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond formed
between two monosaccharides.
I know the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
Lipids are distinguished from other major classes of macromolecules by the
important trait that they have little or no affinity to water.
three important groups of lipids include:
 Fats: large molecules constructed from
glycerol and fatty acids.
 Phspholipids: substitutes the third fatty acid
of fats with a negatively charged phosphate
group, which may be joined by a smaller
molecule.
 Steroids: lipids characterized by a carbon
skeleton consisting of four interconnected
rings.
Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms because of
single bonding between all the carbons. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more
bonds between the carbons.
Proteins consist of one or more polypeptide chains folded into a specific three
dimensional conformation. The biological importance of this group is that they
are the molecular tools for most cellular functions.
I know the four major components of an amino acid.
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Protein conformation is determined by its ability to recognize and bind to some
other molecule.
The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.
The two types of secondary protein structure coil and fold in patterns that
contribute to the protein’s overall conformation.
Quaternary structure is the overall protein structure that results from the
aggregation of polypeptides subunits.
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary.
The function of nucleic acids is to equip complex information from one
generation to the next.
A pyrimide is characterized by a six- membered ring made up of carbon and
nitrogen atoms. Purines are larger, with the six-membered ring fused to a five –
membered ring.
The function of nucleotides is to keep the double stranded DNA macromolecule
in order according to the strand complemented by the other strand.
The three dimensional structure of DNA is a double helix.
Examples of Five Themes in the Chapter:
1. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major classes of .
organic compounds in cells.
2. Organisms use carbohydrates for fuel and building material.
3. Proteins are the molecular tools for most cellular functions.
4. Genes (DNA) and their product (proteins) document the heredity background of
organisms.
5. Inheritance is based on the precise replication of DNA.
Chapter Six
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The role of catabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of cellular metabolism is
that it provides for cellular respiration. The role of anabolic pathways in the
energy exchanges of cellular metabolism is that it consumes energy to build
complicated molecules from simpler ones.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Potential energy is stored energy that
matter possesses because of its location or structure.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be transferred and
transformed, but it can be neither created nor destroyed. The second law of
thermodynamics states that every energy transferred or transformed increases the
entropy of the universe.
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The function of ATP in the cell is used for releasing free energy when the
phosphate bond of an adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate is hydrolyzed.
I know the three components of ATP and the major class of macromolecule of
which it belongs.
ATP performs cellular work by moving in a cycle at astonishing pace. Energy
released by breakdown reactions in the cell is used to phosphorylate ADP,
regenerating ATP. Energy stored in ATP couples the cell’s energy- yielding
processes to the energy-consuming ones.
The relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specifity is that the
specifity of an enzyme is attributed to a compatible fit between the shape of its
active and the shape of the substrate, or structure.
The induced fit model of enzyme function brings chemical groups of the active
site into positions that enhance their ability to work on the substrate and catalyze
the chem.
I know how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled
reaction.
I know how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental
conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators.
I know the distinction between activation and cooperativity.
Examples of Five Themes in the Chapter:
1. The performance of ATP in plants.
2. The energy transformations of life are subject to two laws of thermodynamics.
3. Organisms transform energy.
4. The chemical reactions that occur in the cells of an organism is known as its
metabolism.
5. Organization is the key to the chemistry of life.