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Chapter Five: Roman Republic
1000 BCE – 44 BCE
Geography and the Rise of Rome
o The Alps served much of the same function that the deserts did for Egypt;
isolating Rome and allowing it to develop away from outside influence
o Water travel (Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas) allowed for trade and
development; winter travel was difficult due to cold, strong winds from the
North of Europe
o Land was fertile and the expansion of settlement was made possible by
this; climate was favourable to growing.
o Centralized location would allow for future expansion
Etruscans & the Kings of Rome
o Etruscans were very similar to Romans and were likely native to Italy
o They were very reliant on trade
o When the Etruscans expanded Southward they took control of Rome and placed it
under the control of a king
o They introduced temples to Rome and ensured that Roman towns featured
Capitoliums (temples dedicated to Jupiter) as the centre of town; also sewers and
infrastructure!
o The last Etruscan king in 509 BCE was deposed and served to offer impetus for
Romans to adopt democracy
o Etruscans were eventually absorbed into Roman culture
o Introduced numerals, blood sports, Hades (underworld), fortune-telling &
superstition to the Romans
Rise of the Republic (Res Publica) & Governance and the Peoples’ Representatives
o Underlying tension between the rich and the poor (patricians and plebeians,
respectively)
o Assembiles of governance under the Senate and People of Rome (Senatus
Populusque Romanus)
o Comita Centuriata was a collection of aristocratic male citizens arranged in
to 5 classes according to wealth and was allowed to pass laws. It was
further subdivided into the 3 clans of Rome (Ramnes, Luceres and Tities)—
effectively money was power.
 This group was led by consuls who acted as means to ensure that
power was balanced between them.
 The praetors were next in line responsible for justice or relations
between Romans and Non-Romans within the state.
o Comitia Tributa was made up of representatives of the different tribes
would hade the right to vote. This body could pass laws on behalf of all of
the people.
 This council was governed by the quaestors who were in change of
financial matters.
o Comitia Plebis was a voting body that aristocrats could not join; it was the
voice of the lower class. This council was governed by the plebeian tribunes
and could veto decisions made by the consuls.
o Republic went from being a small city to expanding and covering a far greater
area.
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o In defending itself from the Gauls Rome expanded into the Northern Italian
Peninsula
o Sicily was the republic’s farming hub
o Rome fought with the Carthaginians and expanded into the Eastern
Mediterranean.
The Punic Wars (246-146 BCE)
o Carthaginian forces under the control of Hannibal came from the Iberian Peninsula.
o With a smaller force he defeated Rome in several battles and took over a large
swath of Roman territory.
o Eventually Rome (under the command of Scipio) defeated Carthaginian forces and
became the dominant force in the region.
o When Cartage started to rise again, Rome completely destroyed it.
Expansion and Colonization
o After Cartage’s decline there was a power vacuum in Eastern Mediterranean
which resulted in an expansion in piracy in the Adriatic Sea—putting Roman trade
and Maritime interests at risk.
o Make note of the “Typical Roman Settlement” Diagram on page 175—it will be
on the exam.
o Similarly styled colonies began spreading up the Italian Peninsula—settlers were
generally former soldiers or urban poor looking for a fresh start.
o The rich poor divide was growing again in Rome proper despite the efforts of the
Gracchus brothers’ land redistribution efforts.
o Recently subjugated Italians wanted to be treated as full citizens of Rome with the
rights that provided (mostly tax and voting).
Law and the 12 Tables
o Laws were written and review by jurors to ensure fairness and clarity.
o The Corpus Juris Civilis was over a million words long and covered a great deal of
issues.
o It had both Civil Law and Criminal Law—the first of it’s kind to create that division.
o The Twelve Tables were a list of basic legal procedure and connected punishments
Rise of the Generals and the Decline of the Republic
o Under Gaius Marius the Roman army went from being a group of part-time
solder/farmers to professional soldiers.
o The new standing army was paid, fed, housed and clothed by the state
o Organizational structure: Legion (6000)  Cohort (480)  Century (80) 
Contubernium (8)
o Given that the soldiers saw their commander as their source of income and
livelihood they became more connected to them than the elected government
o The result of this was that strong generals could overthrow democratic rule.
o Caesar was one such general (also earlier Pompey and Crassus—together forming
the Triumvirate) who had made his name overtaking current-day Germany, France,
Switzerland & Austria.
o Caesar took control of Rome, became chief priest and effectively served as a king.
He was rewarded for this act of tyranny by being stabbed many times in
Pompey’s theatre by Brutus, Cassius and other senators in the name of liberty—an
event known as the Ides of March.
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Daily Life
Religion
o Ancient Romans were a very superstitious people; their gods helped to maintain
Roman cultural identity through trying times
o They were a blend of Greek, Etruscan and Roman gods.
o Religion played a large role in decision making at every level; frequently people
looked for a sign to indicate good fortune before starting a journey/conflict/etc.
o Gods were seen as something that needed to be honoured and placated.
o List on p181.
Family Life
o The male/father was the paterfamilias, or head of the household and held
complete power over all individuals—this included the right to punish or kill any
members of his house.
o All families were members of clans
o Adoption secured property staying in the family line via males; if a child is not
recognized (read: accepted) by the father if would be abandoned.
o Children were generally well cared for but males were preferred
o Boys were publically educated and girls were educated at home.
o Women had freedom of movement and were able to be active in society; they
were the property of a male at all times—either husband or father.
o They spoke Latin and had a substantial body of written literature including fictions
and historical accounts
Art, Architecture & Concrete
o Concrete was important due to its ability to be formed into a variety of shapes;
it was a revolution in architecture.
o Romans built on Greek architecture traditions and gradually developed their
own style
Chapter Four: The Roman Empire
44 BCE— 493 CE
End of the Republic and the Rise of Empire
o After Caesar’s dramatic end there was a flurry of infighting which resulted in
the formation of the Second Triumvirate (Octavian (West), Marc Antony (East),
Lepidus(Africa)).
o Antony married Cleopatra and divided the East amongst their children; they
didn’t have the authority to do this.
o Octavian defeated A & C’s forces, they committed suicide and he put their
eldest child to death.
o Octavian announced that he was giving the Republic back to the people of
Rome. He was rewarded for this by being given the name Augustus (which
was semi-divine)
o He slowly increased his powers over time including religious (powers) until he
was worshipped like a god
o His quiet machinations produced little dissatisfaction and resulted in peace,
prosperity and artistic growth during the Principate period
o Rome was divided into provinces in this period.
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Art and Architecture in the Principate
o Augustus ensure that public art and building glorified the legitimacy of the
emperor—essentially propaganda
o Most work was painted on walls, mosaics or represented via architecture
o Sculpture became increasingly detailed and began to look different from its
Grecian roots, Romans developed a language of visual symbols in their
sculptures to represent a view of Roman history
o Literature was developing Virgil’s Aeneid (a poetic history of Rome) was
written, other authors wrote poems applauding Augustus (Horace) and
poem/parodies (Ovid—who was banished for his writing).
After Augustus:
o Rome wasn’t so lucky after Augustus, the next emperors became increasingly
harsh
o Tiberius (14 CE) a son of Augustus who later left to an early-retirement
o Caligula (37 CE) who was cruel and vice-filled. Odd note: he disliked the
Senate so much he made his horse a member. Caligula was murdered by
members of the senate.
o Claudius (41 CE) was marginally better in the beginning, he firmed up control
of (latter-day) Britain
o Nero (54 CE) was Claudius’ son, killed his mother & was rumoured to have
started the great fire in Rome—though he tried to blame it on the Christians.
o After Nero’s suicide there was a continuing string of Emperors that were
mediocre rulers.
o Trajan came to power in 98 CE and focused his energies on the provinces and
expanding the borders of the empire
o Trajan’s son Hadrian (117 CE) consolidated Roman rule; he travelled in the
Empire and built popular support though public works.
o He build the Pantheon and a wall (Hadrian’s Wall—not joking); the
former serving as an architectural inspiration for future generations.
Buildings and Public Works
o The Romans valued public buildings, worthy of note were the multitude of
public and private baths, fountains, bridges, markets, mills, libraries,
amphitheatres, circuses among others.
o All of this was driven by Rome’s superior aqueduct system (providing water
supply) and related sewer system.
o Private homes were as varied as they are today, from single family dwellings
to what amounts to apartment style complexes.
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Beliefs
o Cult of Isis
o Originally from Egypt, it was a popular religion based on the wife of
Osiris and the mother of Horus—there were a great number of temples
dedicated to her.
o Mithraism
o Mithras was a deity from Persia whose worship was based around
sacrifice and mysterious rituals.
o It was favoured in the Eastern Part of the Empire amongst the soldiers
and merchants of the area before spreading Westward.
o Christianity
o The most lasting religion of Rome and a offshoot from Judaism.
o In 30 CE Jesus began teaching his perspective on the prophecies of
the Torah and developed a band of ardent followers.
o After his crucifixion the religion spread even more quickly and quickly
replaced the old gods of Rome.
o The spread of Christianity was helped by the promise of life after
death, missionary zeal and a basic message of compassion.
o It also made people feel like they were part of something larger as
opposed to the variety of different forms of worship that existed
previously.
o Jewish Diaspora
o In 586 BCE Nebuchadnezzar sent the inhabitants of Jerusalem into
exile. This caused years of movement and resettlement, mostly in the
eastern Mediterranean and the city of Alexandria
o The Jews of this period practiced their rituals and maintained the faith.
o There were periods of persecution and intolerance; one result of this
was the movement of Jews into a ghetto in Alexandria—essentially a
separate part of the city, segregating them away from other members
of society. After some time passed conditions improved once again.
o Later under the Christian Emperors some restrictions were placed on
the Jews but generally they were allowed to practice their faith.
Pax Romana: The Height of Empire
Society
o Roman nationalism was at its peak; people felt like they were part of
something larger—a peaceful empire
o Provinces were connected by roads and stable economics and government
o The family unit remained under male control and education remained similar
to what it was earlier in Rome’s republic period
o Women played an active role in society; frequently from behind the scenes.
One woman, Julie Domma became an empress—a first for the empire.
o Status determined how you were treated; if you were wealthy you were
punished less and more subtly and if you were wronged then the level of
outcry was based on your public standing; the opposite was also true for the
poor.
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o Slaves could earn release from their servitude though buying their own
freedom or being released via their owner’s will. Sadly, human rights had not
yet been invented.
o About 1/3 of the population was slaves
o Citizenship was often a reward for loyalty or for service
Trade and Commerce
o Negotiatores and Mercatores were dealing and trading for spices, silk and
other good from India, China and other Eastern cultures.
o Wine, olive oil and grain were heavily traded in-empire.
o Coinage was used to complete most transactions—particularly tax
payment.
The Decline of Empire
o Emperor Diocletian made a fateful decision to divide the empire (East and
West) in 293 under two Augusti.
o Eventually the Western part lost its connection to Rome while the East
became Byzantium
o The army was repositioned to ensure compliance in the provinces and
prevent civil unrest.
o He opposed Christianity and sought to reaffirm allegiances to the old gods.
o Constantine replaced Diocletian and favoured Christianity; after battles he
would suggest that the Christian God played a role in his success.
o He established Byzantium (Constantinople and later Istanbul) and it was
given equal standing to that of Rome in terms of governance.
o The Western Empire was assaulted by a parade of barbarians—the Goths
(both Visi-and Ostro-), Alans, Franks, Suebi, Vandals and the Huns. Some
of these groups were invited into the empire in an attempt to reassert
Roman dominance but it didn’t have the desired affect.
o After Constantine’s death in the East (now very much a Christian Roman
Empire) there was a quick succession of Emperors who would fight and
squabble with each other.
o Theodosis was one who rose from this infighting and took control and
stemmed the barbarian tide. He also banned all pagan worship; thus
reaffirming Christian control
o The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 CE and moved on to Spain and
Portugal—during this period they did not try to rule the Romans they just
tried to coexist as it was easier.
o As the empire disintegrated new kingdoms sprang up—Saxons and the
Franks moved into British territory; Alammani took to Germany; Attila and
the Huns made an attempt at Rome’s territory in latter-day France and the
empire continued to fall apart.
o By 476 CE the Western empire began to fall apart and set the stage for
modern-day Europe
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