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FORMATION OF THE SANGHA At the end of his life, the Buddha had gathered many disciples around him. These people formed the sangha or the original community of monks and nuns. Buddhist texts explain that, after his night of enlightenment, the Buddha sat under his tree for several weeks, experiencing the bliss that came with enlightenment. Soon, five men who had been companions of the Buddha before his enlightenment joined him. They had left Siddhartha when he began eating normally again. The Buddha preached to them of the Four Noble Truths. Ajnata Kaundinya was the first of these five men to become a disciple of the Buddha. The sangha’s most important task was to recite the words of the Buddha and agree on what the members of the sangha remembered he had said. For part of the year, they wandered around India telling people about the Buddha’s philosophy. During the rainy season, they returned to communal areas such as parks and to monasteries that had been built for them. In this way the idea of monastic life developed in Buddhism. Until this point in India, religious people had either wandered the streets or, if they were Brahmin priests, had lived at temples or royal courts. The monastery or group of Buddhist teachers became the most important institution in early Buddhism. The earliest texts and discussions were not so much about how the Buddha’s teachings should be interpreted but about how monks and nuns should live. These are called the Vinaya texts (see below). There are a few hundred rules for monks, including not using money, not drinking alcohol and not having sex. There are dozens more for nuns. What was clear was that the Buddha had said his system was open to all souls. Although women were seen as having a lower status than men, the Buddha had eventually invited women to use his teachings on an equal footing with men. MAHAPAJAPATI REQUESTS A FEMALE SANGHA Mahapajapati was both the Buddha’s aunt and his stepmother, having married his father the King alongside her elder sister, Mahamaya, the Buddha’s birth mother. Mahapajapati raised the prince from infancy when his mother the Queen died seven days after his birth. Mahapajapati was eager for there to be a female order of the sangha. It is said that she approached the Buddha and asked three times if women could join the sangha. Three times the Buddha refused. Later, Mahapajapati approached him again. This time she waited nearby with other women, their heads shaved and dressed like monks. At this point the Buddha agreed that there would be a female sangha. For those times, the idea that women could join a wandering order of philosopher-monks was a radical one. It has been discussed above that the Buddha provided a system of thought and views that was open to all – not only the priestly caste of India. Because of Mahapajapati’s request, Buddhism began to eradicate sexual as well as class differences. The move to admit women, however, was not immediate, and there remains in certain sections of Buddhism the view that women can never be as spiritually developed as men. THE EARLY COUNCILS Soon after the Buddha died, councils of Buddhists were occasionally held so that everyone could agree on the words the Buddha had said, and debate rules on how members of the sangha (nuns and monks) should live and behave. The first council was at Rajagriha immediately after the death of the Buddha. At this meeting, those present settled the contents of the dhamma (the Buddha’s teachings) and codified most of the rules for how a monk or nun should live, in the Vinaya. It is said that one of the Buddha’s closest companions, Ananda, recited from memory all the Buddhist scriptures to that date, and these were accepted by all the monks. It is doubtful whether this council actually took place in the way it is described. The first council was responsible for the formation of the Pali Canon (Tripitaka). PALI CANON THE BUDDHIST SACRED TEXT, OTHERWISE CALLED THE TRIPTAKA; PALI IS THE LANGUAGE IN WHICH IT IS WRITTEN TRIPITAKA LITERALLY ‘THREE BASKETS’, THIS IS THE BUDDHIST SACRED WRITINGS THAT CONTAIN THE TEACHING OF THE BUDDHA; SOMETIMES The second council was held at Vaishali perhaps seventy years later, and another great recitation of texts took place. The council was memorable as some monks were attacked for receiving money. This point was debated heatedly and eventually those monks who had touched money (against the Buddha’s wishes) were judged as being in the wrong. The splits at this council led, eventually, to the formation of Mahayana Buddhism. A few centuries after the Buddha, the Emperor Asoka, a king who inherited or conquered most of northern India, ruled as a new convert to Buddhism. He established the third council. It was during and after this time, 200 BCE to 100 CE, that Buddhism flourished in India. It also spread outside the country as Asoka sent missionaries to both the East and the West. The third council also resulted in an affirmation of ‘the approved teaching of the elders’ (Theravada) and the addition of the third part of the Pali Canon, the Abhidhamma, a discussion of the Buddha’s sermons. The first two Buddhist councils were important because they allowed members of the community to overcome problems that arose after the death of the Buddha who was, while he lived, the ultimate source of authority. When he was dead, the members of the sangha had to agree precisely on what he had said. Once these teachings were authenticated, the texts they formed became the new authority for the young community. THE MAIN SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM Buddhism is divided into three main groups or schools, sometimes called variants. These groups have long been understood according to their regional locations: 1 Theravada Buddhism: in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos 2 Mahayana Buddhism: in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan 3 Vajrayana (a form of Mahayana Buddhism): in Tibet. More recently these schools have spread throughout the Western world to Europe, the Americas and Australia. An arahat (Sanskrit) or arahant (Pali) is someone who has eliminated their desire for reincarnation, that is, they have achieved enlightenment. The progress to becoming an arahat in the Theravada tradition marks it as different from the Mahayana tradition. In this latter tradition, the It is estimated that there are 100 million Theravada Buddhists in the world, and up to a billion Mahayana Buddhists. The Theravada tradition (literally, ‘way of the elders’) is considered the original school of Buddhism. It claims to be more traditional, more in keeping with the teachings of the Buddha. Its concentration on monastic life, however, is seen as limiting the Buddha’s message. Mahayana (literally, ‘great vehicle’) Buddhism developed in India as a breakaway movement in the centuries after the Buddha’s death. It also strongly respects the Buddha’s teachings, but adapts more flexibly to local influences, particularly in China. goal is not to work only for personal development, but to achieve nirvana for all beings. theravada buddhism It has been suggested by modern, Western Buddhists that these latter comments were later added by men uncomfortable with women becoming arahats. Theravada Buddhists claim that their form of teaching and monastic behaviour is the oldest of all the Buddhist ARAHAT A PERSON WHO traditions. They promote the idea that nirvana, or liberation to the realm of non-desiring, can only be achieved by those who dedicate themselves totally to the Buddha’s message. Through personal experience and analysis, thought and meditation, Theravadins can attain nirvana, but this requires assistance from the wise members of the sangha. The Buddha is revered because he was the only person able to achieve enlightenment on his own. In Theravada Buddhism there is a strong emphasis on monks, so much so that many nunneries in the Theravada world have closed down. This issue is not helped by the fact that the Buddha seems to have been ambivalent about the status of women. In some passages of scripture he clearly encourages nuns, while in others he suggests that Buddhism will suffer by accepting women into the sangha. mahayana buddhism Mahayana began in India. It developed as a breakaway movement within the early Buddhist community. This group changed monastic rules, adapted texts and rejected some changes that had been made in the first council of Buddhists. Mahayana then developed into two general groups. One of these is the Madhyamika school of Buddhism. This school keeps to a middle way between self and non-self – thus resolving a controversy that erupted early in Buddhist history. The other main group is the Yogacara. This school suggests that rigorous meditation (yoga) is the most effective method for approaching the truth of existence. Before a Buddhist reaches this stage, Yogacara Buddhists say, they must pass through the ten stages along the path to becoming a bodhisattva – one who has achieved enlightenment but remains dedicated to helping other souls. Mahayana Buddhists in India took their form of Buddhism to Tibet, Vietnam and China, where it began to develop from 100 BCE onwards. As it adapted to Chinese culture, Mahayana became more and more popular. By the time of the Sui Dynasty in China (from 570s CE) Buddhism had been adopted as a major court religion and passed into Korea. From there, it passed into Japan, where it became a success. Madhyamika thinking had numerous elements in common with Taoism, a religion already established in China. Mahayana is connected very closely with the bodhisattva path. When the Buddha achieved enlightenment, he taught for a further 40 years before he died. Once he had died, however, he achieved nirvana. Thus, each individual could achieve enlightenment but the path was centred on self-discovery. Early Mahayanists wondered about the rest of humanity; how could becoming enlightened help the rest of the world? A bodhisattva, therefore, is one who achieves enlightenment but, unlike the Buddha, takes an oath to reincarnate, or abide in spiritual form, to assist all beings in achieving enlightenment. In this way the bodhisattva is delaying their own nirvana for the sake of every other soul. Mahayana Buddhists promote the Buddha not simply as a teacher but as an all-knowing transcendent being. We might say that Mahayana Buddhism is driven more by the personalities of bodhisattvas and other religious and mystical beings, but Mahayana is also joined to a strong system of philosophy. Mahayanists developed the idea that most phenomena on Earth are ‘empty’ of substance. This doctrine suggests that what seems real is, as the Buddha said, illusory and exists only to cause suffering. Many Mahayana schools suggest that nirvana can be easily and sometimes suddenly achieved. Enlightenment is available to everyone: monk, nun, layperson, farmer and king. It is argued by Theravada Buddhists that there is much in Mahayana practice that goes beyond the teachings of the Buddha. This includes the ideas of bodhisattvas and sudden enlightenment. Another thing that is exceptional YOGAMahayana is its popularity: it is by far the most about ANY OF popular school of Buddhism. Most Mahayana groups VARIOUS agree that women can achieve enlightenment as easily as SYSTEMS OF DISCIPLINE men. Some groups even suggest that enlightenment can IN THE come suddenly whether or not one is in a monastery. HINDU Mahayana Buddhism is a more inclusive form of PHILOSOPHICA Buddhism than Theravada. L SYSTEM CONCERNED WITH ACHIEVING THE UNION OF THE MIND AND BODY WITH THE UNIVERSAL Vajrayana (literally, ‘thunderbolt’) is a form of Buddhism SPIRIT that has developed mainly in Tibet. ‘Vajra’ is also a Bodhisattva bright, indestructible substance, so Vajrayana came to be one who has understood as ‘diamond’ Buddhism. It arose from achieved Mahayana thinking and concentrates on accessing the real enlightenment but core of nirvana existence forgoes to – cutting away the fictions that people help others about themselves, their status and their desires. construct achieve A key to Vajrayana Buddhism is the idea of prajna. This enlightenment VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM kind of wisdom involves developing the ability to discriminate between the world of reality and illusion. It includes the idea of compassion and the realisation that the world is ultimately illusory. TAOISM MAJOR CHINESE Buddhism is also a version of Mahayana Vajrayana RELIGION/PHIL Buddhism that is more spiritualised and mystical. It is OSOPHY, infused with elements of Hinduism, animism, occultism FOUNDED and magic ABOUT 600and is influenced by the Bon religion of Tibet. Vajrayana BCE; ALSOBuddhism also emphasises experience over KNOWN ASGenerally, Vajrayana Buddhism is considered emptiness. aDAOISM more mystical form of Buddhism. Vajrayana Buddhism has become well known through the person of the Dalai Lama who, since his exile from Tibet, has become a well-known traveller and Buddhist spokesman. CH’AN (ZEN) BUDDHISM Ch'an, also known as Zen, is a way of looking directly at one's own True Nature. Each of us is born, lives and dies, and yet we may go an entire lifetime without ever realizing that there's more to ourselves than we think. Indeed, we have the capacity to come to a very direct understanding of what we really are and what our relationship to the universe around us truly is if we will just look. Ch'an is a way of looking, a way to focus our attention on the truth of our own life. It is direct realization of our true nature. The origins of Ch'an can be traced to the teachings of both Buddhism and Taoism. The ancient Chinese paid close attention to the cycles of life and their effects upon those who live in the world. Books such as the I Ching and the Tao Te Ching described the nature of change and its cyclical characteristics. Thus was born Taoism, from the Chinese word Tao which means "way," referring to the way of nature, the way of the universe. The teachings of Taoism are based on the interplay of yin (that which is yielding in nature) and yang (that which is dynamic in nature). Over 2500 years ago in India, Shakyamuni Buddha began teaching the Middle Path to Enlightenment. Centuries after the Buddha's demise, the meeting of Buddhist and Taoist thought in China would form the foundation for the practice of Ch'an as we know it today. Bodhidharma Whether or not the man named Bodhidharma actually existed is still a matter for some debate, but it is very useful in our exploration of the origins of Ch'an. As the legend goes, Bodhidharma was a Buddhist scholar from India who visited the court of the Chinese Emperor Wu of Liang in the sixth century C.E. Following this visit, during which he is said to have debunked the Emperor's view of Buddhist teachings, he traveled west and took up residence in a cave near the fabled Shaolin Monastery. He spent nine years in that cave meditating. Bodhidharma was an expert in the teachings of the Lankavatara Sutra which stressed the direct realization of one's Buddhanature, and the subsequent meditative school which took root actualized these teachings. mean "awareness." Thus the Ch'an school was centered around the utilization of meditative concentration, rather than relying on sacred texts, in order to attain a direct awareness of one's true nature. The Spread of Ch'an By the seventh century C.E., significant numbers of Ch'an monks were gathering in local Buddhist monasteries to practice and study. Ch'an emphasized direct seeing through meditative practice, as well is what is known as "mind-to-mind transmission" between teacher and student. This transmission was epitomized by the story of how the Buddha once held up a flower instead of giving a verbal teaching. His disciple Mahakashapa simply smiled, confirming that his understanding was the same as the Buddha's For the next hundred years Ch'an grew rapidly, eventually coming to dominate the Chinese Buddhist landscape. By the beginning of the 8th century Ch'an had spread to Korea where it was called Son. In Vietnam it was known as Thien, and when the teachers Eisai and Dogen brought it to Japan from China it was called Zen. After some internal struggles, Zen grew rapidly in Japan, 21 of the 24 lines of Ch'an having been established there. After a total of 1200 years of development in Asia, the practices which stemmed from the Ch'an tradition were ready for another significant step: expansion to the West. Pure Land Buddhism The Basics What exactly is a "Pure Land?" It's actually two things at once: By this time, Taoist thought was over 3000 years old and was woven into the fabric of Chinese society. Taoist and Buddhist scholars had intermingled for several hundred years before Bodhidharma's time, and many books looking at Buddhist teachings in a Taoist way had been written. The two systems were generally considered to be very complimentary. Bodhidharma is credited with becoming the First Ancestor of Ch'an. The word Ch'an was a Chinese pronunciation of the Sanskrit word "dhyana, which referred to the Buddha's teaching of meditative concentration. But the Chinese interpreted the word to It is the realm of Purified Mind itself, our own Essential Enlightened Nature. The Mahavaipula-mahasmanipata Sutra states, "The triple worlds exist in the mind. Why is that? One sees in one's mind whatever one thinks of. It is our mind that sees the Buddha. Our mind becomes the Buddha. Our mind is the Buddha; our mind is the Tathagata." It is a literal realm of rebirth in which the impediments to cultivation are nonexistent, enabling one to purify one's karma without hindrance. These two aspects of the Pure Land come about as the result of what is known as the Interpenetration of Phenomenon and Principle. This teaching points out the interdependent nature of the relative world and the true, underlying nature of that world, based on the teaching of One Mind. The Tang Dynasty master YunMing Yen-Shou, who was a key figure in the synthesis of the Ch'an and Pure Land schools said, All things of Principle and Phenomenon are based on the Mind. From the perspective of Principle, a Sutra says, "Contemplating that all dharmas are made from the Mind, one accopmlishes a body of wisdom and becomes enlightened without the help of others." This is an insight into the True Mind as the fundamental through the contemplation of True Suchness. From the perspective of Phenomenon, a Sutra says, "The Mind is just like a skillful painter who is able to draw everything in the world. The five aggregates arise from the Mind. There is nothing that is not created from it." This perspective takes the rational cogitating mind as fundamental through the conscious mind. this purified realm is the result of the accumulated merit of the Bodhisattva Dharmakara who became the Buddha Amitabha after aeons of cultivation. Dharmakara vowed that when Buddhahood was attained, the resulting realm of existence would include the finest features of all the other Buddha-realms, making it easy for those reborn there to purify their past karma. The Vows According to the Sutras, Bodhisattva Dharmakara made 48 vows regarding the nature of the Buddha-realm which would come into existence. Among these are four very crucial vows, the 18th, 19th, 20th and 22nd. These vows are enumerated in the Larger Sukhavati Sutra, one of the three main Pure Land scriptures. The object of Pure Land Buddhism is the direct realization of the Purified Mind and our subsequent rebirth into the Realm of Bliss. Our Purified mind is the Pure Land, and our True Nature is Amitabha Buddha. The Tripod Pure Land Buddhism rests on what is known as the Tripod: Practice - Single-minded effort, using a variety of techniques such as visualization, meditation and recitation, aimed at Buddha Remembrance Samadhi (Buddhanusmrti in Sanskrit, Nien-Fo in Chinese). Buddhanusmrti means "To stay mindful of the Buddha," and has been the central practice philosophy of Pure Land Buddhism since its inception. Aspiration - The Vow to be reborn into the Pure Land through realizing the Pure Land which is one's True Mind. Faith - Also known as "Serene Trust" in one's True Nature, which also means having that same trust and confidence in the Compassion and Wisdom of Amitabha Buddha and all Buddhas. This includes the firm conviction that the Bodhisattva Vow made by all Buddhas to lead all sentient beings to Enlightenment either has been or will be fulfilled. Other Key Concepts The Buddha Amitabha In Buddhist cosmology, the Buddha known as Amitabha ("Boundless Light/Boundless Compassion"), also known as Amitayus ("Boundless Life/Boundless Wisdom"), presides over a Buddha-realm known as Sukhavati, the Pure Land of Bliss. The existence of The 18th vow states that anyone who has vowed to be reborn into the Realm of Bliss and has dedicated their roots of merit to this rebirth will indeed be reborn there, even if this vow has been sincerely made as few as ten times. The 19th vow states that Amitabha Buddha will appear at the moment of death to one who cultivates virtue, resolves to seek awakening, and single-mindedly aspires to be reborn into the Realm of Bliss. The 20th vow guarantees rebirth into the Realm of Bliss for those who have cultivated virtue, have sought awakening, and have singlemindedly aspired to be reborn into this realm. The 22nd vow states that once reborn into the Realm of Bliss, one may either complete the Bodhisattva Path and attain Perfect Full Awakening, or may take what are known as the Vows of Samanthabhadra, namely to follow the full Bodhisattva Path and to return to the cycle of rebirth to assist all sentient beings. The Existence of Many Buddhas. Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha of our age, is not the only Buddha to ever have existed. Indeed, all beings have the nature to become totally awakened to the Truth of the Universe. One of the first Buddhas other than Shakyamuni to be mentioned in the Buddhist tradition was the Buddha Maitreya, the next Buddha who will appear in our own worldsystem which is known as the Saha World. Merit and the Transference of Merit. There are a myriad of benefits to be derived from the non-attached practice of Wisdom and Compassion, including the Buddhist Precepts which are guidelines for enlightened living. These benefits, or "merit," may be accumulated and subsequently transferred to any or all sentient beings for their benefit (transpersonal) or rededicated so as to transform them into benefits for one's self (personal). The Existence of Buddha-Realms. Buddhas spread their influence over a system of worlds in which they teach Dharma and exert their benevolence. Shakyamuni is the Buddha of our own world system. Buddha-Realms may also be seen as the Realm of Mind. The Bodhisattva Path. Bodhisattvas are "Enlightenment Beings" who are on the path toward Nirvana, the end of all suffering, the realm of Perfect Peace. Bodhisattvas work not only for their own Enlightenment, but also for the Enlightenment of all sentient beings. Once the Bodhisattva path is begun, the Bodhisattva is instructed by a Buddha. Shakyamuni Buddha's teacher was the Buddha Dipamkara; Shakyamuni Buddha is the teacher of the Buddha to come, Maitreya. The Buddha Lokeshvararaja was the teacher of the Bodhisattva Dharmakara, who was to become the Buddha Amitabha. One fact is undeniably clear: Pure Land practice can accommodate people of any and all capacities. It utilizes practices which include meditation, visualization, recitation, devotion and Sutra study, so one may choose a practice which is consistent with one's capacity and inclination. This is why Pure Land Buddhism is such a marvelous path for those who are seeking liberation in this modern age when there are so very many distractions and impediments to Enlightenment.