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Lesson 31: The Mongols
The Mongols ruled Russia for 200 years, they came from Central Asia. They were short, broad, and black haired.
Mongol Boys began learning how to ride on horseback and shoot arrows when they were eight years old. They
spend most of their time hunting, herding and fighting.
A Mongol’s most prized possession was a horse (for transportation and food). 8 countries that the Mongol’s
conquered: Russia, Persia, China, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Poland, India and Hungary.
Temujin
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He was one of the greatest Mongol leaders. He is better known as Genghis Khan or “Supreme Lord”
He used a signalling system: using flags by day and torches by night for communication with other
soldiers.
He had his soldiers wear silk shirts under their oxide armor.
He also had Chinese and Persian doctors in accompanying his soldiers.
Kublai Khan
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Another Mongol leader and grandson of Genghis Khan. He founded the first non-Chinese dynasty to rule
all of China.
He built hospitals, orphanages and the Grand Canal.
The Mongols in China
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Kublai Khan himself was influenced by Chinese culture. He rebuilt Peking (Beijing), making its capital. He
also adopted the Chinese name, Yuan.
Marco Polo stayed in Kublai Khan’s court.
Hung Wu: organized a rebel army and drove out the Mongol’s.
Mongols in Russia
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“Golden Horde”: a group of Mongols that captured and destroyed Kier. Enslaved most of its people.
Mongols in India
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Babur: a descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan. He set up a Mogul (Persian word for Mongol)
Empire.
Akbar: Babur’s grandson, he married a Hindu princess.
Lesson 32: The Growth of Europe
The Carolingian Empire broke up into 3 parts: France, Germany and Italy.
Rise of the Holy Roman Empire
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Otto I, the duke of Saxony in Germany. He conquered the German petty rulers, the French nobles, the
Magyars, and the Italian dukes. He founded the Roman Empire and he was called “Otto the Great”.
Otto II
gained the right to appoint German bishops and archbishop. He married a widow of an Italian king named
Adelaide. He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans”, a successor of Charlemagne and leader of
Christendom. The land and his heirs became known as the Holy Roman Empire.
Lay investiture (practice of appointing church officials): made a conflict between the pope and the
emperors.
Pope Gregory VII, he ended the sale of church positions and banned the practice of lay investiture. He
was exiled by Emperor Henry VI.
The battle over lay investiture continued until 1122, when a compromise known as the Concordat of
Worms was reached.
Frederick I, nickname Barbarossa or “red beard”. He married his son to the daughter of the king of Sicily.
King Charles I of Spain became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire assuming the title Charles V.
Lesson 33: the Church in the middle Ages
Faith in God is an accepted fact of life during the middle ages. The church was a prominent feature in the medieval
village and a powerful institution with its own government.
The Church’s growing influences
Difficult tasks of the church: converting non-Christians and adapting church organizations.
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Paul in Ireland & Augustine in England: preached the gospels and won many converts.
Boniface: carried Christian teachings to the Germanic people in Saxony in 700 C.E.
Parishes made up a see or diocese; the district was ruled by a bishop.
Middle Ages: Bishops and archbishops were nobles, parish priests were commoners.
The Pope in Rome was the spiritual leader in the Christian world and ruled vast lands in Central Italy
owned by the church called Papal Estates.
The Society and the Church
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Peace of God, enforce periods of peace, it is where the church declares that the fighting must stop
between Friday and Sunday each week and during religious holidays.
Christian Salvation
The route to salvation was through the sacraments, the seven sacred rites, which were administered by the church
through the priests. Christians who disobeyed the church were threatened with excommunication.
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Religious Orders
 St. Benedict established a monastery in Monte Casino in Italy. Monks took vows of chastity,
purity and obedience to the Abbot or head of the monastery.
 Francis of Assisi, a wealthy young man, dedicated his life to poverty and services. He founded the
Franciscan order of the Monks.
 Dominic founded a new order of the monks. The Dominicans were the teachers who set up
schools.
Latin Texts
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 Charlemagne ordered monks to copy classical Greek and Latin texts.
Church ---- A Civilizing force
 Challenges to its authorities: How to control the clergy, Influential churchmen ignored vows,
they wore expensive clothes, and lavishly entertained kings and nobles, and Corruption and
immortality.
 The Abbot of Cluny banned simony or the buying and selling of religious offices and reforms the
help to restore discipline among the clergy.
Contributions of the church
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First was unity and stability.
Second was humanitarianism.
Third civilizing influences.
Fourth preservation of classical culture.
Synthesizer part
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Church in the Middle ages
 Establish unity and stability
 Humanitarianism
 Agriculture
 Values
 Education
Lesson 34: Feudalism
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Stirrup: it changed the nature of warfare. By supporting the knight while he was on horseback, the stirrup
allowed him to wear heavy protective armor and carry heavy weapons.
Charles Martel: he realized the value of heavily armed knights in his campaigns against the Muslims.
Vassals: are lands that were divided among lesser lords.
Feudal contract: Unwritten rules governed the relationship between a lord and his vassal.
Fief: it is an estate or a piece of land.
In exchange for his fief, a vassal gave his lord military service, usually about 40 days a year.
Relief: it is a payment of an annual fee.
Homage: it is ceremony that took place whenever a new fief was granted or when a son inherited his
father’s fief.
Warfare was frequent under feudalism. The feudal nobles believed that warfare was a way of life for the
peasants who farmed the land.
Chivalry: it is a code of conduct.
Feudalism: An economic, military and social system based on the ownership of land.
Castles or fortified home: they were built by the Feudal lords for protection. They were built on top of
hills or near rivers for added protection.
The Feudal system
The Church
King
Barons
The Knights
Freeman and
Serfs
Lesson 35: Manorial system
The Crown
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Manor: it is a village or several villages which are self-sufficient
Peasants who were tied to the land were called serfs.
Demesne: a reserved portion of land for the lord’s use. Serfs had to spend 3 days a week working for
the lord.
 Bailiff: an agent who manages the lord’s smaller estates.
 Three-field system: a method of crop rotation used in agriculture under the manorial system.
 One field-(winter crops) wheat and rye
 Second field-(in spring but was planted with summer crops) oats, peas, beans and barley.
 Third field-was left fallow or uncultivated for the soil to rest.
Feudal lord administered courts for the vassals and for the peasants. Feudal justice was based largely on
customs because there were few written laws.
Feudalism began its decay in the 13th century. Here are the reasons for the decline:
 Feudal wars. The war of the Roses in England and the Hundred Years’ brought long term
damage to the feudal lords.
 The crusades. Holy wars against the Moslems created new demands and the widespread desire
for change.
 The growth of towns.
 The serfs.
 The growth trade.
Lesson 36: The Crusades
Holy wars are called Crusade, which went on for about 200 years.
Pope Urban II
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Agreed to help Byzantine. Spoke before a large crowd in the town of Clermont in Eastern France.
He encouraged the soldiers to go to Palestine wearing a red cross on their tunics as a symbol of
obedience to God.
He promised that those who want on a crusade would be free of debts and taxes.
He spent 9 months journeying from one European city to another calling for a Crusade.
The First crusade-Peasant’s crusade
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As a sign of the people of Europe’s religious devotion, they used the war cry Deus vult which means “It is
the will of God”.
In 1906, about 12, 000 peasants began the long journey to Palestine.
The peasant armies attacked farmers, massacred the Jews and frightened all villages. When the peasant
armies reached Constantinople that had lost about 1/3 of their number.
The Second Crusade-Noble’s crusade
 About 30, 000 crusaders arrived in Asia Minor and defeated the Turks. When the crusaders moved south
many died because of starvation. Only 12, 000 crusaders survived and reached Jerusalem.
 After capturing Jerusalem, many returned home to Western Europe while the remaining crusaders set up
feudal kingdoms called Outremer or “the kingdom beyond the sea” in the areas they won.
The Third Crusade-The King’s crusade
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When Saladin became the ruler of Egypt, he united the Muslims throughout the near East and started a
jihad against the Christians.
The three most powerful rulers of Europe: King Richard I of England, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of
Germany, and King Philip Augustus of France.
This crusade was known as the crusade of Kings and was a failure
King Richard I was a brave warrior and for this he was called “the lion-hearted”. He signed a truce with the
Muslim leader (Saladin).
The Fourth Crusade-Merchant’s crusade
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In 1204, Pope Innocent III called for another Crusade. Rich merchants wanted Venice to replace
Constantinople as the trading center of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The soldiers agreed to conquer the island of Zara for the Venetians, and then the Venetians convinced
them to capture Constantinople.
The Fifth Crusade-The children’s crusade
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The children’s crusade was the saddest part. A group of French children led by a boy named Stephen set
sail from Marseilles, France in 1212. Most of the children were sold to slavery, starved to death or died
from diseases.
The Muslims took over the city of Acre, the last Christian stronghold.
Effects of the Crusades
The Byzantines were so angry at the actions of the Western Europeans that the split between Eastern and Western
Christianity became permanent. The Crusades helped to break down feudalism in Western Europe.
Lesson 37: The Growth of Towns and Cities
Many peasants left the fields to work in mines or village workshops. They became skilled artisans and began to
turn out cloth and metal products.
Trading centers
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Two of the earliest and most important trading centers. They are located along the important sea routes
that connects Western Europe with the Mediterranean sea, Russia and Scandinavia:
 Venice is an island port in the Adriatic Sea close to the coast of Italy. They exchanged their
products for wheat from the town on the mainland of Italy. Venice became a leading port.
Venetians developed an effective banking system.
 Flanders, which is a part of Belgium, was on the northwest coast of Europe. It is a low marshland
that is not suited for farming. Flanders is popular for its cloth made from wool. The first
merchants were mostly adventurers who travelled from place to place.
Medieval Fairs
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Fair-Special gathering of trade merchants sponsored by nobles and was held once a year at selected
places.
Italian moneychangers tested and weighed coins from different lands to determine their value from banc
or bench at which the moneychangers sat and came the English work “bank”.
Growth of Towns
 Merchants tried to settle close to a castle or monastery (this helped protect them from robbers and fights
between nobles). The merchants surrounded their settlements with palisades and moats.
 Burgs-most towns built during the Middle Ages grew up from merchant settlements.
Living conditions
 Rats came to Europe on trading ships from the Middle East. They carried with them a plague called Black
Death which caused many to die.
 Burghers-artisans, merchants and workers who lived in towns. They resented feudal laws because they
thought these laws were no suited for business.
The risk of guilds
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Guilds-merchants, artisans, and workers who joined together to form a group that ensured all the
members were treated equally. Guilds were also centers of social life.
To become a guild:
 Apprentice-to become a member of a guild, a person had to be a trainee in a trade for ten years.
 Journeyman-a person who worked under a master for a daily wage and could take a test to
become a master.
 After a period of time, journeyman took a test to become masters that were given by guild
officials.
Lesson 38: The Growing of France and England
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William the Duke of Normandy was a forceful ruler who set up a government based on strong central
authority. He defeated the Saxons that were led by King Harold.
Growth of Royal power
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In the late middle ages, monarchs took advantage of the changing conditions to centralize their power.
Monarchs could generally count on the support of townspeople.
The Norman Conquest of England
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Anglo-Saxon kings kept some authority over the country and united the people against the Danes.
England was conquered by William the Duke of Normandy later known as William the Duke of Normandy.
William divided Anglo-Saxons among the Norman lords or barons. He made the barons swear allegiance
to him as the sole ruler. He ordered his barons to build castles as symbols of Norman power.
William’s officials asked a group of men in each village to swear under oath the value of nearby estates.
The group was called a jury, from the French word jure which means “sworn under oath”.
Domesday book- a compiled information in a huge survey
The Increase of Royal power
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Henry I-son of William, replaced officeholders who inherited their positions with paid royal officials.
Exchequer-a central treasury
Henry II-grandson of Henry I and husband of Eleanor of Aquitaine, and strengthened the royal
government.
 Two types of juries were developed:
 The grand jury, decided what cases would be brought to trial
 The trial jury gave verdicts on the cases.
 Henry had his friend Thomas Becket appoint Archbishop of Canterbury.
John-son of Henry II, he was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. He was forced to sign a charter that
spelled out the baron’s rights. The document came to be known as the Magna Carta or “the great
charter” (Magna Carta: A document that safeguards the rights of nobles and later of all classes).
The great council was made up of high officials, nobles, and bishops.
Parliament- from the French term word parler, which means “to talk”, meetings of the great council that
includes lesser knights and representatives from the towns. The parliament of 1295 is called the Model
Parliament.
 Two houses of Parliament
 The House of Lords-representatives of great nobles and bishops
 The House of Commons-representatives of lesser knights and townspeople.
Limited monarchy- the monarch that did not have absolute power.
The Treaty of Verdun divided Charlemagne’s empire into three parts. Hugh Capet, count of Paris, was
elected by the feudal lords.
The Capetian kings-were not very powerful and they only ruled Paris and some sixty miles of territory.
The French kings- more powerful than other lords. They represented laws and order as against the
lawlessness and violence of the feudal lords.
Louis VI or “Louis the Fat”-weakened the power of the feudal lords by granting liberal charters to towns.
Louis VII married Eleanor of Aquitaine, who later he divorced when he became a King while Eleanor
married an English Prince who later became Henry II of England.
Philip Augustus-he succeeded in regaining most of the English possessions in France.
Louis IX-he was a pious and noble king. He was canonized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church.
Philip IV or “Philip the Fair”- grandson of saint Louis, he established a French National Assembly, called
the Estates- general
 Composed of three estates or classes:
 Nobility as the first estate
 Clergy as the second estate
 Commoners as the third estate.
Philip VI- a nephew of Philip the Fair and was chosen by the French as king.
Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, a peasant girl from Lorraine.
Louis XI, the successor of Charles was also a cunning and able administrator.
The Valois kings-weak rulers and their reign were a series of religious and political wars.
Lesson 39: The Renaissance
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Renaissance- it is the rebirth of classical learning.
Humanists were people who held that in order for a person to get the most out of life, one must place
greater emphasis upon the natural and the human.
The Renaissance
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Francisco Petrarch-a Florentine, was the earliest pioneer of the Renaissance and was called the Father of
Humanism. His work Sonnets in the life and death of Laura was about the woman he loved but failed to
marry.
Giovanni Boccacio-his best known work is Decameron.
Manuel Chrysoloras-a famous Byzantine scholar.
Desiderius Erasmus of Holland-he became the leader of the movement. He wrote
 In praise of folly, satirized behaviour of all social classes, even the clergy
 Handbooks of the Christian soldier, urged men not to accept the teachings of theologists but to
go directly to the Bible.
Famous Humanists
 In Germany: Philip Melanthon
 In England: Thomas More, he wrote the book Utopia in Latin.
Niccolo Machiavelli-he published The Prince after his death.
Castiglione-he wrote The Courtier which gave the Renaissance an idea of the perfect gentleman.
Leonardo Bruni- he set forth his ideal woman in his letter.
Leonardo da Vinci-he was called the “Perfect Florentine”. His masterpieces were Mona Lisa and the Last
Supper.
Michaelangelo Buonarrotti- he built and designed the St. Peter’s church in the Vatican City. His
monumental sculptures were the statues of Moses and David and he planned the tomb of Lorenzo de
Medici, the patron of the arts.
Raphael Santi-he was referred to as the youthful master. He made the Sistine Madonna painting.
Ptolemy believed that the earth was at the center of the universe but Copernicus believed that the sun
was at the center of the universe and this theory was confirmed by Galileo Galilei, father of experimental
physics”.
Lesson 40: The Reformation
Rulers pledged allegiance to the pope, whose authority they recognized as superior to theirs.
Reasons for the decline of the influence and power of the church:
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Islam became a powerful rival of Christianity in Eastern Europe
The pope asserted his powers not only in ecclesiastical affairs but also in civic and political matters.
The great schism in the Catholic Church took place when Urban IV, an Italian, was elected pope and
refused to go to Avignon in France where the papal palace was transferred by one of his predecessors.
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Clement VIII was elected by the College of Cardinals and Urban VI both claimed to be the rightful pope.
The Council of Constance put an end to the schism.
Martin V was elected and recognized as pope. He succeeded in uniting the Catholics.
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The Reformation
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Reformation: A religious revolution within the church that divided the Christian world.
Simony: the corrupt sale of church officials.
Forerunners of the Reformation
The early critics of the church who paved the way for the revolution:
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John Wycliffe was an English priest who attacked some catholic beliefs and practices. He protested
against the paying the tribute to the church, he argued the Christian beliefs should be based on the Bible
alone, he gained many followers and he was popularly called the Morning Star of the Reformation.
John Huss was an ardent follower of Wycliffe and was also a priest and professor. He spoke against the
forgiveness of sins by confession, he was sentenced to be burnt by 1415 at the stake for his belief, and his
death caused a rebellion among the Bohemians who were his followers (this rebellion was called the
Hussite Wars).
Martin Luther studied law, but instead of pursuing his career he entered priesthood. He joined the
Augustinian monks and was ordained two years later, he was a good member for 12 years and he became
a lecturer at the University of Wittenberg in Germany.
Pope Leo X sent his agent, John Tetzel, to preach indulgences in order to repair the St. Peter’s church,
however, Luther protested.
Indulgences are promises of remission of punishment after death for sins committed.
The Ninety-Five theses, was considered as the start of the Reformation and was the practice when a
subject was to be debated.
Dr. John Eck of the University of Ingols-tadt debated with Martin Luther. Pope Leo X ordered Luther to
recant his theses within 60 days to avoid excommunication.
Martin Luther’s writings
 In Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, he denied the papal supremacy and
held that the church should be subordinated to the state.
 In the Babylonian Captivity of the Christian Church, he refused to acknowledge the sacraments
of marriage, confirmation, ordinance and extreme unction.
 In On the Liberty of Christian, he explained his doctrine of justification by faith alone and
defended the private interpretation of the Bible.
Frederick the wise, the Elector if Saxony, backed the action of Luther. Charles V tried to heal the rift of the
pope and Luther. He called the diet of high church officials and dignitaries.
The kings and princes who protested against the order of Charles V banning the spread and teaching of
Luther’s reforms were called Protestants.
Diet of Constance
The Diet of Augsburg, which was attended by leading members of the Protestant movement, drew up a
code of beliefs which Philip Melanchton, a famous scholar, drafted.
Augsburg Confession: A code that became the creed of the Protestant faith.
The two other forerunners of reformation were:
 Girolamo Savanarola
 Desideris Erasmus.
Lesson 41: The Spread of Protestantism
Switzerland emerged as the center of the Protestant reformation.
People who spread Protestantism
Seets formed
Places
Martin Luther
Lutheranism
Germany & Scandanavia
Ulrich Zwingli
Zwinglinism
Switzerland
John Calvin
Calvinism
(France) Switzerland
John Knox
Presbyterianism/Puritanism
Scotland &England
King Henry VIII
Anglican
England
Edward VI
Mavy Tudor
Elizabeth I
 Luther was a priest for 12 years.
 Zwingli, a priest and admirer of Erasmus, he abolished the Catholic mass, confessions, and indulgences,
he also allowed priests to marry, and his ideas had spread to many parts of Switzerland.
 Calvin, a Frenchman, he became a famous religious and political leader when he fled to Geneva. His book
The Institute of the Christian Religion set forth his ideas. He rejected the idea that goodness would
ensure salvation, he believed in predestination (the idea that God chooses who would be saved), and he
set up a church with a strong and disciplined leadership. French Calvinist, called Huguenots, was powerful
in Southern France.
 John Knox took the new faith to Scotland, which came to be called Presbyterianism. Followers also
established churches in England where it became known as Puritanism.
 The Anabaptists, which were later known ad the Baptist, argued that infants could not be baptized as
members of the church because they’re too young. They were persecuted by both the Protestants and
the Catholics.
 Henry VIII, the Tudor King, had received a title “Defender of the Faith” from the Pope when he held
Catholicism against Lutheranism in his book, The Defense of the Seven Sacraments. He was married to his
brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon, but the Pope sanctioned their marriage by setting aside a church
law prohibiting such union with a so-called papal dispensation, but after 18 years he divorced her and
married Anne Boleyn. He was excommunicated by the Pope, however, he urged the Parliament to pass
the Act of Supremacy, which declared the king as the head of the Church of England. He proclaimed that
the Anglican Church is the Church of England.
 Edward VI, Henry’s son, inherited the throne at the age of 10, during his reign the Protestant bishops
issued the Book of Common prayer which outlined the official rituals and prayers for the Anglican
services.
 Mary Tudor, Henry VIII’s daughter, inherited the throne and was determined to make England truly
Catholic again.
 Elizabeth I, Mary’s Protestant half-sister, became queen. Queen Elizabeth used a skilful policy of religious
compromise. She persecuted both Catholics and Protestants who opposed her policies. She established
England as a Protestant nation.
 The Thirty-Nine Articles, was prepared by a group of bishops and became the creed of the Church of
England.
Lesson 42: Counter Reformation
The Catholic reformation: the movement to reform the Catholic Church and fight Protestants.
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Pope III, who was pope from 1534 to 1549, led the reform. He appointed able scholars and reformers to
high church officials.
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The Council of Trent met from 1545 to 1563formulating many doctrines and statements of beliefs of the
Roman Catholic Church. The reforms and doctrines :
 The Vulgate, new Latin edition of the Bible, became the standard bible of the Church.
 Delegate the right to interpret the bible to the church alone
 Reaffirmed the Pope as the head of the Church and the final interpreter of its doctrines.
It banned the selling of religious offices and introduced methods of instilling disciple among priests and
other religious officials.
The Council also appointed a committee in charge of publishing the Index (it is a list of books and
publications, which the church forbade its followers to read)
A former soldier turned priest founded the Society of Jesus, whose main aim was to win back Protestants
to Catholicism and to strengthen the church by establishing schools and universities to educate the youth
with Catholic ideas. This man was Ignatius de Loyola. The Jesuits, as Loyola’s followers were called, swore
absolute obedience to the pope. They spread Catholicism to India, China and North and South America.
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Inquisition or ecclesiastical court tried to root out heresies during the middle ages. It became a powerful
and feared institution in many countries of Europe.
Society of Jesus: aims to win back Protestant and strengthen Catholicism.
Religious wars
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Under Elizabeth I, England became the leading protestant power in Europe.
Spain under Phillip II remained the leading Catholic power. He ordered the building of an Armada or a
large group of warships.
The defeat of Armada allowed Northern Europe to remain as a Protestant stronghold. The most important
religious war of the reformation was the Thirty Years wars.
The Catholic alliance was led by Ferdinand II. One protestant state that resisted Ferdinand was Bohemia.
Ferdinand proclaimed himself as king of Bohemia.
In 1643, The German emperor asked for peace.
In 1648, European nations signed the peace of Westphalia, which ended the war.
Good luck!!! And God bless you.