Download Section 1 – The Land and the People

World Cultures
Middle East Unit
Chapter 25
Geography and Early History of the Middle East
Section 1 – The Land and the People
The Middle East lies in southwestern Asian
Middle refers to its location only in relation to Europe
Includes North Africa
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt
Middle East stands at the crossroads of three continents – Africa, Asia, Europe
Cultural diffusion because of migrating people, traders, conquerors
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originated in the Middle East
Strategic location
Vital sea routes and vast reserves of oil
Suez Canal – connects Mediterranean and Red Seas
Bosporus and Dardanelles straits – link the Black and Aegean seas
Strait of Hormuz – mouth of the Persian Gulf
Five main physical regions
Northern Tier
Stretches across present-day Turkey and Iran
Anatolian Plateau has fertile soil and receives enough rain to support farming
Large population
Iranian Plateau to the east
Dry region, small population
Arabian Peninsula
Vast plateau
Borders include the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf
Saudi Arabia is the largest nation in the region
Lack of water is the reason for the small population
Most people live around scattered oases
Oasis – fertile desert area that has enough water to support plant and
animal life
Plays a major role in world economy – huge amounts of oil
Birthplace of Islam
Fertile Crescent
Arc-shaped stretches from eastern Mediterranean along the Tigris and
Euphrates rives to the Persian Gulf
Rich soil and abundant water makes it a major population center
Few natural barriers – multiple conquerors
Nile Valley
Northeastern Africa cradle of ancient civilization
Fertile soil
Maghreb
Includes North African nations of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco
Most people live along the Mediterranean coast
Major crossroads
Climate dictates where people live
Nearly all of the region is desert
Settlements were scattered
Less than 10% of the land receives enough water to make farming possible
Irrigation systems carry water from rivers to crops
Modern irrigation methods
Drip irrigation delivers measured amount of water to each plant
Nations on the Arabian Peninsula spend huge amounts for desalination plants
Converts sea water into fresh water
Resources include salt, phosphate, copper, oil
Oil is unevenly distributed
Results in great economic differences between countries
Variety of languages, religions, traditions
Major languages – Arabic, Turkish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Persian, Greek, Armenian
Religions – Islam, Christianity, Judaism
Ethnic diversity
Majority group is Arabs
Arab is used to describe anyone whose native language is Arabic
Other ethnic groups – Turks, Iranians, Kurds
Religious diversity
The majority observes Islam
Christian sects – Coptic, Greek Orthodox, Maronite Christians
Judaism is the most ancient of the three religions of the Middle East
Section 2 – Early Civilizations
Sumerian Civilization
First civilization in the Middle East
Fertile Tigris-Euphrates delta
About 3500 BC most successful farming settlements grew into city-states
Sumerians believed gods were all powerful
Priest were very important
Only people who knew the prayers and rituals to keep gods happy
Ziggurat – chief building in each city-state, huge many-tiered temple
Scribes –young men, who learned to read and write, kept the temple records
Sumerians developed a system of writing
Record of information about trade, government, ideas
Important tool for cultural diffusion
First system was in the form of pictographs
Phonetic symbols added to represent sounds
Cuneiform – term used to describe the wedge-shaped writing of the ancient
Sumerians
Achievements
Used the wheel, invented sails, developed accurate calendar,
Used arithmetic and geometry to survey fields
System of measurement based on 60
Used today 60-second minute, 60-minute hour, 360 degree circle
1700BC – Fertile Crescent conquered by Babylonians – King Hammurabi
Hammurabi drew up a single code of law
Hammurabi’s Code – 282 laws
Regulated economic, social, moral affairs
Distinguished between major and minor crimes
1500BC – Fertile Crescent conquered by Hittites
Adopted and adapted ideas from the Babylonians
First to master iron
Phoenicians set up small city-states along the eastern Mediterranean
Earned living through commerce and trade
Never built an empire
Developed an alphabet – evolved into what we use today
Persian Empire
By 500 BC empire spread from Asia Minor to the Indus Valley
Emperor Darius I developed an efficient system of government
Necessary to rule the diverse people of the empire
Divided empire into 20 provinces
Each province corresponded to a particular group or people
Satrap – governor – was responsible for collecting taxes and keeping order
`Special inspectors kept an eye on the satrap
Improved and expanded road system – used relay stations
Set up a uniform system of coinage
Greek and Roman Influences
Alexander of Macedonia defeated the Persian Empire
Culture influence – Hellenistic civilization
Alexandria, Egypt became the center of culture
In the great library of Alexandria scholars pursued research in
Science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy
Under Roman rule trade flourished
Movement of people and goods increased the spread of ideas and technology
Christianity spread across the Roman Empire
Split of Roman Empire into
Roman Empire to the west
Byzantine Empire to the east
Greece, Asian Minor, Egypt, eastern Fertile Crescent
Section 3 – Judaism and Christianity
Drought and famine drove some nomadic Hebrews from Canaan – later called Palestine
Became enslaved to the Egyptians
Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt to the Sinai Peninsula
About 1025BC migrated to the Fertile Crescent – formed kingdom of Israel
King David unified Israel and made it a power in the Middle East
His son, King Solomon, was noted for his wisdom
Israel (Palestine) was conquered by the Persians, the Greeks, Romans
70AD the Jews revolted against Roman rule
After a savage war, the Romans forced the survivors out of Palestine
Diaspora – scattering of Jews throughout the world
Jews preserved their religious and cultural traditions
Made important contributions to science, medicine, business, arts
Hebrew beliefs developed slowly
Monotheistic – believe in one God - Yahweh
Torah – sacred book of Hebrews – early history, moral and religious laws
Religious beliefs of the Hebrews came to be called Judaism
Belief that people and their rulers should lead moral lives
Taught that individuals are responsible for their actions
People have a choose between good and evil
Rise of Christianity
Some Jews believe Jesus was the Messiah
Messiah – one anointed by God
Most Jewish leaders rejected this view – saw Jesus as a troublemaker
Jesus’ teachings were rooted in the Jewish tradition of monotheism
He also upheld the Ten Commandments
Used parables to teach
Parables – short stories with simple moral lessons
Jesus’ followers believed he was the Son of God
Preserved his teachings – became the New Testament
Followers of Jesus became known as Christians
Romans tolerated the religious beliefs of the diverse people they ruled
Were suspicious of Christians because they refused to show respect for
Roman gods
Christians were often persecuted
Martyrs – people who suffer or die for their beliefs
313AD the Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity
By 395 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire
Formal church was organized
Highest officials were bishops
Bishop of Rome became the head of the Church
Took on tile of pope
Pope – father of the Church
With the split of the Roman Empire (Roman and Byzantine)
The Byzantine emperor refused to recognize the pope in Rome
Emperor controlled the Church himself
The Christian Church split
Roman Catholic Church – centered in Rome
Eastern Orthodox Church – centered in Constantinople
Chapter 26
Heritage of the Middle East
Section 1 – The World of Islam
Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula
During the 600s and 700s, Islam spread across the Middle East and into Africa, Asian,
And Europe
Islam remains a powerful influence in the world
Almost one fifth of the worlds’ people are Muslim
Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570
At about 40 Muhammad heard the voice of Gabriel ordering him to preach to all
At first his teachings were rejected
622, Muhammad and his followers were forced out of Mecca
Went to Yathrib – changed to Medina - city of the prophet
Hejira – name given to the migration of Muhammad and his followers to Medina
This year became the first year of the Muslim calendar
In 630, Muhammad returned to Mecca with a strong army and captured the city
Islam means “submission”
A Muslim is someone who submits to God
Five Pillars of Islam – five duties accepted by Muslims
1 – Muslims proclaim their belief on one God
Muslims honor many prophets – Abraham, Moses, Jesus
Muhammad is the last and most important prophet
2 – pray five times a day, face the holy city of Mecca and pray
3 – charity to the poor and aged
4 – fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, ninth month of the Muslim calendar
5 – hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca
All Muslims who are able are required to make the journey at least once
Some Muslims look on jihad – or struggle in God’s service as a sixth pillar
Jihad includes inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace as well as battle in defense
of Islam
Koran is the sacred book of Islam
Contains the exact word of God as revealed to Muhammad
Koran is authority on all subjects
Religion, politics, law, economic and social life
Muslims had been forbidden to translate the Loran from Arabic
Arabic became a universal language uniting Muslims around the world
Muslims believe that Allah is the same God as the God of the Jews and Christians
Muslims believe in a final day of judgement
Muhammad accepted the original teachings of the Jewish and Christian scriptures as the
Word of God
Called Jews and Christians “people of the Book” because they followed God’s teachings
Muslims were to treat Jews and Christians with tolerance
By 732, Muslim Arabs had conquered an empire that reached from the Indus River to the
Atlantic Ocean
Included peoples of Persia, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Spain
Quick expansion in part due to
Arab armies were united by their beliefs
Idea of jihad
Lure of riches
Some people looked on the Arabs as liberators
Some people found the message of Islam appealing
Muslims were tolerant conquerors
Division of Islam
Within 30 years of the death of Muhammad, a serious dispute split Islam
Sunni and Shiite
Dispute was over who should become caliph
Caliph – successor to the prophet
Shiites – smaller of the sects – believed only a descendant could be caliph
Sunni – majority of Muslims – believe that any devout Muslim could be caliph
Umayyad dynasty – 661-750 Damascus, Syria was the capital
Emphasized Arab culture
Arabic was the language of the dynasty
Highest jobs in government and army went to Arabs
In 750, Shiites and other groups overthrew the dynasty
Set up the Abbassid dynasty
Abbassid dynasty – 750-1258 – Baghdad was its capital
Supported building projects
Mosques, irrigation systems, libraries, hospitals, public baths, schools
Non-Arabs could hold high jobs in government and become religious leaders
Golden Age of Muslim Civilization
Through trade and conquest, Muslim civilization spread
Blended Greek, Persian, Indian influences
Adapted the various traditions to its own needs
Muslim merchants developed new business practices
Set up banks, issued letters of credit, wrote receipts for payment, used bills
of lading
Islamic scholars translated ancient works into Arabic
Preserving learning of early civilizations
Section 2 – Centuries of Turmoil
Foreign Invaders
Seljuks
Turkish-speaking people
Converted to Islam in Central Asia
Captured Baghdad
Their success frightened Christian rulers of Europe
Mongols
Overthrew the Sejuks
Destroyed cities
Killed the last of the Abbassid caliphs
Eventually converted to Islam and absorbed into culture of the Middle East
Crusaders
Byzantine emperor called on the Christian states of Western Europe to help
1095, Pope Urban II called for a crusade against the Muslims
Crusade – holy war
For almost 100 years, Christians poured into Palestine in a movement that became
known as the Crusades
Crusade had limited effect
Civilizations in Western Europe were less advanced than the Islamic world
1187, Saladin, a Muslim general drove the Christians out of Jerusalem
Ottoman Empire
Turkish speaking people from Central Asia
1453, captured Constantinople – ended the 1,000 year old Byzantine Empire
Reached its height under Suleiman I (1520-1566)
Ottoman Empire lasted more than 500 years
Government
Sultan rued with absolute power
Large number of officials to supervise the government
“men of the pen”
lawyers, judges, mathematicians
“men of the sword”
soldiers who guarded the sultan and fount in army
Slaves
People conquered became slaves
Upon conversion to Islam they gained freedom
Millets – non-Muslim communities
Owed loyalty to sultan but ruled by their own religious leaders
Safavid Empire
By the 1500s, the chief rival of the Ottoman Empire
Safavid Empire was in present day Iran
Safavid were Shiite – Ottoman Sunni
Abbas the Great ruled from 1587 to 1629
Safavid rulers were called shahs
Shah – king
Empire declined after Abbas – empire ended in 1736
Iran remained under the rule of a shah until 1979
Section 3 – Patterns of Life
Village Life
Most people lived in small farming villages
Farm families divided their labor
Villages included a mosque and stores that sold what farmers did not produce
A small section of each house was set aside as women’s quarters
Women remained secluded when men outside the immediate family visited
Nomadic Life
Nomadic herders moved with their animals to areas that received seasonal rains
Bedouins – desert nomads – lived in small, tightly knit tribal groups
“people of the tent”
Highland nomads
Mountains and plateaus of the Northern Tier
During the summer moved to cool upland pastures
Returned to the plains during the winter
Many villagers and traders regard nomadic herders as lawless warriors
Central governments found it difficult to collect taxes
City Life
Cities developed for different reasons
Jerusalem – capital of ancient Israel
Damascus – trading center on a key caravan route
Cairo and Baghdad – built by powerful caliphs as their capitals
Beirut – prosperous seaport
Cities were walled for protection
Mosques were at the center of life in Muslim communities
Serviced as meeting places, centers of study, and inns for travelers
Commercial hear of the city was the suq
Suq – marketplace
Family Life
Family in the Middle East was patriarchal
Father had the final say on all matters
According to the Koran, only obedience to God is more important than respect
Children owe their parents
Marriages were arranged
Koran permits a man as many as four wives
Few men can afford to keep multiple wives
Divorce is easier for men
Lives of Women
Muslim tradition and customs made women subordinate to men
Once married a woman had to obey her husband and her husband’s father
Expected to be modes and to remain secluded within the home
Wear a veil to conceal their faces from me who were not member of family
Under Islamic law women gained the right to education and own property
Section 4 – Imperialism and Nationalism
By the late 1800s, European influence in the Middle East was growing
European imperialism and growing nationalism posed a threat to the Ottoman Empire
Greeks revolted and won independence in 1832
Powerful sultans tried to strengthen the empire
Introduced reforms to modernize the government
Set up secular schools to teach western ideas in Science and technology
Late 1800s – Turkish nationalism
Group of young military leaders – the Young Turks - overthrew the sultan
Wanted to strengthen the empire and end western imperialism
Supported Turkish nationalism
Followed a brutal policy of genocide caused death of hundreds of thousands
of Armenians
Young Turks stressed the differences between Turks and Muslim Arabs
Treaty of Versailles
Allies stripped the Ottoman Empire of its Arab provinces
Arab provinces divided by mandates
Mandate – territory that was administered by not owned by a member of the
League of Nations
Britain receive Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine
France gained Syria and Lebanon
Republic of Turkey
Shortly after WW I, Greece seized land that was ruled by the Turks
Mustafa Kemal rallied Turkish resistance
Drove the Greeks out of Anatolia
1923 Kemal overthrew the sultan, abolished the Ottoman Empire
Turkey became a republic
Took the name Kemal Ataturk – ‘Father of the Turks”
Ataturk reforms
Determined to make Turkey a modern secular state
Encouraged economic development –government funds built industries
Insisted on the separation of religion and government
Replace Islamic la with a new law code based on western models
Women won the right to vote and hold pubic office
Set up a public school system separate from religious schools
Began using western calendar and metric system of weights and measure
Replace Arabic script with western alphabet
Encouraged western style clothing
Modern Egypt
Became the focus of imperialist rivalry between Britain and France
Both wanted to build a canal across the Isthmus of Suez
1805, Muhammad Ali became governor of Egypt
Egypt was still a part of the Ottoman Empire but Ali pursued his own agenda
Introduced reforms to modernized Egypt
Invited French to train Egyptians in the latest European military and scientific
techniques
Introduce new farming methods
Promoted the growing of cash crops
Set up textile mills
Ali’s successors continued his policies
Needed to borrow money from European banks
Increased debt gave France and Britain an excuse to interfere in
Egypt’s internal affairs
French won the right to build the Suez Canal
Egyptian ruler Ismail sold his shares in the canal to the British
Egyptian financial problems worsened and Britain and France took control of
its economy
Egyptians rebelled – British forces crushed the rebels
Egypt declared its independence from Britain in 1922
The canal remained in British hands until 1956
Struggle for Iran
Russia and Britain acquired spheres of influence in Iran
By early 1900s, Iranian nationalist demanded reform
1925, supported by nationalist, Reza Khan seized power
named himself shah
Wanted to end foreign control and create a modern industrial state
Built roads and factories, modernized the military, reduced the power of Muslim
clergy
Arab Nationalism
WW I fueled Arab nationalism
After WW I only Saudi Arabia a Arab ruler gained independence
The growing importance of oil made Britain and France unwilling to leave region
1932 – Iraq gained independence
1943 – Lebanon independence
1946 – Syria – became independent
Conflict Over Palestine
British mandate of Palestine became the center of a conflict between Jewish and
Arab nationalists
Late 1800s persecution of Jews led to the modern form of Zionism
Sought to reestablish a Jewish state in Palestine
Desire for a Jewish state increased as anti-Semitism increased
Anti-Semitism – hatred or fear of Jews
Theodor Herzl formed an organization to promote Zionism
Jews from Eastern Europe began migrating to Palestine
Set up communities
Called on Britain and other European powers to support them
Balfour Declaration – 1917 – British government
“His Majesty’s Government views with favour the establishment in
Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people…”
During the 1930s, immigration increased as anti-Semitism in Europe grew
Tensions between Arabs and Jews in Palestine heightened
Zionist groups helped Jews buy land from Arab landowner
Conflict eventually erupted into war
Chapter 27
The Middle East in Transition
Section 1 – Political Directions
By 1950, most nations had won independence
Continued effect of imperialism
Artificial borders
Economic dependence
Wanted western technology – opposed influence of western culture
Arab League formed in 1945
Some nationalist turned to pan-Arabism
Unite all Arabs based on common language and culture
Believed a unified Arab state would be a major world power
1958 – Egypt and Syria formed United Arab Republic – lasted 3 years
Obstacles
National, ethnic and kinship ties proved to be stronger
Greater loyalty to own country
Arab land included many ethnic and religious groups
No geographic unity
Settlements scattered over a wide area
Economic gap
Forms of government
The degree to which citizens participate in government varies
Saudi Arabia – monarch with absolute power
Jordan – constitutional monarchy – elected parliament – king holds most power
Syria – strongman ruler – single party (Baath)
Most Middle East nations have western-style law codes
Saudi Arabia and Iran rely on Shariah
Shariah – highest authority for Islamic law
Koran governs all aspects of life
Provides guidance for political, social, economic life, private behavior
Challenges to Stability
Minority ethnic groups have demanded self-rule
Rapid population growth
Urbanization
Poverty and illiteracy
Civil War in Lebanon
Home to a number of different Christian and Muslim groups
Constitution divided power among the groups
Less power to the growing Muslim population
Muslim resentment
1975 – civil war broke out – lasted 16 years
Palestinians had fled Israel now lived in Lebanon
Backed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
PLO launched terrorist attacks on Israel from bases in Lebanon
Syria, Israel, Iran, U.S. became involved
1991 – power-sharing agreement gave Muslims a greater say in government
Islamist movement
Some Muslims saw westernization as a form of colonialism
Westernization seen as an evil force undermining Islamic society
Demanded return to the values set out in the Koran and early Islamic traditions
Insisted governments use the Shariah as the basis of law
Wanted to restore authority to religious leaders
Spurred religious revival throughout the Muslim world
Extremism
Islamists did not promote violence – one branch turned to terrorism
Al Qaeda – used violence and terror to promote their values
Targeted U.S. for attacks
Accused U.S. of spreading its culture and values as a new imperialism
Most Middle East leaders reject the actions of extremist
Cracked down on extremist groups – unable to destroy the movement
Section 2 – Changing Economic and Social Patterns
After independence – goal was to reduce European economic influence
Foreigners owned key industries, its key asset – oil
Some Arab nations turned to socialism to control large sections of their economics
1950s some Middle Easter countries nationalized foreign-owned companies
Banking, oil, food processing
Governments took a leading role in promoting industrials growth – modernization
Governments can raise capital, make long-term plans
Rapid population growth poses a challenge to modernization
Puts strain on resources
Limited farmland and scarcity of water makes population growth a critical problem
Need to improve food production
Modernizing agriculture
Increase cash crop output to earn income
Need to increase the amount of farmland
Irrigation systems
Dams used for irrigation and hydroelectric
Desalination – converting sea water into fresh water for drinking and irrigation
Improving farming methods to increase crop yields
Better seeds and fertilizers
In Israel new farming method – “fertigation” – pumping water and fertilizer
directly to the roots of plants
Using land reform
Redistribution of land to poor farmers
Hoped to increase food output, end rural poverty, reduce power of landlords
Politically popular, limited economic success
Role of Oil
Middle East has 60 percent of the world’s oil reserves
Oil resources are unevenly distributed
Since the 1960s oil-rich nations have given money and loans to poorer
neighbors
Urban Growth
Modernization and population explosion have contributed to the rapid growth of
Middle East cities
Come looking for work, higher education, better jobs
Limited housing – millions live in shacks on the edge of the city
People from the same village cluster in the same neighborhoods
Conflicts arise between generations
Children adapt more quickly to city life
Worries that foreign ideas are undermining traditional values
Women’s Lives
Status of women vary from country to country
Depends on each nation’s government, laws, and social traditions
Education
Great emphasis is place on education
Education is uneven from country to country, urban to rural
Population explosion has created problems in education
Section 3 – Three Nations on the Road to Modernization
Iran – second-largest country in the Middle East, third-largest population
Huge oil resources – third largest in region – fourth largest in the world
Strategic location on the Persian Gulf, Islamic revolution
Home to more than a dozen ethnic groups – only a small percentage are Arab
Most speak Persian – most are Muslims – only country where Shiites are majority
Nationalized oil wells in 1951
During the 50s and 60s the shah launch economic and social reforms
Redistribution of land to peasants, improved health care and education
Finance construction and industrial growth
Women given new rights – right to vote
Reforms led to a growing gap between westernized Iranians from the rest
1979 overthrow of the shah by supports of the Ayatollah Khomeine
Iran became a theocracy – government ruled by religious leaders
Economy slowed after the revolution
U. S. trade boycott, Iran-Iraq war
Tension between reformers and traditionalist within the Islamist movement
Reformers want to quicken the pace of economic and social change
Traditionalists reject modernizing influences – might undermine Islamic
Principles
Egypt – third largest country in the Middle East – largest population – mostly desert
95 percent of population live on 5 percent of the land
Lacks vast oil resources – Nile Valley is Egypt’s greatest natural resource
1950s President Gamal Abdel Nasser promoted Arab socialism
Nationalized industries took control of foreign-owned businesses
Redistribution of land to poor farmers – increased wages to urban workers
Build the Aswan High Dam
Irrigated more farmland, control Nike flooding, hydroelectricity
Arab-Israeli tension led to two wars
Nasser’s successor – Anwar Sadat – moved away from Arab socialism
Welcomed foreign investment, supported private industry
Became the first Arab leader to make peace with Israel
1981 – assassinated by Muslim extremist
Sadat’s successor – Hosni Mubarak
2011 – Arab Spring uprising topples Mubarak
Instability continues
Turkey – located in Asia and Europe
Close economic and military ties with the West – member of NATO
Nearly all Turks are Sunni Muslims
Turkey’s language, culture, history come from the Ottoman Empire
10-15 million Turkish people are Kurds – most live in the southeast
Face discrimination and repression
Kurdish demand for self-rule or independent state has led to violence
Since the 1920s – it has become a modern, secular state
One of the most balance economies in the Middle East
Mix of modern industry and trade, along with traditional agriculture
Population growing faster than the economy
Islamic political parties have gained support
Religious goals clash with Turkey’s secular constitution
Chapter 28
The Middle East in the World Today
Section 1 – Regional and Global Issues
Middle East and the Cold War
U. S. and Soviet Union recognized the strategic importance of the Middle East
Controlled oil and vital water ways
Superpowers competed for influence
Many Middle Eastern nations chose to remain nonaligned
Accepted help from both sides
In Turkey the Soviets backed communist rebels – U.S. helped resisters
Later Turkey joined NATO – NATO air bases established
After the Cold War concern grew about weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East
Development of chemical weapons, biological weapons, nuclear weapons
Concern with the spread of nuclear weapons and the rise of extremism
Causes of extremism – oppressive governments, poverty, social inequality, westernization
OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries – 11 members
OPEC’s power increased as the world demand for oil rose in the 1970s
During the Arab-Israeli war in 1973 OPEC stopped shipments to countries that
supported Israel – this included the I. S.
Set off a global oil crisis as prices rose and supplies dwindles
Rising oil prices affect the world economy in dramatic ways
Hardest hit are developing nations
Cuts in social programs to pay for imported oil
In industrialized countries, high oil prices cause inflation
In the Middle East – countries that import oil suffer while oil-rich
Countries earn huge profits
After the 1970s turned to conservation and alternative energy sources
Looked for oil at home, bought from non-OPEC nations
OPEC is less powerful today
Divisions within OPEC account for the fall in prices
Many OPEC countries do not want to cut production
Cuts in production mean smaller oil income
Wars in the Region - Factors – oil – border disputes
Iran-Iraq War – eight year war
1980 – Iraq launched a massive invasion of Iran
Destroyed the other’s cities, ports, oil fields
1988 – both sides accepted a UN cease-fire
No signed peace agreement
Persian Gulf War –
1990 – Iraq invades Kuwait – claimed Kuwait belonged to Iraq
Iraq posed a threat to Saudi Arabia
1991 – UN coalition moved against Saddam Hussein
Defeated Iraq forces within days
Operation Iraqi Freedom
March 2003 – military operations against Iraq began
December 2003 Saddam Hussein captured
December 2006 Saddam Hussein executed
December 21, 2011 – U. S. forces withdrawal from Iraqi
Section 2 – The Arab-Israeli Conflict
After WW II, violence between Arabs and Jews in the British mandate of Palestine increase
Jewish refugees from Europe joined with earlier setters
Determined to set up a Jewish state
Palestinian Arabs opposed the arrival of Jewish immigrants
Did not want to lose any of their homeland to make up for the wrongs of Europe
1947 – UN recommendation – Palestine be partitioned – divided into
a Jewish state an Arab state
Zionist accepted the plan – Arabs objected
Arabs regarded the plan as a violation of their right to self-determination
1948 – last British troops leave Palestine
Jews announce the creation of the state of Israel
Israel won recognition from the major world powers
Neighboring Arab nations saw the creation as a continued domination by western
powers
Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon sent separate military forces against Israel
Israel defeated the divided Arab forces
Israel then annexed about half the area set aside for an Arab by the UN
As well as half of Jerusalem
Jordan tool the rest of Arab Palestine
Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip
Palestinian refugees fled – many remain in makeshift UN refugee camps
Refuse to leave – believe leaving will be interpreted as a willingness to
Give up the goal of regaining a Palestinian homeland
Continued Conflict
1956 – Israel, Britain, France attacked after Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal
Israeli troops occupied but later withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula
1967 – third Arab-Israeli war occurred – lasted six days – Six-Day War
Israel made territorial gains
Took the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt
Took the Golan Heights from Syria
Took the West Bank from Jordan
Took East Jerusalem from the Arabs
1973 – Syria and Egypt attacked Israel in an attempt to regain lost land
Israel pushed back the invaders
UN negotiated a cease-fire
Cold War fueled the Arab-Israeli conflict
U. S. backed Israel – Soviet Union backed Syria, Iraq, Egypt
Provided military and economic aid
U.S. and Soviets would rearm their allies
Fear that continued conflict would trigger a major war
Arab countries refused to recognize Israel – Israel refused to make concessions
On the issues of Palestinian refugees
1964 – Palestinian leaders formed the PLO – Palestinian Liberation Organization
PLO attacks brought reprisals – forceful acts in response to an injury
1982 – Israel invaded Lebanon
Building a Nation
Israel is about the size of New Jersey
About 90 percent of Israelis live in urban areas – mainly along Mediterranean
Two main groups of Jews
Ashkenazim – from Eastern and Central Europe
Sephardim – from around the Mediterranean and the Middle East
Today, Sephardim Jews are in the majority and have increased influence
About 15 percent of Israelis are non-Jews
Most are Arab Muslims and Christians
The Arab population is growing rapidly
Israel has a mixed economy
Government owns some businesses but many are privately owned
Israel lacks natural resources and water
Israel remains dependent on imports of many basic goods
Much of its budget is spent on defense
Struggle to Achieve Peace
Arab nations refused to recognized Israel, called for its destruction
Israel reject the idea of a Palestinian state, would not hold discussions unless face-to-face
1979 – Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, signed a peace treat with Israel
Other Arab nations condemned Egypt for making peace with Israel
1987 – Palestinian intifada – the shaking
Frustrated by Israeli military rule Palestinians organized strikes against Israeli
businesses, attacked Israeli soldiers and civilians
Israel responded forcefully
Arrested, jailed, deported suspected Palestinian leaders of the intifada
Destroyed homes of suspected rebels
Closed Arab schools on the West Bank
Some Palestinians joined underground, armed groups – Hamas and Islamic Jihad
These groups used terrorism and called for the destruction of Israel
Early 1990s – push for peace brought Israel and Palestinian leaders together
Issues that bogged down the peace process
Status of the occupied territories
Conditions in the refugee camps had deteriorated – poverty
Jewish settlements in the occupied lands
1993 – Oslo accords
Israel and the PLO agreed to recognize each other
PLO would stop attacking
Israel would withdraw its forces from parts of the occupied territories
1994 – Israel and Jordan signed a peace agreement
Syria and Israel could not reach an agreement
Talks stalled and Palestinians launched new protest
Palestinians attacked military and civilians
March 2002 – Israeli military invaded Palestinian-ruled areas of West Bank
Faced with criticism, Israel claimed it had a right to defend itself
Unresolved issues
Jerusalem – holds religious significance for Jew, Muslims, Christians
Palestinian demand for the “right of return”
Would give Palestinians who fled during the Arab-Israeli wars the right
to return
Future of Jewish settlements in the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem