Download Germany - Mr. Weldon

Germany
1878 – 1989
Revision
Booklet
1
Bismarck – The ‘Iron Chancellor’
Key Dates:
1806 – End of the Holy Roman Empire.
1834 – Establishment of the Zollverein (free trade area).
1866 – Austria defeated by Prussia.
1871 – War with France over; Treaty of Frankfurt. Wilhelm proclaimed
Emperor of Germany; Bismarck Chancellor of Germany, Imperial
Constitution introduced. Bismarck’s constitution introduced.
1873 – Start of the Kulturkampf. Formation of the Three Emperors’ League (Dreikaiserbund).
1878 – Exploits two assassination attempts on the Kaiser by launching a campaign against the
Socialists. Bismarck ends free trade. Congress of Berlin – Germany falls out with Russia.
1879 – Dual Alliance signed with Austria.
1881 – Three Emperor’s Alliance.
1882 – Triple Alliance (Italy, Germany & Austria).
1883 – Health Insurance Law.
1884 – Germany begins colonial expansion.
1886 – Settlement Law encouraged German peasants to settle in the east Prussian provinces.
1887 – Kulturkampf ended.
1888 – Frederick III, Emperor of Germany; Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany. Colonial expansion
ends.
1889 – Old age pension scheme introduced.
1890 – Bismarck resigned as Chancellor.
Background:
Before 1806 Germany was made up of 400 states each with their own ruler, and guarded its
independence. In 1806 the Holy Roman Empire ended and the number of German states reduced to 39
and called itself the German Confederation. Prussia and Austria were the most dominant states. In
1834 Prussia set up the Zollverein (a free trade area). Prussia gained the upper hand and with the help
of Bismarck excluded Austria from German affairs. He worked towards unification of Germany by
‘blood and iron’ and following a number of wars in 1864, 1866 and 1870 unified Germany in
January 1871, under the King Wilhelm of Prussia (Emperor of Germany). During the next twenty
years Bismarck dominated German affairs.
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Politics:

In politics Bismarck’s nickname was the ‘Iron Chancellor’. Bismarck’s aims were to create a
powerful industrial nation protected by a well equipped army. He got on well with Kaiser
Wilhelm I who let him have his own way, but in 1888 the old Kaiser died and his son
Fredrick III was less friendly. He also didn’t get on with Wilhelm II (29 yrs old when made
Kaiser, after Fredrick died). Bismarck then resigned in 1890.

Bismarck’s constitution – Key features included the dominance of Prussia. Prussia gave
Germany 2/3 of its land mass and the King of Prussia automatically became the Kaiser. The
Kaiser in theory had awesome power: Germany’s foreign policy, Commander-in-Chief of the
army and he alone could dismiss the Chancellor. Dominance shown in creation of the
Bundesrat (Federal Council) which was made up by 58 representatives from state
governments, and could make changes to the constitution and legislation. But crucially,
Prussia had 17 of the seats, when only 14 were needed to reject any issue. Meaning that they
maintained a position of upmost power in the political structure of the Empire. But education,
justice and health remained in State’s hands as did the ability to collect direct income tax. The
state was therefore reliant on indirect taxation, and limited its expenditure. Reichstag –
Elected by universal suffrage and secret ballot. But was limited in scope. Reichstag could not
put forward laws and could only discuss those proposals put forward by the Bundesrat
(controlled by Prussia!!).

Strengths – Very strong constitution for Prussia. It preserved the power of the Kaiser,
Chancellor and also the power of the Prussian ruling class (Junkers).

Weaknesses – Power structure confused and unclear. After Wilhelm II came to the throne,
made worse as Wilhelm wanted to take a personal rule (in competition with Bismarck). There
was limited scope to adjusting for changed circumstances e.g. a time of social and economic
change.
Social Issues:
State Socialism: Bismarck’s social welfare programme. This provided sickness and accident
insurance for the lowest paid workers and pensions for the over 70s and disabled. It was one of
Bismarck’s legacies he left to Germany, but he did not regard it as such (not mentioning it in his
memoirs). The measures were to win support from the working classes from the SDP and also
discourage their demands for more political power. 1883 a Health Insurance Law was passed,
Accident Insurance Law in 1884 and in 1889 an old age pension scheme.
Opposition:

In 1873 he declared a ‘war for civilisation’ or Kulturkampf against the Roman Catholic
Church. There was a deep divide in Germany between Protestants and Catholics. Protestants
counted for about 60% of the population, including the Prussian aristocracy. In broad terms,
Protestants focussed in the industrial areas and Catholics in more agrarian areas. Bismarck did
not like the pro-Catholic Centre Party and the May Laws (1873) were set up to try and control
the Church. His reasons for doing this are twofold. Firstly, to challenge the idea of ‘Papal
infallibility’ (Catholics could not disobey the Pope, even if it meant disobeying their King).
Secondly, a pragmatic one (Bismarck can be said to have been a supporter of ‘realpolitik’), he
wanted stronger support from the liberals, and thought that by attacking the Catholics he
would get their support. But by 1878 he wanted support from the Centre Party.

The Kulturkampf ultimately failed and only served to further the Catholic cause. It led to
the Centre Party becoming the biggest party in the Reichstag by 1884. But, by 1878, a new
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Pope and Bismarck needing their support meant he dropped the Kulturkampf gradually
(completely in 1887), but he could never could completely rely on their support.

Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation led to the rise of a working class which could be
linked to the rise of the Social Democratic Party (SDP). Bismarck feared them as they stood
for democracy and equality, but mostly because they were an international movement.
Bismarck could use the two assassination attempts on the Kaiser to pass an Anti-Socialist
Law in 1878 banning all socialist meetings and publications.

The Anti-Socialist Law lasted for 12 years and was as unsuccessful as Kulturkampf in
weakening Bismarck’s enemies of the state. The Socialists grew in strength in the 1880s and
by 1890 there were 35 socialist deputies.

Germanisation – Poles and Jews were also targeted as enemies of the state. Bismarck was
responding to the demands of the Conservatives. In 1886 a Settlement Law encouraged
German peasants to settle in eastern Prussia forcing some 16,000 Poles and Jews to leave.
Those who remained suffered discrimination as did the French-speakers living in AlsaceLorraine (taken from the French after the war of 1871).
Economy:
Massive economic growth and development turned Germany into a modern industrial state. However
the collapse of the Austrian stock market and crisis in America in 1873 caused a depression until
1895. It had a series of effects:

Germany was not hit as hard as other countries. Still experiencing 2.5% economic growth by
1880s. Industrialisation and urbanisation continued.

Led to pressures on the Government to introduce protectionist economic policy. E.g. tariffs
on imports to protect and secure the home market. Bismarck knew this would mean he would
have to break with the liberals. He did so in 1878, proposing a bill to end free trade, which
was initially defeated, but following the two assassination attempts, which Bismarck blamed
on the liberals, passed second time round.

Anti-Semitism increased as Jews were used as scapegoats for the economic problems.

Support for working class organisations grew due to fear of unemployment e.g. in 1875 the
SDP was formed.
Military and foreign policy:
The security of Imperial Germany was guaranteed by a modern and well-equipped army based upon
Prussian military traditions. Bismarck’s primary aim was to avoid war at all costs. Instead
concentrating on strengthening its economy and functioning as a united state; he had no wish to gain
greater territory. He worried that trying to extend Germany’s borders in any direction would unite the
other great powers against them. France was the main threat to peace as she resented their defeat in
1870-1 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and wanted revenge. Germany was worried that Russia might
Ally with France and that there would be a war on two fronts.

The Balkans: With the growth of Slav nationalism (wanting their own country) multi-national
(polyglot) nations such as Turkey (Ottoman Empire) and Austria were worried. Russia
supported Slav nationalism and although Germany didn’t want war, Germany feared that if
Austria and Russia fell out she would have to choose between them. The one she didn’t
choose, Germany worried, would then ally with France. This was to be a delicate balancing
act.
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
Bismarck had a stronger hand in foreign policy than in domestic policy. Germany was the
strongest military power in Europe. From 1871 to 1890 German foreign policy fell under the
personal control of Bismarck.

Three Emperor’s League (Dreikaiserbund) 1873: Not a strong agreement between
Germany, Russia and Austria. Little more than a sign of good intent to encourage peace. In
1875 Von Moltke believed ‘war was in sight’ and used the press to publish an article
highlighting France’s desire for war. Instead of having the desired effect (for other countries,
including Britain, to put pressure on France), it had the opposite, with both the Russians and
Austrians coming to Germany to persuade them to stop their campaign.

The Berlin Congress led to Russia and Germany not getting on as Germany put tariffs on
Russian produces e.g. timber and corn. The Dual Alliance (1879) signed with Austria was to
last 39 years. This strengthened Germany’s position in Eastern Europe and led to the signing
of the Three Emperor’s Alliance (1881) of Germany, Austria and Russia – agreeing to
remain neutral in any war containing a fourth power. In 1882 Italy joined the Dual Alliance to
form the Triple Alliance.

Bulgarian Crisis – war between Bulgaria (supported by Russia) and Serbia (supported by
Austria). Three Emperor’s Alliance collapsed due to this pressure. In 1887 Germany and
Russia signed the Reinsurance Treaty which promised neutrality unless Germany attacked
France or Russia attacked Austria. Germany in the meantime tried to stop Russian expansion
in the Balkans by preventing loans reaching Russia. Russia then looked to France for money –
this led to an understanding between Russia and France.
Bismarck’s Imperial ‘U-turn’?
What? In 1871 Bismarck said he did not want to expand nor build a bigger navy. But by 1884
Bismarck engaged in colonial expansion that saw German territory increase significantly.
Why did he change his mind? Historians have argued the following:

Bismarck thought Germany was running out of time because all the other powers were taking
the colonies.

He was trying to divert attention from what was happening at home. So-called ‘social
imperialism’.

Wanted to impress the Conservatives and National Liberals.

Pressured by those who said Germany needed new markets for her products.

Bismarck had long term plans for Empire building.

He ‘stumbled’ into colonial expansion as he did everything else!

To demonstrate Germany’s strength to others including Britain.
Where? Africa. E.g. Cameroon, Togoland, German East Africa and German South West Africa.
The Result? A big disappointment!! Abandoned in 1888, it proved both a political and economic
mistake. It also alienated Britain and France viewed Germany with suspicion. It was also expensive,
the cost of stopping local opposition in East Africa alone cost 9 million Reichsmarks and took 2 years.
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Legacy and Conclusions:
Wilhelm I died in 1888, the new king Friedrich reigned for 3 months, after his death it was Wilhelm II
that took control. He and Bismarck did not get on. Wilhelm and Bismarck argued especially about
what to do with socialism; Wilhelm taking a lenient approach, whilst Bismarck wanted an aggressive
one. This ultimately led to Bismarck’s fall, as Wilhelm wanted his own way and had another
Chancellor (General von Caprivi) in mind. In March 1890, Wilhelm gave Bismarck an ultimatum,
which Bismarck reluctantly accepted.

Some have made a direct link between Bismarck and Hitler. Others have said within 50 years
of his death, Bismarck’s Germany had disappeared; no Prussia, no eastern provinces, no
united Germany, no order, no Junker class. The only thing that remained was something
which Bismarck regarded lowly; the social insurance system.

By refusing to allow moves towards democracy, was Bismarck storing up problems for the
future?

Did he try and hold the clock back and not allow Germany to change?

He did not yearn to make Germany bigger like later German leaders and instead
concentrated on strengthening the German that existed. Yet, Bismarck left no-one behind
who could possess the same skills to resolve the problems that existed. Nothing was
inevitable after Bismarck.
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Kaiser Wilhelm II (1890 – 1918)
Key Dates:
1890 – Bismarck resigns as Chancellor. Caprivi appointed as
Chancellor.
1893 – Agrarian League set up.
1894 – Caprivi and Count Eulenberg both dismissed. Hohenlohe
made Chancellor.
1895 – Hohenlohe’s Anti-Socialist bill fails in Reichstag.
1897 – Policy of Weltpolitik begins. Bülow, Tirpitz and Wehner
appointed; signifies more aggressive foreign policy. Adoption of
Sammlungspolitik.
1900 – Hohenlohe resigns as Chancellor. Bülow appointed
Chancellor.
1904 – Entente Cordiale between France and Britain
1905 – Bulow fails to solve deficit problem; mistreatment of natives in SA; first Moroccan crisis.
1907 – Formation of Bulow Bloc after general election; Entente Cordiale to include Russia.
1908 – Daily Telegraph interview.
1909 – Bethmann Hollweg becomes chancellor; Germany forces Russia to back down in the Balkans;
failed negotiations between Britain and Germany over the navy.
1911 – Second Moroccan crisis.
1912 – SPD becomes the single largest party in the Reichstag; war breaks out in the Balkans.
1913 – The Zabern affair.
1914 – Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand; Germany offers Austria the ‘Blank Cheque’; war.
Background:
The new Kaiser failed to address the fundamental issues left by Bismarck i.e. the fact he ignored
many of the social and economic changes in Germany, the threat from the ‘left’ and continuing to
protect the power of the elites. The frequent changes in Chancellor (four between 1890 and 1914) left
the Kaiser with more direct power than was intended by the Imperial Constitution. His personality
was badly suited to such power and he became increasingly preoccupied with foreign policy. He was
born with a paralysed left arm and he needed to prove his own strength and power as an adult. His
moods were sometimes erratic and he was sensitive to criticism. He also often chose soldiers to advise
him and was extremely interested in the military.
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Politics:
The fact that there were four chancellors between 1890 – 1914 dominates this period.
Caprivi (1890 – 1894)
Bismarck’s’ successor. Wilhelm thought he could control Caprivi but he did have some independence.
Caprivi embarked on a ‘new course’ intended to help different social groups work together. He
wanted to bring in social welfare schemes e.g. limiting child and female labour and working on
Sundays as well as a series of trading treaties (lower duties on food in exchange for access to foreign
markets). These schemes led to his downfall in 1894. He was alienating the elites with social welfare
and upset landed elites with the Tariff Act (they were vulnerable to cheap foreign food). This led to
the set up of the Agrarian League in 1893. The socialists were not happy with the couple of measures
brought in either! By trying to help everyone he succeeded in alienating both groups!!
This was not helped by Count Botho zu Eulenberg. Eulenberg was Caprivi’s replacement as
Prussian Prime Minister when Caprivi did not take up this post as well as being Chancellor (Bismarck
had combined the two). Eulenberg was VERY conservative and did not like Caprivi’s policies. In
1894, when Europe was in a socialist frenzy, persuaded the Kaiser to pass an anti-socialist bill.
Caprivi did not support this and an argument ensued which led to both Eulenburg and Caprivi being
dismissed.
Hohenlohe (1894 – 1900)
Was not a natural leader and made no decisive contribution to German politics. He was very antisocialist but failed to get his bill passed in the Reichstag (1895). From 1897 there were three new
appointments that the Kaiser made – Hohenlohe was not important in decision making. Instead:

Count Bernhard von Bülow as Foreign Secretary

Admiral von Tirpitz as Navy Secretary

Count Posadowsky-Wehner as Interior minister.
These appointments led to the policy of Weltpolitik (World Policy) – please see section in foreign
policy notes for this.
The other development under Hohenlohe was an attempt to achieve a ‘marriage of iron and rye’ i.e.
an alliance between the landed and industrial elites and was described in 1897 as
‘Sammlungspolitik’. It was not a stable alliance though and was based on suppressing socialism.
They did not gain much in the 1898 elections.
Bülow (1900 – 1909)
Faced a series of problems that eventually led to his downfall:
1. His attempt to increase tariffs on food stuffs did not go far enough to please the Conservatives
but alienated the Socialists and Liberals. In the end, the tariff changes were supported by the
Free Conservatives, the Centre Party and the National Liberals, but the Sammlungspolitik was
damaged.
2. How to finance Weltpolitik. In 1905 Bulow wanted to raise indirect taxes and introduce an
inheritance tax. Both created immediate opposition; Socialists opposing indirect taxes (due to
impact on the prices of goods for workers) and the inheritance tax was opposed by
Conservatives.
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3. Bulow was facing a stalemate. He was not getting support from the Centre Party because they
were critical of the government’s treatment of native people in German South-West Africa.
This meant they did not support the raising of indirect taxation. Bulow decided to break with
them and set up the ‘Bulow Bloc’ consisting of Conservative and Liberals, but it did not
work. This failure was due to the Liberals desire for social reforms which the Conservatives
found intolerable.
4. The Daily Telegraph Affair (1908) – In this ‘interview’ for the Daily Telegraph the Kaiser
claimed that “the prevailing sentiment amongst my own people is not friendly to England”,
but that the English were “mad, mad as march hares” in believing that he himself wanted
anything other than peace. Following the publication of the article demands were made for
more control over the Kaiser’s actions. Bulow (who claimed not to have read the article)
agreed with the Kaiser’s critics, but in the end no constitutional changes followed. This
demonstrated both the Reichstag’s divisions and weaknesses and also fatally undermined
Bulow’s relationship with the Kaiser.
In 1909 Bulow’s fate was sealed by another unsuccessful attempt to raise money for the military. The
‘Bulow Bloc’ fell apart as the Conservatives rejected an inheritance bill supported by the Centre
Party. The financial problems remained and Bulow resigned.
Bethmann-Hollweg (1909-1917)
Hollweg liked Weltpolitik and disliked democracy. He relied upon the court and the army to support
him and faced opposition from the Reichstag. Only patriotism and the threat of Russia allowed him to
get anything through the Reichstag. One of the ideas put forward by Hollweg was a reform of the
three class voting system of Prussia – this illustrated the deadlock in the Reichstag; the Conservatives
found it too threatening and other parties found it too moderate. Hollweg had to withdraw the bill.

1912 – In this year, the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag winning 110 seats and
in the same year the Navy Office and War Ministry wanted an increase in military
expenditure. This time the inheritance bill was passed although it provoked opposition from
the Conservatives, the other parties rallied to the government in the face of a perceived threat
from Russia.

The Zabern Affair. In 1913 at Zabern in the former province of Alsace an event took place
which highlighted the divisions in German society. The army was found mistreating the
inhabitants of the town. The Kaiser rather than dismissing the commanding officers, merely
transferred them to another area. This was as good as saying the army was above the law and
under the sole authority of the Kaiser. The public outcry showed that the high status of the
military was not acknowledged by the German people. Hollweg received a vot of no
confidence in the Reichstag (293 to 54 votes) but remained in office until 1917. this showed
that the Reichstag was weak, the Chancellor remained unaccountable to the Reichstag and his
authority came from the Kaiser alone.
Social Issues:
Rapid changes were happening; the middle and working classes were growing in number, while the
power of the land-owning elites (Junkers) was declining. Industrial workers were beginning to
become more politicised, but German society remained divided among class lines. Movement
between classes remained rare.
LANDED ELITE (JUNKERS)
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Despite their declining economic power – remained at the top of the in political terms, they continued
to defend their own interests and fight against democracy which could threaten their dominance of the
Government.
INDUSTRIAL ELITE
Instead of challenging the Junkers, they wanted to join them. They feared increasing working class
power could challenge their profits. They were conservative in politics and lifestyle.
PROFESSIONAL MIDDLE CLASS
These included civil servants and academics and tended to support the Government. They were
generally satisfied with the position they had achieved in society.
LOWER MIDDLE CLASS (MITTELSTAND)
E.g. Craftsmen, shopkeepers and small farmers were not happy at the current situation. Felt isolated
between the industrial working class and the growing success of industrialists. Led them to question
Germany’s ‘industrialisation’ and turn to right-wing politics who wanted to return Germany to
traditional values.
LABOURERS (agricultural and industrial)
Agricultural labourers found it difficult to make a living. Many had to go to towns/cities to seek
employment. Industrial workers were growing in numbers and employment was stable. However,
working and living conditions were poor and the cost of food and rents were rising.
Opposition:
By 1912 the Social Democratic Party had become the single largest party in the Reichstag. It faced
strong opposition from the Right. But crucially, the SPD’s programme was not revolutionary. The
1891 manifesto insisted they wanted reform from within the existing system.
The weaknesses in the Reichstag led to the growth of pressure groups, representing a range of
different viewpoints:

Trade Unions – by 1914 membership had reached 3.3 million. Wanted to work with the
government rather than against it and focussed on practical issues e.g. working hours,
wages and conditions. Those workers not in a trade union were called the
lumpenproletariat and made more direct challenges to the government through strikes
and sometimes illegal and violent protest. They were not supported by the official trade
unions or the SPD.

The Agrarian League – formed in 1893 by Junkers wanting to see protectionist
measures to protect them from foreign competition. Became influential in the German
Conservative Party. Had mixed results when trying to attract the peasants; quite good in
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the north, not in the south where peasants set up their own Peasant Leagues pressure
groups.

Nationalist Groups – grew after 1890. By ruling classes to gain support for naval
expansion, an aggressive foreign policy – they did not pose a threat to the government.
Support mainly from middle classes. The Navy League was one of the most important
and it had 200,000 members by 1900. Anti-Semitic groups grew in number but their
impact on German politics was small.
Although the structure of German politics remained the same, there were signs that German
people were becoming more politically active.
Economy:
Between 1890 and 1914, the German economy expanded, with manufactured goods increasing X5
compared to British manufacturing which merely doubled. By 1914 Germany produced 2/3rds of
Europe’s steel, over half its coal and led the way in electrical goods, chemicals and steel. Several
factors led to this economic growth:

German population increased from 41 to 67.7 million between 1871 and 1914. (By
comparison by 1914 France only had a population of 40 million). This gave Germany a vast
labour supply located in towns and cities.

Large size of the German Empire – providing a home market for German produce.

German banking system – granted long term loans which boosted investment.
Military and Foreign Policy:
The end of Bismarck’s diplomacy. Bismarck’s primary aim in foreign policy was the maintain the
isolation of France. This included both the Triple Alliance (1882) and the Reinsurance Treaty (1887).
These would not last as Austria-Hungary and Russia were unlikely to resolve their conflict in the
Balkans. In 1890 Caprivi did not renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, arguing that an alliance
with Russia was unacceptable in the light of Germany’s ties with Austria-Hungary. This led to Russia
feeling isolated and signing the Franco-Russian alliance in 1894. This fulfilled Bismarck’s nightmare
of coalitions and meant Germany now faced potential enemies on both sides
Between 1890 and 1896 there was no direction in foreign policy. There were two main views on the
future; one was for Germany to dominate middle-Europe economically; the other was for Germany to
seek world status by establishing an overseas empire. By 1896, the second view was favoured.
Weltpolitik(World Policy, 1897).
This consisted of three main strands: firstly to acquire more colonial territory (the place in the sun);
secondly to create a German-dominated economic zone in Central and Eastern Europe; and thirdly to
expand the Navy. This policy was very popular with Nationalist pressure groups, such as the PanGerman League and was also favoured by industrialists. It promised to fulfil the ambitions of the
Kaiser who wished to raise Germany’s profile on the world stage.
The importance of the Navy – The expansion of the Navy had a profound impact upon Germany’s
domestic and foreign policy e.g. the Navy League (1898) was set up as a propaganda instrument.
Expansion of the Navy proved popular because it symbolised German growth. Naval bills were
passed by the Reichstag in 1898 and 1900 with the support of the Centre Party. However it was costly
and contributed to deteriorating relationships with Britain.
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The effects of Weltpolitik Although popular, the colonial gains in Africa, the Far East and the Pacific
were small compared to other states and too widely scattered to be defended properly. In addition
German naval expansion did not have the desired effect of forcing Britain to acknowledge German
power and accept the benefits of an alliance. This is a good example of how German foreign policy
was mismanaged by using heavy0handed and threatening tactics. However Bulow continued to work
on the assumption that Britain would eventually support Germany and believe alliance was in their
best interests. This did not happen, for example in 1902 an anti-Russian alliance with Japan and the
Entente Cordiale with France in 1904.
The First Moroccan Crisis In 1905 France tried to extend her influence in Morocco, Germany
argued that this would have illegal trading effects and the Kaiser went to Morocco to resolve the
looming crisis. This was an attempt to show France that Germany was the strong power, rather than
Britain. Britain supported France and this had the effect of isolating Germany. In 1907 this was
confirmed with the Entente extending to include Russia, splitting Europe in two.
Why did tensions increase after 1907?

A crisis in the Balkans 1908-1909 led to Germany supporting Austria, forcing Russia to back
down over the issue of the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.

A naval race between Britain and Germany damaged relations between the two countries as
both tried to increase battleship production e.g. the Dreadnought.

The Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911, occoured when French troops were sent to Morocco at
The Sultan’s request which Germany interpreted as French aggression. Germany, therefore,
sent a gunboat, the Panther, to demonstrate her strength. It was hoped that the offer to
recognise a French protectorate in Morocco in exchange for land in the French Congo would
gain goodwill. The results were disastrous for Germany: the British fleet were put on alert and
Germany received less land that she wanted. The consequences of this were to bring Britain
and France closer together and to isolate Germany even further. Weltpolitik had failed again.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 1914) Germany offered Austria a blank
cheque after the assassination, meaning they received unlimited and unquestioning support.
This persuaded Austria to send an ultimatum to Serbia which it expected to be refused and
thus providing a justification for war. Serbia did reject the ultimatum and on 28th July Austria
declared war on Serbia and the alliance system came into effect. Germany declared war on
Russia on August 1st and France two days later. The violation of Belgian neutrality by the
Schlieffen Plan provided the pretext for a declaration of war on Germany by Britain.
Legacy and Conclusions:
There was a clear lack of direction in domestic policy after Bismarck and internal problems were, at
best, dealt with superficially. The Reichstag was becoming more unmanageable, the working class
more politically active and the government’s budget deficit was not solved. The aggressive foreign
polic introduced by the Kaiser had the dual effect of diverting attention away from these problems
(so-called Social Imperialism) whilst also fulfilling ambitions to project Germany onto the world
stage. Germany was by this time a world power in economic terms and the government wanted this to
be reflected outside of Germany. The policy of Weltpolitik created tensions in Europe which certainly
contributed to the First World War, however whether Germany was primarily to blame (as asserted by
the Treaty of Versailles’ War Guilt Clause) is a source of fierce historical debate.
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The Weimar Republic 1918 – 1933
Key Dates:
1917
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14 April 1917 Government announces reduction in bread
rations.
15 April 1917 200,000 Socialists and Communists stage
major strikes in Germany.
13 July 1917 Dr. Georg Michaelis replaces Theobald von
Bethmann Hollweg as Chancellor of Germany.
31 October 1917 Michaelis resigns, replaced by Count
Georg von Hertling
1918
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4 October 1918 Prince Maximilian of Baden replaces
Count Georg von Hertling as Chancellor of Germany
7 October – 3 November 1918 Naval mutinies (see
German Revolution)
4 November 1918 Sailors and worker's councils declare general strikes.
7 November 1918 100,000 workers march on the Royal House of Wittelsbach. The King of
Bavaria flees.
8 November 1918 All 22 of Germany’s lesser kings, princes, grand dukes, and ruling dukes
had been deposed.
9 November 1918 Proclamation of the Republic by Philipp Scheidemann, some hours later:
proclamation of the Socialist Republic by Karl Liebknecht; also:
o Kaiser Wilhelm told to abdicate, before he can decide Prince Max formally
announces the abdication of Wilhelm.
o Social Democrats demand government from Prince Max.
o Friedrich Ebert assumes the chancellery.
o First German Republic established.
11 November 1918 First World War ended.
Mid December, 1918 First Freikorps unit formed.
23 December 1918 Lt. Dorrenbach with the Volksmarine Division declare gov. under arrest,
surround the chancellory and occupy phone exchange.
30 December 1918 Spartakusbund splits from the Independent Socialists (later becomes the
Communist Party).
1919
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January 1919 Independent Socialists & Spartacusbund stage large protests. Large sections of
Berlin seized. Also:
o "Free Workers' Committee for a fair Peace" renamed German Workers Party.
10 January 1919 Battle of Berlin begins; Counter-revolution
13 January 1919 Battle of Berlin finished.
January 1919 Bremen seized. Also:
o German Gov. moved to the city of Weimar.
6 February 1919 Fritz Ebert opens the Reichstag in Weimar, Germany.
11 February 1919 Friedrich Ebert (SPD) leaves office. Also:
o Philipp Scheidemann appointed chancellor.
6 - 7 April 1919 Bavaria declared a Soviet Republic.
27 April 1919 Battle for Munich between Communists and Freikorps units.
22 June 1919 German Reichstag ratify the Versailles Treaty.
28 June 1919 Versailles Treaty signed in the Hall of Mirrors.
11 August 1919 The Weimar Constitution is announced.
11 September 1919 Adolf Hitler sent as Vertrauensmann to infiltrate the German Worker’s
Party (DAP).
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1920
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20 February 1920 DAP changes name to National Socialist German Workers’ Party.
February 1920 Inter-Allied Control Commission order 2/3 of Freikorps disbanded.
24 February 1920 First public meeting of the NSDAP.
13 March 1920 Kapp Putsch
14 March 1920 Communists seize demilitarized Ruhr; Dortmund, Remschied, Hagen,
Mülheim, Düsseldorf; 300 people killed (mostly policemen).
17 March 1920 Kapp Putsch ends.
3 April 1920 21 different Freikorps units annihilate the Ruhr Communist uprising in five
days; thousands killed.
April 1920 Government stops paying Freikorps units.
1921
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21 March 1921 Plebiscite in Upper Silesia. They vote to remain part of Germany.
5 May 1921 London Ultimatum which set the total sum of the war bill at 132 billion marks.
24 May 1921 Under Allied pressure, all Freikorps units outlawed.
29 July 1921 Adolf Hitler assumes leadership of the NSDAP. He becomes "Der Fuehrer".
26 October 1921 Dr. Joseph Wirth (Center) forms 2nd cabinet.
1922
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July 1922 670 reichsmarks = 1 US dollar
August 1922 2,000 reichsmarks = 1 US dollar
27 October 1922 Benito Mussolini establishes his Fascist dictatorship in Italy.
27 December 1922 France occupies the Ruhr.
30 December 1922 500,000 reichsmarks = 1 US dollar
1923
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February 1923 Reichsbank buys back RM (or reichsmark); stabilizes RM at 20,000 to 1 US
dollar
August 15, 1923 RM 4,000,000 = 1 US Dollar
September 1, 1923 RM 10,000,000 = 1 US Dollar
Around September 10 to September 25, 1923 Prices reportedly rise hourly in several German
cities.
September 24, 1923 Chancellor Stresemann ends the passive resistance in the Ruhr; infuriates
the nationalists.
October 6, 1923 Dr. Gustav Stresemann (People’s) forms 2nd cabinet
November 8, 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. Led by Hitler, it failed.
November 15, 1923 Rentenmark issued; pegged to the Gold Standard; Rentenmark 4.2 = 1
US dollar; at this time:
o Old Reichsmark 4,200,000,000 = 1 US dollar
November 30, 1923 Dr. Stresemann leaves office.
1924
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February 26, 1924 Hitlerputsch trial begins.
June 3, 1924 Dr. Wilhelm Marx (Center) forms 2nd cabinet
August 29, 1924 Dawes Plan agreed by Reichstag.
December 20, 1924 Hitler released from Landsberg Prison.
1925
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February 28, 1925 Reichspresident Friedrich Ebert dies.
July 1925 French and Belgian troops evacuate the Ruhr completely.
October 16, 1925 Locarno Treaty signed
1926
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February 14, 1926 Bamberg conference begins.
April 24, 1926 Germany and Soviet Union sign Berlin Treaty.
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May 16, 1926 Marx cabinet of the Center, BVP, DDP, DVP.
September 10, 1926 Germany enters League of Nations
1929
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7 June 1929 Young Plan resets reparations amount, and allows it to be paid in installations
over a period of 58.5 years.
3 October 1929 Foreign minister Gustav Stresemann dies.
24 October 1929 Black Thursday stock market crash, start of world economic collapse.
1930
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16 July 1930 Reichstag dissolved; first emergency decree by Reichspresident.
14 September 1930 Reichstag elections; gains by Nazi Party.
1931
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May 1931 Four million unemployed in Germany.
13 July 1931 German bank crisis.
1932
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10 April 1932 Paul von Hindenburg reelected President of Germany.
1 June 1932 Franz von Papen cabinet
16 June - 9 July 1932 Lausanne conference
20 July 1932 Von Papen dissolves Prussian government.
31 July 1932 Reichstag elections where Nazi party becomes the largest party.
6 November 1932 Reichstag elections; Nazis lose votes.
17 November 1932 Franz von Papen (Center) leaves office
3 December 1932 Kurt von Schleicher cabinet
1933
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28 January 1933 Kurt von Schleicher (no party affiliation) leaves office
30 January 1933 Adolf Hitler is sworn in as Chancellor of Germany.
23 March 1933 Adolf Hitler establishes the Third Reich (Enabling Act of 1933).
Background:
As you have read in the key dates, the Weimar Republic was formed at the end of WW1, by 1918
however Germany was on the brink of disaster; ¾ million people were dying of starvation. By
November the revolutionary spirit led to people demanding the abdication of the Kaiser. There were
worries that the Communists could take over, but by 1918, they only had 1000 supporters. The war
ended on 11 November 1918, however nationalists argued that the politicians had ‘stabbed them in
the back’ and the army could have gone on to win the war. This was to prove a sticking point for
some, most notably, Adolf Hitler, whose newly formed NSDAP were to latterly prove the downfall of
this new form of democracy.
Politics:
The Weimar Constitution 1919
Key Features: As you can see from below, the constitution changed Germany considerably. It was
derived from the principle that ‘all Germans are equal before the law’ and the idea of proportional
representation, where the % of the vote = % of the seats in the Reichstag. This often leads to
coalitions as it rarely produces an overall majority.
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Germany’s Constitution in 1914
Kaiser Wilhelm II
(hereditary monarch)
appoints

Government
Chancellor
Ministers
calls/dismisses

controls

Reichstag
(elected)
which can stop laws
proposed by the
government, but cannot
make laws.
Source D
There is only one master in this
country. That am I. Who opposes
me I shall crush to pieces.
The Army
Kaiser Wilhelm II, speaking before
1914.

Source E
The old Reichstag was a useless
parliament. It could speak but it had
no power.
A German politician speaking in
1926.
Electors
Men over 25 can vote
The Weimar Constitution of 1919
Bill of Rights
promises all Germans
equality before the law
and political and religious
freedom.
Electors
All men and women over the age
of 20 can vote.
safeguards

elect

Freidrich Ebert
(elected president)
controls

The Army
Reichstag
(elected)
from which is
selected

Government
Chancellor
Ministers
must have a
majority in the
Reichstag, and do
as the Reichstag
says.
Source F
The German Commonwealth is a
Republic. Political authority is
derived from the People.
The Weimar Constitution,
6 February 1919.
Source G
The Constitution was a brave attempt
to set up a democratic government…
All Germans had equal rights,
including the vote. Political parties
were given seats in proportion to the
number of votes they got. This was
fair.
A modern textbook.
Reactions to the Constitution
The constitution passed by 262 votes to 75, but it did not please everyone. It was a compromise. It did
little to clamp down on opposition to the Republic (see opposition for more details). It is difficult not
to see the rise of the Nazis as a result of the Constitution, however this is not entirely fair. Whilst it is
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true that giving the President the right to rule by decree, it might lead to a dictatorship, in the right
hands this was necessary to deal with various crises. E.g. Ebert used it wisely in 1923.
Treaty of Versailles
Look over your other notes on the T of V for detailed terms. Suffice to say the reaction in Germany
was one of loathing. The treaty was called a ‘diktat’ (dictated peace) and was hated for both the
material losses (13% of its land and 6 million subjects) but also the humiliation of the War-Guilt
clause. Because of how severe it was, it played into the hands of Weimar’s critics who called them
‘November Criminals’. Hitler wrote that German people were ‘aflame with a feeling of rage and
shame’.
Opposition:
During the early period of the Weimar Republic, it faced opposition from both the Left and Right.
The Spartacist Uprising of Jan 1919 who were part of the German Communist Party (KPD), was put
down brutally by the Freikorps (Free Corps), groups of ex-soldiers, who were used by the
Government, led to the murder of the leaders of the Spartacists; Rosa Luxemburg and Karl
Liebknecht.
The Kapp Putsch (uprising); March 1920. A Freikorps unit marched into Berlin under the leadership
of Wolfgang Kapp and it was left to the Government to persuade the workers to bring down the
rebellion. The leaders of this putsch were barely punished showing a right-wing bias in the courts.
Assassinations of key government ministers also punctuated the Republic. 1921 – Erzberger
(Germany’s man on the Reparations Commission). 1922 – Rathenau, Germany’s foreign minister.
Economy:
Germany had mainly financed WW1 by printing money and borrowing. After 1919 the entire budget
was needed to pay the interest on wartime loans. By printing more money, this simple led to inflation.
The TofV made the situation worse. 75% of her iron resources were gone along with 25% of her coal
as well as the reparations sum of £6,600 million (132,000 million gold marks).
Events of 1923 – By the end of 1921, Germany said it could not meet reparations payments. But in
1923, the French occupied the Ruhr to get the delivery of coal that was delayed. German workers
refused to work for the French (passive resistance). Who would pay the workers? The Government
decided to do this by printing more money. This led to hyperinflation. The value of the mark
declined rapidly, and savings were wiped out in one blow. Prices spiralled out of control; a loaf of
bread in Nov 1923 costing 201,000,000,000 marks compared to 0.63 marks in 1918. Middle class
people suffered terribly, but some, including farmers were not affected as badly due to having a
source of food to eat and barter with.
Gustav Stresemann – succeeded in calling off passive resistance in the Ruhr and stabilised the mark.
He set up the Rentenmark (1 = 1 trillion marks). It worked. This led to the Dawes Plan (1924) which
reorganised the Reichsbank and reduced and spread out the repayments of reparations. It also
approved a loan to Germany which opened the floodgate to American capital into Germany.
Nationalists were furious that Germany’s finances were being controlled by an external power. From
1924 – 1929, the economy seemed, on the surface to be prospering. Wages increased and by 1927
output was finally at its pre-war rates.
However, it did not affect everyone equally, with the divide between rich and poor growing deeper.
Farmers suffered a lack of profit and were one of the first groups to vote for the Nazis in 1928.
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