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BIOS 5970: PLANT-HERBIVORE INTERACTIONS Spring Semester 2016 Some key references relevant to Plant-Herbivore Interactions. (in chronological order) A. INTRODUCTORY Historical background: Loomis, W.E. 1932. Growth-differentiation balance vs. carbohydrate-nitrogen ratio. Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science 29: 240-245. Dethier, V.G. 1954. Evolution of feeding preferences in phytophagous insects. Evolution 8: 33-54. Fraenkel, G. 1959. The raison d'être of secondary plant substances. Science 129: 1466-1470. Hairston, N.G., Smith, F.E., and Slobodkin, L.B. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. The American Naturalist 94: 421-425. Ehrlich, P.R., and P.H. Raven. 1964. Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18: 586-608. Murdoch, W.W. 1966. “Community structure, population control, and competition” – a critique. The American Naturalist 100: 219-226. Brower, L.P. 1969. Ecological chemistry. Scientific American 220: 22-29. Whittaker, R.H., and P.P. Feeny. 1970. Allelochemics: Chemical interactions between species. Science 171: 757-770. Rothschild, M. 1973. Secondary plant substances and warning colouration in insects. Pp 59-83 in, H. van Emden (ed.) Insect-Plant Interactions. Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society of London.6 Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Janzen, D.H. 1974. Tropical blackwater rivers, animals, and mast fruiting of the Dipterocarpaceae. Biotropica 6(2): 69-103 Freeland, W.J., and D.H. Janzen. 1974. Strategies in herbivory by mammals: The role of plant secondary compounds. The American Naturalist 108: 269-289. McKey, D. 1974. Adaptive patterns in alkaloid physiology. The American Naturalist 108: 305-320 Levin, D.A. 1976. The chemical defenses of plants to pathogens and herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 7: 121-159. Feeny, P.P. 1976. Plant apparency and chemical defense. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 1-40. Futuyma, D.J. 1976. Food plant specialization and environmental predictability in Lepidoptera. The American Naturalist 110: 285-292 Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 1 Rhoades, D.F., and Cates, R.G. 1976. A general theory of plant herbivore chemistry. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 168-213. McKey, D., Waterman, P.G., Mbi, C.N., Gartlan, J.S., and Struhsaker, T.T. 1978. Phenolic content of vegetation in two African rain forests: Ecological implications. Science 202: 61-64. Rosenthal, G.A., and Janzen, D.H. (eds.) 1979. Herbivores. Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites. New York, Academic Press. McKey, D. 1979. The distribution of secondary compounds within plants. Pages 55-133, in, G.A. Rosenthal & D.H. Janzen (eds.) Herbivores. Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites. New York, Academic Press. Price, P.W., Bouton, C.E., Gross, P., McPheron, B.A., Thompson, J.A., and Weis, A.E. 1980. Interactions among three trophic levels: Influence of plants on the interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 11: 41-65. Fox, L.R. 1981. Defense and dynamics in plant-herbivore systems. American Zoologist 21: 853-864. McKey, D.B., Gartlan, J.S., Waterman, P.G., and Choo, G.M. 1981. Food selection by black colobus monkeys (Colobus satanas) in relation to plant chemistry. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 16: 115-146. Bryant, J.P., Chapin III, F.S., and Klein, D.R. 1983. Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos 40(3): 357-368. McKey, D. 1984. Interaction of the ant-plant Leonardoxa africana (Caesalpiniaceae) with its obligate inhabitants in a rainforest in Cameroon. Biotropica 16: 81-99. White, T.C.R. 1984. The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants. Oecologia 63: 90-105. Coley, P.D., Bryant, J.P., and Chapin, F.S.III 1985. Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 230: 895-899. Herms, D.A., and W.J. Mattson. 1992. The dilemma of plants: To grow or defend. The Quarterly Review of Biology 67: 283-335 Relevant volumes: Sondheimer, E., and Simeone, J.B. (eds.) 1970. Chemical Ecology. Academic Press, New York. 336 pp. Wood, D.L., Silverstein, R.M., and Nakajima, M. (eds.) 1970. Control of Insect Behavior by Natural Products. Academic Press, New York. 345 pp. Harborne, J.B. (ed.) 1972. Phytochemical Ecology. Academic Press, London. 272 pp. Varley, G.C., Gradwell, G.R., and Hassell, M.P. 1973. Insect Population Ecology: An analytical approach. Oxford: Blackwell. Gilbert, L.E., and Raven P.H. (eds.) 1975. Coevolution of Animals and Plants. University of Texas Press, Austin. 246 pp. Harborne, J.B. (ed.) 1978. Biochemical Aspects of Plant and Animal Coevolution. Academic Press, London, 435 pp. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 2 Rosenthal, G.A., and Janzen, D.H. (eds.) 1979. Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites." Academic Press, New York, 718 pp. (see second edition under Rosenthal and Berenbaum). Crawley, M.J. 1983. Herbivory. The Dynamics of Animal-Plant Interactions. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 437 pages. Denno, R.F., and McClure, M.S. 1983. Variable Plants and Herbivores in Natural and Managed Systems. New York: Academic Press, 747 pp. Bell, W.J., and Cardé, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland, 524 pp. Strong, D.R., Lawton, J.H., and Southwood, R. 1984. Insects on Plants. Community Patterns and Mechanisms. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 313 pages. Barbosa, P., and Letourneau, D.K. (eds.). 1988. Novel Aspects of Insect-Plant Interactions. New York: Wiley, 362 pp. Howe, H.F., and Westley, L.C. 1988. Ecological Relationships of Plants and Animals. New York: Oxford University Press, 273 pp. Spencer, K.C. (ed.) 1988. Chemical Mediation of Coevolution. Academic Press, San Diego, 609 pp. Rosenthal, G.A., and Berenbaum, M.R. (eds.) 1991 & 1992. Herbivores. Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites. Vols I & II. Academic Press, San Diego. Fritz, R.S., and Simms, E.L. (eds.). 1992. Plant Resistance to Herbivores and Pathogens. Ecology, Evolution, and Genetics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 590 pages. Hunter, M.D., Ohgushi, T., and Price, P.W. (eds.) 1992. Effects of Resource Distribution on Animal-Plant Interactions. San Diego, Academic Press Roitberg, B.D., and Isman, M.B. (eds.) 1992. Insect Chemical Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach. Chapman & Hall, New York, 359 pp. Harborne, J.B. 1993. Introduction to Ecological Biochemistry. Fourth Edition. Academic Press, London & San Diego, 318 pp. Herrera, C.M., and Pellmyr, O. (eds.) 2002. Plant-animal interactions. An evolutionary approach. Blackwell Publishing, 313 pp. Schoonhoven, L., Van Loon, J., and Dicke, M. 2005. Insect–Plant Biology. 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York. Begon, M., Townsend, C.R., and Harper, J.L. 2006. Ecology: From Individuals, to Ecosystems. 4th edition. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 738 pp. B. PLANT DEFENSES AND HERBIVORE FEEDING Arnold, G.W., and Hill, J.L. 1972. Chemical factors affecting selection of food plants by ruminants. Pp. 72-101, in Harborne, J.B. (ed.) Phytochemical Ecology. Academic Press, London. Levin, D.A. 1976. The chemical defenses of plants to pathogens and herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 7: 121-159. Feeny, P.P. 1976. Plant apparency and chemical defense. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 1-40. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 3 Rhoades, D.F., and Cates, R.G. 1976. A general theory of plant herbivore chemistry. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 168-213. Bryant, J.P., and Kuropat, P.J. 1980. Selection of winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: The role of plant chemistry. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 11: 261-285. Duffey, S.S. 1980. Sequestration of plant natural products by insects. Annual Review of Entomology 25: 447-477. Fenical, W. 1982. Natural products chemistry in the marine environment. Science 215: 923-928. Wood, D.L. 1982. The role of pheromones, kairomones and allomones in the host selection and colonization behaviour of bark beetles. Annual Review of Entomology 27: 411-446. Berenbaum, M. 1983. Coumarins and caterpillars: a case for coevolution. Evolution 37: 163-179. Bell, W.J., and Cardé, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland, 524 pp Coley, P.D., Bryant, J.P., and Chapin, F.S.III 1985. Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 230: 895-899. Boppré, M. 1986. Insects pharmacophagously utilizing defensive plant chemicals (pyrrolizidine alkaloids). Naturwissenschaften 73: 17-26 (also see, •Boppré, M. 1990. J. Chem. Ecol. 16: 165-). Mattson, W.J., Levieux, J., and Bernard-Dagan, C. (eds.). 1988. Mechanisms of Woody Plant Defenses Against Insects: Search for Pattern. SpringerVerlag, New York. 416 pp. Staal, G.B. 1986. Antijuvenile hormone agents. Annual Review of Entomology 31: 391-429. Brattsten, L.B., and Ahmad, S. (eds.). 1986. Molecular Aspects of Insect-Plant Associations. Plenum Press, New York. 346 pp. Berenbaum, M.R. 1990. Plant consumers and plant secondary chemistry: past, present and future. Pp. 285-307, in Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 7, D. Futuyma & J. Antonovics (eds.). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Karban, R., and Baldwin, I.T. 1997. Induced Responses to Herbivory. The University of Chicago Press. 319 pp. The role of symbiotes: Campbell, B.C. 1989. On the role of microbial symbiotes in herbivorous insects. Pp. 1-44, in E.A. Bernays (ed.) Insect-Plant Interactions. Vol.1. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Lindroth, R.L. 1988. Adaptations of mammalian herbivores to plant chemical defenses. Pp 415-445, in K.C. Spencer (ed.), Chemical Mediation of Coevolution. Academic Press, San Diego. (includes role of symbiotes in vertebrates). Douglas, A.E. 2003. Nutritional physiology of aphids. Advances in Insect Physiology 31: 73-140. Douglas, A.E. 2006. Phloem sap feeding by animals: problems and solutions. Journal of Experimental Botany 57: 747-754. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 4 Chandler, S.M., Wilkinson, T.L., and Douglas, A.E. 2008. Impact of plant nutrients on the relationship between a herbivorous insect and its symbiotic bacteria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 275: 565-570. Douglas, A.E. 2009. The microbial dimension in insect nutritional ecology. Functional Ecology 23: 38-47. Tritrophic interactions: Brower, L.P. 1969. Ecological chemistry. Scientific American 220: 22-29. Rothschild, M. 1973. Secondary plant substances and warning colouration in insects. Pp 59-83 in, H. van Emden (ed.) Insect-Plant Interactions. Symposium of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Price, P.W., Bouton, C.E., Gross, P., McPheron, B.A., Thompson, J.A., and Weis, A.E. 1980. Interactions among three trophic levels: Influence of plants on the interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 11: 41-65. Pasteels, J.M., Grégoire, J-C., and Rowell-Rahier, M. 1983. The chemical ecology of defence in arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology 28: 263289. Malcolm, S.B., and Brower, L.P. 1989. Evolutionary and ecological implications of cardenolide sequestration in the monarch butterfly. Experientia 45: 284295. Evans, D.L., and Schmidt, J.O. (eds.) 1990. Insect Defenses: Adaptive mechanisms and strategies of prey and predators. State University of New York Press, Albany N.Y. Malcolm, S.B. 1990. Chemical defence in chewing and sucking insect herbivores: plant-derived cardenolides in the monarch butterfly and oleander aphid. Chemoecology 1: 12-21. Malcolm, S.B. 1990. Mimicry: status of a classical evolutionary paradigm. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5(2): 57-62. Rowell-Rahier, M., and Pasteels, J.M. 1990. Phenolglucosides and interactions at three trophic levels: Salicaceae-Herbivores-Predators. Pp 75-110, in E.A. Bernays (ed.) Insect-Plant Interactions. Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Malcolm, S.B. 1992. Prey defence and predator foraging. Pages 458-475 In, M.J. Crawley (editor), Natural Enemies: The population biology of predators, parasites and diseases. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Malcolm, S.B. 1992. Cardenolide-mediated interactions between plants and herbivores. Pp. 251-296 in G. Rosenthal and M. Berenbaum (eds.) Herbivores: Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites. 2nd edition, Vol. 1: The Chemical Participants. Academic Press. Rowell-Rahier, M., and Pasteels, J.M. 1992. Third trophic level influences of plant allelochemics. Pages 243-277, in, G.A. Rosenthal and M.R. Berenbaum (editors), Herbivores: Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites, Second Edition. Volume II: Ecological and Evolutionary Processes. San Diego: Academic Press. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 5 Schultz, J. 1992. Factoring natural enemies into plant tissue availability to herbivores. Pages 175-197, in, M.D. Hunter, T. Ohgushi & P.W. Price (eds.) Effects of Resource Distribution on Animal-Plant Interactions. San Diego, Academic Press. Hunter, M.D., Varley, G.C., and Gradwell, G.R. 1997. Estimating the relative roles of top-down and bottom-up forces on insect herbivore populations: A classic study revisited. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 9176-9181. "Green leaf volatiles" and induction (antagonistic signals of herbivory/indirect mutualism): Lewis, W.J., and Tumlinson, J.H. 1988. Host detection by chemically mediated associative learning in a parasitic wasp. Nature 331: 257-259. Dickens, J.C., Jang, E.B., Light, D.M., and Alford, A.R. 1990. Enhancement of insect pheromone responses by green leaf volatiles. Naturwissenschaften 77: 29-31. Haukioja, E. 1990. Induction of defenses in trees. Annual Review of Entomology 35: 25-42. Whitman, D.W., and Eller, F.J. 1990. Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles. Chemoecology 1: 69-75. Agrawal, A.A. 1998. Induced response to herbivory and increased plant performance. Science 279: 1201-1202. Interactions between plants, herbivores and pathogens: Foster, M.A., Schultz, J.C., and Hunter, M.D. 1992. Modelling gypsy moth-virusleaf chemistry interactions: implications of plant quality for pest and pathogen dynamics. Journal of Animal Ecology 61: 509-520. Lefèvre, T., Oliver, L., Hunter, M.D., and De Roode, J.C. 2010. Evidence for trans-generational medication in nature. Ecol. Lett. 13(12): 1485-1493. de Roode, J.C., Rarick, R.M., Mongue, A.J., Gerardo, N.M., Hunter, M.D. 2011. Aphids indirectly increase virulence and transmission potential of a monarch butterfly parasite by reducing defensive chemistry of a shared food plant. Ecol. Lett. 14(5): 453-461. Costs of defense expression in plants: Simms, E.L. 1992. Costs of plant resistance to herbivory. Pages 392-425, in, R.S. Fritz and E.L. Simms (editors), Plant Resistance to Herbivores and Pathogens. Ecology, Evolution, and Genetics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Zangerl, A.R., and Bazzaz, F.A.. 1992. Theory and pattern in plant defense allocation. Pages 363-391, in, R.S. Fritz and E.L. Simms (editors), Plant Resistance to Herbivores and Pathogens. Ecology, Evolution, and Genetics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Gershenzon, J. 1994. Metabolic costs of terpenoid accumulation in higher plants. Journal of Chemical Ecology 20: 1281-1328. C. EXPLOITATION AND MUTUALISMS Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 6 Pollination and fruit dispersal (mutualistic?): Gilbert, L.E., and Raven P.H. (eds.). 1975. Coevolution of Animals and Plants. University of Texas Press, Austin. 246 pp. (several papers) Lewis, A.C., and Lipani, G.A. 1990. Learning and flower use in butterflies: Hypotheses from honey bees. Pp. 95-110, in E.A. Bernays (ed.) InsectPlant Interactions. Vol.II. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Grafen, A., and Godfray, H.C.J. 1991. Vicarious selection explains some paradoxes in dioecious fig-pollinator systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 245: 73-76. Bronstein, J.L. 1992. Seed predators as mutualists: Ecology and evolution of the fig/pollinator interaction. Pages 1-44, in, E. Bernays (editor), Insect-Plant Interactions. Volume IV. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Baumann, P., N.A. Moran and L. Baumann. 1997. The evolution and genetics of aphid endosymbionts. BioScience 47(1): 12-20 Cipollini, M.L., and Levey, D.J. 1997. Why are some fruits toxic? Glycoalkaloids in Solanum and fruit choice by vertebrates. Ecology 78: 782-798. Douglas, A.E. 1998. Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: aphids and their symbiotic Buchnera. Annual Review of Entomology 43: 17-37. Influences of mycorrhizae Newsham, K.K., Fitter, A.H., and Watkinson, A.H. 1994. Root pathogenic and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi determine fecundity of asymptomatic plants in the field. Journal of Ecology 82: 805-814. Vannette, R.L., and Hunter, M.D. 2009. Mycorrhizal fungi as mediators of defense against insect pests in agricultural systems. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 11: 351-358. D. POPULATION AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS Crawley, M.J. 1983. Herbivory. The Dynamics of Animal-Plant Interactions. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 437 pages. Strong, D.R., Lawton, J.H., and Southwood, R. 1984. Insects on Plants. Community Patterns and Mechanisms. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 313 pages. Begon. M., Townsend, C.R., and Harper, J.L. 2006. Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems. 4th edition. Blackwell Publishing, 738 pp. E. MARINE/TERRESTRIAL COMPARISONS Lubchenco, J., and Gaines, S.D. 1981. A unified approach to marine plantherbivore interactions. I. Populations and communities. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 12: 405-437. Gaines, S.D., and Lubcheckco, J. 1982. A unified approach to marine plantherbivore interactions. II. Biogeography. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13: 111138. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 7 Hay, M.E., and Fenical, W. 1988. Marine plant-herbivore interactions: The ecology of chemical defense. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19: 111-145. F. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS (since 2001, alphabetical) Agrawal, A. 2005. Future directions in the study of induced plant responses to herbivory. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 115: 97-105. Agrawal, A.A. 2004a. Plant defense and density dependence in the population growth of herbivores. The American Naturalist 164: 113-120. Agrawal, A.A. 2004b. Resistance and susceptibility of milkweed: competition, root herbivory, and plant genetic variation. Ecology 85: 2118-2133. Agrawal, A.A. 2007. Macroevolution of plant defense strategies. Trends Ecol. Evol. 22: 103-109. Agrawal, A.A. 2011. Current trends in the evolutionary ecology of plant defense. Functional Ecology 25: 420-432. Agrawal, A.A., and Fishbein, M. 2006. Plant defense syndromes. Ecology 87: S132-S149. Agrawal, A.A., and Fishbein, M. 2008. Phylogenetic escalation and decline of plant defense strategies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105: 10057-10060. Agrawal, A.A., and Konno, K. 2009. Latex: a model for understanding mechanisms, ecology, and evolution of plant defense against herbivory. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 40: 311-331. Agrawal, A. A., M. Fishbein, R. Halitschke, A. P. Hastings, D. L. Rabosky, and S. Rasmann. 2009. Evidence for adaptive radiation from a phylogenetic study of plant defenses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106: 18067-18072. Awmack, C.C., and Leather, S.R. 2002. Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects. Annual Review of Entomology 47: 817-844. Baldwin, I.T. 2001. An ecologically motivated analysis of plant-herbivore interactions in native tobacco. Plant Physiology 127: 1449-1458. Baldwin, I.T., Halitschke, R., Paschold, A., von Dahl, C.C., and Preston, C.A. 2006. Volatile signaling in plant-plant interactions: ‘‘talking trees’’ in the genomics era. Science 311: 812-815. Becerra, J.X., Noge, K., and Venable, D.L. 2009. Macroevolutionary chemical escalation in an ancient plant-herbivore arms race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106: 18062-18066. Bezemer, T.M., and van Dam, N.M. 2005. Linking aboveground and belowground interactions via induced plant defenses. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20: 617-624. Carmona, D., Lajeunesse, M., and Johnson, M. 2011. Plant traits that predict resistance to herbivores. Functional Ecology 25: 358-367. Cipollini, D., Mbagwu, J., Barto, K., Hillstrom, C., and Enright, S. 2005. Expression of constitutive and inducible chemical defenses in native and invasive populations of Alliaria petiolata. Journal of Chemical Ecology 31: 1255-1267. Dicke, M., Van Loon, J.J.A., and Soler, R. 2009. Chemical complexity of volatiles Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 8 from plants induced by multiple attack. Nature Chemical Biology 5: 317324. Fine, P.V.A., Mesones, I., and Coley, P.D. 2004. Herbivores promote habitat specialization by trees in Amazonian forests. Science 305: 663-665. Fine, P.V.A., Miller, Z.J., Mesones, I., Irazuzta, S., Appel, H.M., Stevens, M.H.H., Saaksjarvi, I., Schultz, L.C., and Coley, P.D. 2006. The growth defense trade-off and habitat specialization by plants in Amazonian forests. Ecology 87: S150-S162. Futuyma, D. J., and A. A. Agrawal. 2009. Macroevolution and the biological diversity of plants and herbivores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106: 18054-18061. Howe, G.A., and Jander, G. 2008. Plant immunity to insect herbivores. Annual Review of Plant Biology 59: 41-66. Johnson, M.T.J. 2011. Evolutionary ecology of plant defences against herbivores. Functional Ecology 25(2): 305-311. Karban, R. 2011. The ecology and evolution of induced resistance against herbivores. Functional Ecology 25: 339-347. Karban, R., and Agrawal, A.A. 2002. Herbivore offense. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33: 641-664. Kessler, A., and Baldwin, I.T. 2001. Defensive function of herbivore-induced plant volatile emissions in nature. Science 291: 2141-2144. Koricheva, J., Nykanen, H., and Gianoli, E. 2004. Meta-analysis of trade-offs among plant antiherbivore defenses: are plants jacks-of-all-trades, masters of all? The American Naturalist 163: E64-E75. Kursar, T.A., and Coley, P.D. 2003. Convergence in defense syndromes of young leaves in tropical rainforests. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 31: 929-949. Kursar, T.A., Dexter, K.G., Lokvam, J., Pennington, R.T., Richardson, J.E., Weber, M.G., Murakami, E.T., Drake, C., McGregor, R., and Coley, P.D. 2009. The evolution of antiherbivore defenses and their contribution to species coexistence in the tropical tree genus Inga. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106: 18073-18078. Lankau, R.A. 2007. Specialist and generalist herbivores exert opposing selection on a chemical defense. New Phytologist 175: 176-184. Moles, A.T., Bonser, S.P., Poore, A.G.B., Wallis, I.R., and Foley, W.J. 2011. Assessing the evidence for latitudinal gradients in plant defence and herbivory. Functional Ecology 25(2): 380-388. Mooney, K.A., and Agrawal, A.A. 2008. Plant genotype shapes ant-aphid interactions: implications for community structure and indirect plant defense. The American Naturalist 171: E195-E205. Mooney, K.A., Halitschke, R., Kessler, A., and Agrawal, A.A. 2010. Evolutionary trade-offs in plants mediate the strength of trophic cascades. Science 327: 1642-1644. Nuismer, S.L., and Gandon, S. 2008. Moving beyond common-garden and transplant designs: insight into the causes of local adaptation in species interactions. The American Naturalist 171: 658-668. Orians, C. 2005. Herbivores, vascular pathways, and systemic induction: facts Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 9 and artifacts. J. Chem. Ecol. 31: 2231-2242. Pennings, S.C., and Silliman, B.R. 2005. Linking biogeography and community ecology: Latitudinal variation in plant-herbivore interaction strength. Ecology 86: 2310-2319. Plant Physiology March 2008, vol 146 number 3, Focus issue on plant-herbivore interactions, edited by Georg Jander and Gregg Howe. Rasmann, S., and Agrawal, A.A. 2008. In defense of roots: a research agenda for studying plant resistance to belowground herbivory. Plant Physiology 146: 875-880. Rasmann, S., and Agrawal, A.A. 2009a. Plant defense against herbivory: progress in identifying synergism, redundancy, and antagonism between resistance traits. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12: 473-478. Rasmann, S., Johnson, M.D., and Agrawal, A.A. 2009b. Induced responses to herbivory and jasmonate in three milkweed species. Journal of Chemical Ecology 35: 1326-1334. Singer, M.S., and Stireman, J.O. 2005. The tri-trophic niche concept and adaptive radiation of phytophagous insects. Ecology Letters 8: 1247-1255. Stamp, N. 2003. Out of the quagmire of plant defense hypotheses. Q. Rev. Biol. 78: 23-55. Strauss, S.Y., Rudgers, J.A., Lau, J.A., and Irwin, R.E. 2002. Direct and ecological costs of resistance to herbivory. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17: 278-285. Thaler, J.S., Stout, M.J., Karban, R., and Duffey, S.S. 2001. Jasmonatemediated induced plant resistance affects a community of herbivores. Ecological Entomology 26: 312-324. Thaler, J.S., Farag, M.A., Pare, P.W., and Dicke, M. 2002. Jasmonate-deficient plants have reduced direct and indirect defences against herbivores. Ecology Letters 5: 764-774. van Dam, N.M., Witjes, L., and Svatos, A. 2004. Interactions between aboveground and belowground induction of glucosinolates in two wild Brassica species. New Phytol. 161: 801-810. Vannette, R.L., and Hunter, M.D. 2011. Plant defence theory re-examined: nonlinear expectations based on the costs and benefits of resource mutualisms. Journal of Ecology 99: 66-76. Vannette, R.L., and Hunter, M.D. 2011. Genetic variation in expression of defense phenotype may mediate evolutionary adaptation of Asclepias syriaca to elevated CO2. Global Change Biology 17: 1277-1288. Van Zandt, P.A. 2007. Plant defense, growth rate, and habitat: a comparative assessment of constitutive and induced resistance. Ecology 88: 19841993. Van Zandt, P.A., and Agrawal, A.A. 2004a. Community-wide impacts of herbivore-induced plant responses in milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). Ecology 85: 2616-2629. Van Zandt, P.A., and Agrawal, A.A. 2004b. Specificity of induced plant responses to specialist herbivores of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca. Oikos 104: 401-409. Wallin, K.F., and Raffa, K.F. 2004. Feedback between individual host selection behavior and population dynamics in an eruptive herbivore. Ecological Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 10 Monographs 74: 101-116. Whitham, T.G., Young, W.P., Martinsen, G.D., Gehring, C.A., Schweitzer, J.A., Shuster, S.M., Wimp, G.M., Fischer, D.G., Bailey, J.K., Lindroth, R.L., Woolbright, S., and Kuske, C.R. 2003. Community and ecosystem genetics: a consequence of the extended phenotype. Ecology 84: 559573. Wink, M. 2003. Evolution of secondary metabolites from an ecological and molecular phylogenetic perspective. Phytochemistry 64: 3-19. Zangerl, A.R. 2003. Evolution of induced plant responses to herbivores. Basic and Applied Ecology 4: 91-103. Zvereva, E.L., and Kozlov, M.V. 2005. Consequences of simultaneous elevation of carbon dioxide and temperature for plant-herbivore interactions: a metaanalysis. Global Change Biology 12(1): 27-41. Plant-Herbivore Interactions Stephen Malcolm Page - 11