Download V. The Witchcraft Craze

CHAPTER 14 NOTES: DISCOVERY & CRISIS IN THE 16TH & 17TH
CENTURIES
I.
An Age of Discovery and Expansion
A. The Motives
1. Europeans had long been attracted to lands outside of
Europe
2. Although Muslim control of central Asia cut Europe off
from the countries further east, the Mongol conquests
in the 13th century had reopened the doors
3. Merchants, adventurers & government officials had
high hopes of finding precious metals and new areas
of trade, in particular, more direct sources for the
Spices of the East
4. Religious Zeal “God, Glory, & Gold”
5. Europeans had achieved a level of wealth &
technology that enabled them to make a regular series
of voyages beyond Europe
6. Europeans had developed remarkably seaworthy ships
as well as new navigational techniques
7. Growing knowledge of wind patterns spurred
exploration
B. The Development of a Portuguese maritime Empire
1. Under Prince Henry the “Navigator,” Portugal began to
explore the coast of Africa
2. In the 1440s, the Portuguese made some of their first
profits from their maritime exploration and returning
ships and from the sale of Africans slaves
3. In 1471, they discovered gold along the southern coast
of the Western hump of Africa (Gold Coast)
4. Hearing reports of a route to India around the southern
tip of Africa, Portuguese sea captains continued their
probing
a. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of
Good Hope
b. Vasco da Gama, from 1497 to 1499, rounded the
Cape of Good Hope; stopped at several East
African ports controlled by Muslims; sailed
across Arabian sea to Calicut, India; brought
valuable spices such as ginger and cinnamon
from India
c. In 1511, Portuguese captain Alfonso de
Albuquerque sailed into the harbor of Malacca on
the Malay Peninsula
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5. Portuguese fleets returned annually to India, seeking
to destroy Arab Muslim shipping and established
monopolies in the Spice Trade
6. The development of a Portuguese maritime empire
encompassing Malacca and the Malay Peninsula was
achieved, in part, through ruthless attacks on all prior
Arab settlers in the region including the murder and
mutilation of male and female Islamic prisoners.
7. Portuguese were successful because of guns and
seamanship.
C. Voyages to the New World
1. Spanish attempted to reach the Indies by sailing
westward across the Atlantic
2. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
a. With 3 ships, the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria
manned by 90 men, Columbus set sail on August
3, 1492 west across the Atlantic.
b. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the
Bahamas and then went on to explore the
coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of
Hispaniola
1. told Spanish monarchs that gold and silver
would be found there
2. believed he had reached Asia
3. because of their contact with Europeans,
the native population of Hispaniola went
from 100,000 to 300 in just 80 years
following Columbus’ initial arrival
c. Although Columbus clung to his belief until his
death, other explorers soon realized that he had
discovered a new frontier altogether. (The
Americas)
3. Other explorations
a. In 1497, Venetian John Cabot explored the New
England coastline of the Americas under the
backing of Henry VII of England
b. In 1500, Portuguese sailor Pedro Cabral
discovered South America. (Accompanied by
Vespucci)
c. In 1513, Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed
the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific
Ocean
d. In 1519, Spaniard Ferdinand Magellan’s crew
circumnavigated the world (Magellan was killed in
the Philippines)
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4. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the new world
between Spanish and Portuguese
D. The Spanish Empire in the New World
1. Sanctioned by the Castilian crown, Spanish
Conquistadors were successful at conquering large
chunks of the Americas because:
a. superior weapons
b. organizational skills
c. determination
d. rivalries among native peoples
e. disease
2. Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) exemplified Spanish
expansion and exploration of the New World by his
defeat of the Aztecs in Mexico
3. Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) defeated Incas and
established a Spanish colony in South America by
1535.
4. Administration of the Spanish Empire
a. Queen Isabella of Spain declared the natives of
the New World to be the subjects of Castile and
issued the encomienda
1. was designed to protect the Indians, pay
them wages, and supervise their spiritual
needs
2. in reality, it allowed Spaniards to collect
tribute from the natives and to enslave
them
b. Forced labor, starvation, and diseases such as
smallpox, measles, and typhus took a fearful toll
on Native American populations (NO immunities
to European diseases)
c. 30% to 40% of native populations died due to
contact with Europeans
d. Spanish developed an administrative system
based on viceroys
e. Catholic monarchs of Spain were given extensive
rights over ecclesiastical affairs in the New World
f. Mass conversion of Native Americans by
Dominican, Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries
brought the organizational and institutional
structures of the Roman Catholic Church to the
New World
E. Impact of Expansion
1. Destroyed Native American cultures that came under
European control to a large degree
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II.
2. Large influx of precious metals such as gold and silver
to Europe from the New World
3. Introduction of new foods into Europe such as
potatoes, coffee, corn, and tobacco
4. Introduction of horses, sheep, and wheat to the New
World from Europe
5. Deepened rivalries among competing European
countries
Politics and Wars of Religion in the 16th Century
A. The French Wars of Religion
1. Francis I (1515-1547) and Henry II (1547-1559) had been
strong rulers in France who kept the internal peace
and controlled the Church
2. After the accidental death of Henry II (jousting
accident), he was succeeded by sons who were weak,
feeble, and neurotic
3. Henry II’s widow, Catherine de’Medici acted as a
regent and dominated French politics during her sons’
reigns; nicknamed “Madame Snake”
4. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism, French kings
tried to stop its spread by persecuting Huguenots
(French Calvinists)
5. The Huguenots
a. made up approximately 7% of the total French
population
b. made up approximately 50% of the total French
nobility
c. came from all levels of society, rich and poor a
like
d. strong-willed and well organized
6. The sons of Henry II of the Valois dynasty were
staunchly Roman Catholic
7. The Guise Family, a powerful French Catholic family
that posed a threat even to the Catholic Valois family,
spear-headed the anti-Huguenot movement in France
8. Religious issues were not the only factors that
contributed to civil war in France:
a. Towns and provinces resented the power of the
monarchy
b. The nobility, particularly the Huguenot nobility,
also resented royal authority
9. Civil Wars temporarily halted the development of a
centralized state in France
10. The wars erupted in 1562 when the powerful Duke of
Guise orchestrated a massacre of thousands of
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Huguenot men, women, and children who were
peacefully congregating in Vassy
11. Although outnumbered badly, the Huguenots were
excellent at defensive warfare and proved difficult to
conquer
12. A truce seemed to be reached between the Catholics
and Huguenots when King Charles IX’s sister agreed
to marry Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot leader and
member of the Bourbon family.
13. Henry of Navarre’s mother had introduced Calvinism
to Navarre
14. Truce ended with the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
in August, 1572
a. the Guise family influenced Charles IX through his
mother Catherine de’Medici that the gathering of
Huguenots in Paris for Henry’s wedding was a
threat to the crown
b. King’s guards sought out and murdered
prominent Huguenot leaders
c. King’s actions unleashed a wave of violence as
Catholic mobs killed 3,000 Huguenots in Paris
d. Thousands more Huguenots were killed in the
towns and provinces
e. Massacre eventually worked against Valois
dynasty which was badly discredited over the
bloodshed
15. After the assassination of two kings, the violence
finally ended with the crowning of Henry of Navarre as
the CATHOLIC King of France (Henry IV)
16. In 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes which stated:
a. acknowledged Catholicism as France’s official
religion
b. guaranteed Huguenots right to worship in
selected places in every district in France
c. allowed Huguenots to keep fortified towns
d. allowed Huguenots to enjoy all political privileges
B. Philip II and the Cause of Militant Catholicism
1. Philip II of Spain and the Hapsburg Dynasty (15561598)
a. son of Charles V
b. husband of Mary I of England; she died in 1558
c. great advocate of militant Catholicism and most
important political figure in the 2nd half of the 16th
Century other than possibly Elizabeth I
2. Goals of Philip II
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a. first goal was to consolidate and secure lands
inherited from his father
b. his most important goal was to make Spain the
dominant power of Europe
c. successful at leading the Holy League against
Muslim, Mediterranean holdings (Battle of
Lepanto-1571)
d. championed all things Catholic
e. Turned his royal palace, Escorial, into a
functioning monastery
f. Gold and silver poured into Spain from New World
3. Problems Of Philip II
a. the influx of gold and silver made inflation
skyrocket which disrupted domestic textile and
agricultural production
b. he wasn’t good at delegating authority
c. debt overwhelmed his monarchy (2/3’s of state
income went to servicing the debt
d. foreign policy fiascos with the Netherlands and
England
C. The Revolt of the Netherlands
1. Netherlands revolted against Philip II because of:
a. the Dutch were tired of paying taxes to support
Spanish interests
b. Dutch nobles thought they would lose privileges
as Philip II attempted to strengthen his grip on the
region
c. Dutch citizens who were becoming increasingly
Calvinist viewed Catholic Philip II with suspicion
2. Revolt started when Calvinists began destroying
statues and stain glass windows in Catholic churches
3. Philip II sent Duke of Alva and 10,000 troops to put
down rebellion
4. Duke of Alva instituted the Council of Troubles which
set into motion a reign of terror against powerful
Calvinists
5. William of Orange led the Calvinist resistance
6. Revolt ended with a truce that divided the Netherlands
into northern and southern provinces
a. Northern provinces would become an
independent Dutch republic
b. Southern provinces remained under Hapsburg
control
D. The England of Elizabeth
1. England under Elizabeth I (1558-1603):
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a. became leading Protestant country in Europe
b. laid the foundations for a world empire
c. experienced a cultural renaissance
Elizabeth, half sister of Mary I, based her religious
policies on the concepts of moderation and
compromise as she put the interest of the state above
religious ideology
With Catholicism being identified with the unpopular
Spanish, Catholic numbers dwindled in England
Catholic Mary Queen of Scots did pose a threat to
Elizabeth
a. Mary Queen of Scots, cousin to Elizabeth, was
next in line to the throne after Elizabeth
b. Mary Q of S fled from Scotland to England fearing
for her life after a successful Calvinist revolt there
c. A suspicious Elizabeth put Mary Q of S under
house arrest upon her arrival
d. In 1587, Elizabeth had Mary Q of S beheaded after
she was implicated in a plot to assassinate
Elizabeth
Puritans were an unwanted distraction to Elizabeth
that she successfully contained during her reign
In foreign policy matters, Elizabeth tried to avoid
provoking war with other European powers but did
approve and support English pirating efforts of
Spanish ships and secretly aided Protestants battling
Catholic forces in France and the Netherlands
In 1588, Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to crush the
English navy and to clear the way for a Spanish
invasion of England
a. Sent because Philip II was tired of English pirating
and its interference in internal Hapsburg matters
on the continent.
b. Armada consisted of large, lumbering ships
equipped with small guns
c. British navy was smaller, fas` ```ter, and had
superior guns
d. Combination of British navy and bad weather
doomed the Armada
e. Remnants of the Armada returned to Spain
battered and beaten although fighting would
continue between England and Spain for 16 more
years
f. From the moment the Armada was defeated,
England rose in power both within Europe and on
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III.
the world stage while Spain began its slow but
steady decline as a power
Economic and Social Crises
A. Inflation and Economic Stagnation
1. Inflation was a major economic problem during the 16th
and early 17th Centuries
2. Though the inflation rate was probably a relatively low
2 to 3 percent a year, it was noticeable in a Europe
accustomed to stable prices
3. Wages failed to keep up with price increases (wage
earners standard of living dropped as a result)
4. Possible Causes of 16th & 17th Century Inflation
a. Influx of precious metals from the New World
b. Rapidly increasing population (increased demand
for food & land)
5. By the 1620s, inflation was replaced by economic
contraction particularly in Italy & Spain
B. Trade, Industry, Banking, and Agriculture
1. The Flourishing European trade of the 16th Century
revolved around 3 major areas:
a. The Mediterranean in the south
b. The low Countries and the Baltic region in the
north
c. Central Europe which relied on the Rhine &
Danube
2. The commercial expansion of the 16th and 17th
centuries was made easier by new forms of
commercial organization especially joint-stock trading
companies which were able to raise huge sums of
capital for world trading ventures
3. Commercial banks replaced the traditional family
banking institutions
4. Despite the growth of commercial capitalism, 80% to
90% of Europeans still relied on Agriculture for their
incomes.
C. Population and the Growth of Cities
1. The16th century was a period of expanding population
in Europe as the population went from 60 million in
1500 to 85 million in 1600
a. Warmer climate
b. Increased food supply
2. The rise in population was reflected in the growth of
cities by 1600
a. Paris’ population was 500,000 (largest city in
Europe)
b. Naples’ population was 300,000
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IV.
c. London’ population was 250,000
3. 17th Century cities visibly reflected the remarkable
disparity in wealth during the century
th
17 Century Crises: War and Rebellions
A. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
1. A struggle between militant Catholicism and militant
Calvinism played an important role in the wars
outbreak
2. Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were even
more important as the war progressed
3. Although much of the fighting took place in Germany,
the war escalated into a European –wide conflict
4. France looked to break out of its Hapsburg
encirclement
5. Spain looked to regain the Netherlands after losing the
territory in a “temporary” truce
6. The Austrian Hapsburg wished to consolidate their
holdings in Austria & Bohemia by eliminating
Protestantism and creating stronger central authority
7. Protestant Union (1608)
a. Formed by the Elector Palatine Frederick IV
b. League of German Protestant states
c. Backed by Dutch, English, & French
8. Catholic League (1609)
a. Organized by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria
b. Catholic union designed to counteract its
Protestant rival group
c. Backed by Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor
9. Bohemian Phase of the Thirty Years’ War
a. lasted from 1618-1625
b. Protestant nobles rebelled against the Catholic
ruler Ferdinand in Bohemia
c. Protestant nobles managed to kick Ferdinand out
of Bohemia and replaced him with a Protestant
ruler, Frederick IV, who was the leader of the P.U.
d. Ferdinand, while ousted from Bohemia, became
the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
e. With the backing of the C.L., Ferdinand defeated
Frederick’s forces at the Battle of White Mountain
outside of Prague in 1620.
f. Ferdinand, Duke Maximilian, and the Spanish
Hapsburgs divided up the spoils after defeating
Frederick
10. Danish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
a. lasted from 1625-1629
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b. King Christian IV attempted to intervene on the
Protestants’ behalf by invading northern Germany
c. Danes most likely hoped to annex the German
provinces along the Baltic Sea
d. Danes & Protestant forces were whipped by the
pro-Catholic imperial army led by the brilliant
Albrecht von Wallenstein
e. Danes defeat ended their involvement in the war
and even ended their dominance in the Baltic
f. After the defeat of the Danes, Ferdinand II issued
the Edict of Restitution (1629)
1. prohibited Calvinist worship
2. restored to the Catholic Church all land
taken by Protestant princes in Germany
from the church over the previous 75
years.
3. angered the princes greatly
11. Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
a. lasted from 1630-1635
b. Phase began when Swedish King Gustavus
Adolphus entered the fighting in northern
Germany on behalf of the Protestants
c. With French financial backing, Gustavus, a
brilliant military leader, swept the imperial
“Catholic” forces out of northern Germany and
chased them southward
d. Von Wallenstein, who had been relieved of
command of imperial forces for political reasons
at the end of the Danish phase, was placed in
command of imperial forces once again
e. Von Wallenstein’s imperial army met Gustavus’
Swedes at the Battle of Luzen (1632) near Leipzig
1. the battle was a Swedish victory
2. Swedes paid a high price as Gustavus was
killed in battle
3. Swedish army was never the same after the
death of their brilliant leader
f. less effective Swedish army was defeated by von
Wallenstein-less (victim of assassination) imperial
army at the Battle of Nordlingen (1634) which
drove the Swedes out of southern Germany
1. victory guaranteed that southern Germany
would remain Catholic
2. Ferdinand repealed Edict of Restitution in
an effort to end hostilities with Protestant
nobles
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V.
12. Franco-Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
a. lasted from 1635-1648
b. religious differences became secondary to
dynastic rivalries during this phase
c. Catholic French & Protestant Swedes took on
Catholic Hapsburgs of Germany and Spain
d. War considered by most to be part of the greater
struggle between Bourbon France and Hapsburg
Spain
e. Decisive battle was the Battle of Rocroi (1643)
where the French defeated the Spanish bringing
to an end Spanish military greatness
f. Peace of Westphalia (1648)
1. ended fighting in Germany
2. allowed German states to determine their
religion
13. Impact of 30 Years’ War
a. Bourbons and France emerged as dominant
power in Europe
b. Witnessed the devastation of most of the German
countryside
c. Brought to an end the Holy Roman Empire as a
single political entity and ensured German
disunity for 200 more years
B. A Military Revolution?
1. by the 17th century, war played an increasingly
important role in European affairs
2. Medieval warfare had been replaced by a new modern
warfare which included:
a. use of conscripts rather than mercenaries
(Gustavus)
b. more flexible military tactics because of
conscripts
c. infantry armed with pikes and halberds and
organized into massive rectangles (battalions)
d. utilization of firearms and cannons limited
effectiveness of cavalry
e. better disciplined armies
C. Rebellions
--Rebellions that swept through Europe at the time of the 30
Years’ War indirectly resulted in an increase in the power of
the European monarchies.
The Witchcraft Craze
A. History in European Society
1. Witchcraft had been part of traditional village culture
for centuries in Europe
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2. Viewed as sinister when the medieval church
connected witches to activities of the devil
3. 13th Century Inquisition saw people accused of a
variety of witchcraft practices turned over to secular
authorities, and burned at the stake or hanged
4. Witches were used as scapegoats by the church &
society for the Black Death
B. 16th & 17th Century
1. Witchcraft trials were prevalent in England, Scotland,
Switzerland, Germany, some parts of France, the Low
countries, and even New England in North America
2. 16th and 17th Centuries were different from early times
because of the increased numbers of trials and
executions during this time (100,000 people were
prosecuted on witchcraft charges)
3. The witch hunts of 16th & 17th Centuries resulted in
accusations against mainly lower class women (80%
women almost all from lower class)
4. A typical witch trial in the 17th century consisted of
torture to gain “confessions” from the accused
5. Works of the time such as Malleus Maleficarum
(Hammer of Witches) argues women were more likely
to be witches because:
a. Weaker than men both mentally and morally
b. Women more likely to succumb to the allures of
Satan
c. For years was considered to be standard & highly
reliable guide for finding and killing witches
6. Recent scholarship suggests that the witchcraft craze
of the 16th & 17th Centuries took place because social
conditions threatened old communal values
7. By the end of the 17th Century and beginning of the
18th Century, the witchcraft craze died down as more
and more educated people were questioning
altogether their old attitudes toward religion and
finding it especially contrary to reason to believe in the
old view of a world haunted by evil spirits
VI.
Culture in a Turbulent World
A. Mannerism
1. The Artistic Renaissance came to an end when a new
movement called Mannerism emerged in Italy of the
1520s and 1530s
2. The worldly enthusiasm of the Renaissance gave way
to anxiety, uncertainty, suffering, and a yearning for
spiritual experience
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3. Mannerist painters deliberately distorted the rules of
proportion by portraying elongated and contorted
figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a
strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and
confusion
4. Mannerism, which broke from the high ideals of the
Renaissance, reached its peak with the work of
Domenikos Theotocopoulos Called “El Greco”
a. born in Crete
b. studied in Venice and Rome
c. moved to Toledo, Spain in 1570 where he was the
official church painter
d. used shades of yellow and green against an eerie
background of grey in his works
e. notable work was Laocoon (1608-1614)
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5. Mannerism was eventually replaced by the Baroque
movement that dominated the artistic world for a
century and a half.
B. Baroque Movement
1. Baroque artists sought to harmonize the classical
traditions of Renaissance art with the intense religious
feelings fostered by the revival of religion in the
Reformation
2. first appeared in Rome in the Jesuit church of Il Gesu
whose façade was finished in 1575
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3. Primarily embraced by Catholics (especially in
Hapsburg areas)
4. art & architecture reflected the search for power that
was characteristic of much of the 17th century
5. painting was known for its use of dramatic effects to
heighten emotional intensity----------------------------2
6. notables in Baroque style include:
a. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)—prolific painter—
Landing of Marie de’Medici at Marsailles (16221626)
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b.
c. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)—architect who
completed St. Peter’s Basilica (mid 1600s)
Bernini also did the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa (1647-1652)
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d. Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1653)—less known
but well accomplished female artist—Judith
beheading Holofernes (1620)----------------------1
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A. Thought: The World of Montaigne
1. The humanist emphasis on the dignity of man and the
role of education in producing moral virtue seemed
questionable in view of the often violent passions of
dynastic and religious warfare
2. Intellectuals and writers began to adopt new
approaches in criticizing tradition and authority
3. Positive Skepticism
a. closely associated with Frenchman Michel
Montaigne (1533-1592)
b. Montaigne preached toleration and moderation in
his Essay on Experience
B. A Golden Age of Literature: England and Spain
1. Periods of crisis often produce great writing, and so it
was of this age, which was characterized by epic
poetry, the first great chivalric novel, and a golden age
in theater
2. England
a. often called the Elizabethan Era since much of
England’s cultural flowering took place during her
reign. (Golden Age in Literature)
b. Elizabethan literature exhibits the exuberance and
pride associated with English exploits under
Elizabeth I
c. Drama drove the English theater of this era
d. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
1. England’s leading dramatist of the era
2. master of the English language
3. technical proficiency was matched by an
incredible insight into human psychology
4. writer, actor, producer of both comedies
and dramas
5. known for use of iambic pentameter
6. his plays were the best example of patriotic
enthusiasm and pride of all things English
7. often performed at the Globe Theatre
3. Spain
a. playwrights such as Lope de Vega flourished in
Spain during this time
b. plays were written primarily to entertain rather
than to educate or sermonize
c. the zenith of the Spanish Golden Age in Literature
was reached in the works of Miguel Cervantes
(1547-1616)
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--most famous work was the first chivalric novel
Don Quixote
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