Download Lader Reform Judaism

Reform Judaism’s Emergence and Claim to Authority
“The great contribution of Reform Judaism is that it has enabled the Jewish people to
introduce innovation while preserving tradition, to embrace diversity while asserting
commonality, to affirm beliefs without rejecting those who doubt, and to bring faith to
sacred texts without sacrificing critical scholarship.”
-Union of Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism was developed in Europe in the early 19th century by a number of
key intellectuals hoping to find a way to reconcile their enlightened intellect and
assimilated lives with their culture, history, and religion. The Haskalah, elimination of
language barriers, and emancipation all contributed to the development of Reform
Judaism in Germany. In a post-emancipation society, the Jewish people were intensely
aware of their position as the ‘other’ and recognized the positive aspects of integration
into European society. Reform Judaism attempted to separate the Jewish religion from
Jewish peoplehood and culture, in order to provide individual Jews with the opportunity
to declare loyalty to the country in which they lived. Through dramatic changes in
synagogue structure, services, and ideology, Reform Judaism established itself as a
distinct sect of Judaism, claiming authority from Talmudic sources, and from the
dwindling enthusiasm for religious Judaism in emancipated Europe. Reform Judaism
gained popularity and support in America, thanks to ambitious leadership within the
movement, where several authoritative organizations were established. These
organizations centralized the movement, creating a way to unify synagogues and
religious leaders uniformly. Today, Reform Judaism has shifted into a community-based
movement, which is extremely different from the initial goals of its development.
Throughout Europe in the late 18th century, specifically Western Germany, the
Haskalah invaded traditional Jewish life, creating a new set of Jewish principles that
1
paved the way for Reform Judaism. Haskalah, a term that refers to the Jewish
Enlightenment, advocated adopting values that Jewish communities up until that point
had previously avoided, such as secular education and better assimilation into European
society. The majority of Jews lived in metropolitan cities such as Berlin, demolishing
their previous isolated communities in which association with gentiles was unnecessary
and unwanted. The main authority figure within these communities was their rabbi,
illustrating the importance that they placed on religious observance, who acted as teacher,
judge, advisor, and clergy. As the Enlightenment swept over Europe, more and more
Jews began moving to cities, where they were greatly influenced by the rationalistic and
increasingly secular world around them. One of the most important reforms that the
Haskalah brought about was the shift in education. Jewish education traditionally
centered around Talmudic studies, and leaders of the Haskalah movement encouraged
Jewish studies in addition to “secular knowledge, modern languages and practical
training in labor,” in order to encourage Jewish integration into mainstream society.
Intellectual Jewish leaders did not often agree with the national rulers of their time,
however, in an effort to unify his people, Joseph II issues an edict in the 1780’s stating
that Jews living in Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and Galacia must establish secular
schools (or send their children to public institutions).1 The idea that Jews should first
learn secular subjects before moving on to Talmud and religious studies was not
specifically a Christian ideal, but was supported by Jewish intellectuals as well; they
believed that as humans, Jews needed to be proficient in ethics, natural sciences,
philosophy, and other subjects in order to be successful members of society. Because of
1
Schoenberg, Shira. "The Haskalah." The Jewish Virtual Library. The American-Israeli Cooperative
Experience. 10 Oct. 2006 <http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Haskalah.html>.
2
this edict, many new Jewish schools were created in which children were instructed in
secular education.
A second foundation for the Reform movement was the elimination of the language
barrier between Jews and European communities. Moses Mendelssohn, one of the top
scholars associate with the Haskalah, strongly supported the Jewish community learning
modern languages such as German and French, using Hebrew as their main religious
language (and connection to nationalistic Jewish heritage), and forgoing the standard
Yiddish language in order to assimilate better with the non-Jewish world.2 Jews were
able to participate in the neutral secular world of intelligence without compromising their
traditions. Mendelssohn completed a translation of the bible into Hebrew, enabling Jews
to participate in the literary awakening that took place in the time period. Towards the
end of the 1600s, children of rich Jews in Germany were taught French and German to
facilitate social and business relationships with gentiles and the secular world. More and
more Jewish families became familiar with these languages, making it much easier for
them to participate in the outside world. Yiddish was stigmatized as “ridiculous,
ungrammatical, and a cause of moral corruption” by reformers such as Mendelssohn, and
Jewish schools began teaching more widespread languages for the benefit of their pupils.3
Along with the Haskalah and linguistic opportunities, the emancipation of Jews
throughout Europe ended the century of political, social, cultural, and religious isolation
that the Jewish people had faced. Several factors led up to European countries’ eventual
emancipation of their Jews. One such factor was biological; despite conversion and
intermarriage, the number of Jews continued to rise in major European countries
2
"Haskalah." Wikipedia. 29 Nov. 2006. 5 Dec. 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskalah>.
Schoenberg, Shira. "The Haskalah." The Jewish Virtual Library. The American-Israeli Cooperative
Experience. 10 Oct. 2006 <http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Haskalah.html>.
3
3
throughout the 19th century. The Jewish percentage within the general European
population rose from 1.1% the first half of the 19th century to 2.2% by 1900.4 Another
cause included the general popular demand for equality and rights for minorities. Many
Jewish intellectuals participated in this uprising, including Heinrich Heine, Johann
Jacoby, Gabriel Riesser, Berr Isaac Berr, and Lionel Nathan Rothschild, who fought for
freedom and liberty for everyone, instead of specifically for Jewish citizenship.5 While
these issues raised important positive reasons for Jewish emancipation, it was the
unrelenting anti-Semitic incidents that forced the creation of Jewish organizations that
pushed for immediate citizenship granted by Europe to their Jewish communities. In
France, the French Revolution encouraged a nationalistic feel, complete with equality for
citizens of all faiths and beliefs, and was the first country to recognize Jews as fullfledged citizens in 1791. The French Revolution jump-started other countries in Central
and Eastern Europe to emancipate their Jews, granting them citizenship. What happened
in France rubbed off on the rest of Europe, and the feeling of fraternity made its way to
Germany, which stood at the heart of Jewish intellectualism. Emancipation encouraged
integration, which often conflicted with the traditional Judaism at the time. Many Jews
thought they had to either remain observant and religious, or pursue a career in the
secular world, and chose to assimilate rather than maintain their Jewish identity.
These leaders of the Haskalah were key players in the inception of reform ideals;
while Mendelssohn encouraged changes within the Jewish community, none of his
4
Baron, Salo W. "The Jewish Question in the Nineteenth Century." The Journal of Modern History 10
(1938): 51. 10 Oct. 2006 <http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/00222801/di956001/95p0
1457/0?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d1%26Query%3dje
wish%2bemancipation%2bgermany%2breform&frame=noframe&currentResult=00222801%2bdi956001%
2b95p01457%2b0%2cFFFF&PAGE=0>. page 51
5
"Jewish Emancipation." Wikipedia. 29 Nov. 2006. 1 Dec. 2006
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_emancipation>.
4
suggestions blatantly conflicted with Judaism or Jewish practice. Mendelssohn was not a
religious reformer, but popularized reform ideals. In light of these new ideas regarding
assimilation and nationalism, traditional Jewish values such as segregated communities
and isolating customs came in conflict with the evolving philosophies of rationalistic
Jews. Reform Judaism in the early 19th century sought to reinterpret Judaism in a way
that did not conflict with the basic principles that make Judaism what it is, in order to
make it possible for the Jewish people to become successful members of secular society
without completely forfeiting their religious and cultural identity. Towards the end of the
18th century, Rabbi Hirschl Levin, the chief rabbi of the Jewish community in Berlin, was
not as outspoken as other rationalistic fanatics about the advantages of assimilation.
However, he was an avid supporter of Mendelssohn, and appreciated the changes that
were ripping through the Jewish community; he thought that Judaism seemed to “be
threatened with some great danger and to be near dissolution.” Rabbi Levin refers to the
“religious decay” of the Jewish people several times in his letter of farewell to the Berlin
community, insinuating that the religious aspects of Judaism had ceased to appeal to the
majority of his followers.6 The shift to a different type of Judaism—one not entirely
based on religious texts and rabbinic authority—had begun. One of Moses
Mendelssohn’s progressive disciples, David Friedlander, opened one of the only Jewish
schools in Germany that taught secular and intellectual subjects to their students. After
Friedlander opened the Jewish Free School of Berlin in 1778, he took a giant step and
6
Philipson, David. "The Beginnings of the Reform Movement in Judaism." The Jewish Quarterly Review
15 (1903): 480. 12 Oct.
2006<http://www.jstor.org/view/00216682/ap050059/05a00060/0?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/sear
ch/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d26%26Query%3dleaders%2bof%2bthe%2bjewish%2breform%2b
movement&citationAction=save&charset=u&frame=noframe&dpi=3&[email protected]/01cce
4405f00501b4a5ae&currentResult=00216682%2bap050059%2b05a00060%2b0%2cFFFFFFFFFFFF&bac
kcontext=page&config=jstor&citationPath=00216682-ap050059-05a00060&PAGE=0>.
5
published the “Open Letter of Several Jewish Fathers to Councillor Teller.” In this letter,
Friedlander basically announces his willingness to receive Christianity, but without the
acceptance of the holy trinity, acceptance of Jesus as the messiah, and participation in
religious Christian holidays and festivals.7 This was an unbelievable move for a Jewish
thinker in Friedlander’s position to make, and illustrates the atmosphere of acquiescence
and change within the German Jewish intellectuals of the time. In this respect,
Friedlander suggests that the two religions are generally the same, save those three points,
except for the advanced academic nature of Christianity over Judaism, which traditionally
frowned upon the study of natural science and other secular subjects. This admission is
especially interesting, since a disproportionate percentage of the Enlightenment scholars
were, in fact, Jewish.
Reform Judaism sought to separate Jewish religion from Jewish nationhood, to follow
through with the ideals of emancipation and the Haskalah. In order to assimilate more
into European culture, Reform Jews were able to declare their countries as their
‘homelands,’ to reinforce the nationalistic ideals of the time. Zionism was therefore
renounced, because it weakened Jews’ ties to the country in which they lived. By
rejecting the idea of a Jewish exile, which would come to an end with the coming of the
Messiah, individuals could be Jews while pledging loyalty to a secular state. To some
like Stephen Steinberg from the University of California, the movement was inherently
different from the separation of religious sects in the past because of this idea; while
7
Philipson, David. "The Beginnings of the Reform Movement in Judaism." The Jewish Quarterly Review
15 (1903): 485. 12 Oct.
2006<http://www.jstor.org/view/00216682/ap050059/05a00060/0?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/sear
ch/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d26%26Query%3dleaders%2bof%2bthe%2bjewish%2breform%2b
movement&citationAction=save&charset=u&frame=noframe&dpi=3&[email protected]/01cce
4405f00501b4a5ae&currentResult=00216682%2bap050059%2b05a00060%2b0%2cFFFFFFFFFFFF&bac
kcontext=page&config=jstor&citationPath=00216682-ap050059-05a00060&PAGE=0>.
6
Christian movements and other Jewish factions tend to attempt to modify religious and
societal principles and customs, “the Reform Movement is striking for its attempt to bring
its norms and values into greater conformity with those of the larger society.”8 While
Steinberg views this attempt to conform to societal norms as remarkable, the leaders of
the movement felt that by integrating Judaism better with the community at large, it
would prevent forcing Jews to choose between their religious lives and their secular lives.
Early reformers established their authority much in the same way that other
movements in the past had; by justifying their ideas through rabbinic law. These
individuals, such as Aaron Chorin, ironically used Talmudic authority to cut down on
Talmudic regulations. In this vain, the Frankfurt Society of Friends of Reform issued a
declaration of principles in 1843 with three major statements: “(I) We recognize the
possibility of unlimited development in the Mosaic religion. (II) The collection of
controversies, dissertations, and prescriptions commonly designated by the name Talmud
possesses for us no authority, from either the dogmatic or practical standpoint. (III) A
Messiah who is to lead back the Israelites to the land of Palestine is neither expected or
desired by us; we know no fatherland except that which we belong by birth or by
citizenship.” This approach backfired when the more the Talmud was attacked, the more
followers of the movement believed that Judaism must become completely free of
Rabbinism and the Talmud altogether in order to be truly invigorated.9 Leaders of early
8
Steinberg, Stephen. "Reform Judaism: the Origin and Evolution of a "Church Movement"" Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion 5 (1965): 117. 12 Oct. 2006
<http://www.jstor.org/view/00218294/ap050009/05a00140/0?currentResult=00218294%2bap050009%2b0
5a00140%2b0%2cF73F&searchUrl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fsearch%2FBasicResults%3Fhp
%3D25%26si%3D1%26Query%3Dreform%2Bjudaism%2Bemergence>.
9
Cohen, Samuel S. "The Mission of Reform Judaism." Journal of Religion 2 (1922): 35-38. 16 Oct. 2006
<http://www.jstor.org/view/00224189/ap040007/04a00060/10?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/search/
BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d1%26Query%3dreform%2bjudaism%2bauthority&frame=noframe&c
7
Reform Judaism were not interested in distancing themselves from all aspects of
Rabbinic Judaism, but aimed to revitalize Judaism while remaining part of its history and
heritage.
One important aspect of creating a new sect of Judaism was the transformation
of the synagogue experience. In order to draw in followers, Reform Judaism had to
differentiate itself from traditional Jewish services without completely alienating its
supporters. In 1817, The New Israelite Temple Association, which began the first overtly
Reform synagogue worship services, released a document regarding the use of German
instead of Hebrew in their liturgy. This group of laymen initiated this change “since
public worship has for some time been neglected by so many, because of the everdecreasing knowledge of the language in which alone [services] have been conducted.”10
This text also included changes such as the allowance of music during services,
specifically the organ, the shift to have Shabbat services on Sundays, and alterations in
the traditional liturgy that marked Reform Judaism’s transition into a different movement
altogether. First off, religious services were significantly shortened; for example,
Kaddish is only recited once instead of three times, and supplements such as Musaf were
done away with altogether. By shortening the length of the service, leaders of the
movement believed it would be easier for individuals to devote the necessary time, and
would encourage them to participate in the community that arose out of worship. Liturgy
was also renovated to coincide with Reform ideals by removing passages that conflicted
with their beliefs. Phrases or prayers referring to the coming of a specific Messiah,
urrentResult=00224189%2bap040007%2b04a00060%2b0%2cEFFF03&[email protected]/01cc
e4405d00501b2eda7&dpi=3&config=jstor>.
10
Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "The New Israelite Temple Association: Constitution of
the Hamburg Temple (1817)." The Jew in the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 161.
8
resurrection of the dead, restoration of sacrifices, and the existence of angels were
omitted throughout the service.11 A prime example of this phenomenon can be seen
within the Shema and Tefilllah, prayers that are of the utmost importance to the
traditional Jewish service. In traditional liturgy, the Shema includes three Scriptural
passages, but in Reform prayer books, the second passage is left out because of the idea
of retribution, and the third is removed because of its reference to the commandment
regarding fringes on clothing. Since Reform Judaism does not place importance on the
idea of wearing fringes everyday as part of an outward expression of faith, or the notion
of reward and punishment, the passages are merely discarded from the prayer. Aside
from shifts in the liturgy, Reform synagogues were often closed during the week and only
open on the Sabbath, allowed musical instruments such as the organ to be played during
services, and exhibited other behaviors reminiscent of gentile churches. Since Reform
Judaism was founded with the intention of making Judaism accessible to an increasingly
assimilated European population, they established the authority to alter what needed to be
altered in order to solidify their message.12
The backlash to Reform Judaism was particularly severe. In a responsa
distributed by the Hamburg Rabbinical Court in 1819 titled, “These Are the Words of the
Covenant,” Europe’s foremost rabbis openly published Reform Judaism’s brazen breach
of Jewish law. According to these rabbis, the three cardinal sins of Reform Judaism are
as follows: “It is forbidden to change the worship that is customary in Israel,” “It is
forbidden to pray in any language other than the Holy Tongue,” and “It is prohibited to
11
"Traditional Judaism Differences: What Other Changes to Liturgy Reflect Reform Ideals?" Faqs.Org. 4
Dec. 2006. 3 Nov. 2006 <http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-47.html>.
12
Central Conference of American Rabbis, New York, and Union of Liberal and Progressive Synagogues,
London. Gates of Prayer - The New Union Prayerbook for Shabbat, Weekdays and Festivals. Services and
Prayers for Synagogue and Home. 1975 ISBN 0-916694-01-1 LC: 75-13752.
9
play a musical instrument in the synagogue on the Sabbath and on the festivals even
when it is played by a non-Jew.”13 Moses Sofer, one of they key players in the fight
against Reform Judaism—and the establishment of Orthodox Judaism—took offense not
only to these “cardinal sins,” but also to the fact that Reform synagogues were often
closed during the week. Sofer was openly opposed to modernization of Judaism of any
kind, and was against the works of Mendelssohn and other Haskalah leaders’, as well as
secular education for Jews.14
As German Jews began immigrating to America during the 1840s and 1850s,
Reform Judaism flourished in cities like New York and Philadelphia where the
intellectual leaders of the movement landed. By 1880, more than 90% of synagogues in
America were Reform.15 In America, Reform Judaism flourished with the help of leaders
such as Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, and was able to establish authoritative organizations.
Wise was born in 1819 in Bohemia (currently Czechoslovakia), and was a brilliant text
scholar at an early age. After attending two secular universities, the University of Prague
and the University of Vienna, Wise was ordained as a rabbi by a traditional beit din, and
decided to immigrate to America because of the restrictions still in place against Jews
where he lived. Wise became the rabbi of Congregation Beth El in Albany, New York,
and initiated several drastic changes at the synagogue such as egalitarian seating and
choral singing at services. After some congregants reacted negatively to these changes,
Wise started a new synagogue with his followers called “Anshe Emet,” or “Men of
13
Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "The Hamburg Rabbinical Court: These are the Words of
the Covenant (1819)." The Jew in the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 167-169.
14
Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "Moses Sofer: A Reply Concerning the Question of
Reform (1819)." The Jew in the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 169-173.
15
"The Origins of Reform Judaism." Jewish Virtual Library. 2006. The American-Israeli Cooperative
Enterprise. 14 Nov. 2006
<http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Origins_of_Reform_Judaism.html>.
10
Truth.” He spent the rest of his career at a Reform synagogue in Cincinnati, attempting
to establish a national organization of Reform congregations, a common prayer book, and
a school where Reform rabbis could be educated and ordained.
In 1873, with Rabbi Wise’s guidance, delegates from 34 Reform congregations
met in Cincinnati for the first time as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations,
now known as the Union of Reform Judaism. Two years later, the newly recognized
Union established the Hebrew Union College, the first Jewish seminary in the United
States. Wise became its president and teacher . He was also a key player in the
establishment of the Central Conference of American Rabbis (1889), and served as its
president until his death. This organization chose to adopt the Union Prayer book that
was used by all Reform congregations in America.16 The establishment of UAHC, HUC,
and the CCAR provided Reform Judaism with the structural authority that it lacked in
Europe during its inception. In America—a true melting pot of foreigners, religions, and
traditions—there was no need for Jews to give up their cultural identity in order to
assimilate enough to be accepted in secular society. By creating central authority for the
movement through the various organizations, Reform leaders could shape and polish the
movement to their satisfaction with regard to their new situation. The establishment of
Hebrew Union College was integral in maintaining uniformity throughout American
synagogues. This specific educational system for training Jewish clergy and educators
helped establish a definitive authoritative system. This centralized system paved the way
for Reform Judaism to become what it is today: the largest Jewish movement in the
United States. However, Reform Judaism’s immense popularity and general acceptance
16
Brody, Seymour. "Isaac Mayer Wise." Jewish Virtual Library. 1996. The American-Israeli Cooperative
Enterprise. 1 Dec. 2006 <http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/IWise.html>.
11
as a verifiable movement in America has led to several interesting discrepancies between
what the movement was, and what it has become.
Modern American Reform Judaism is noticeably different from the early
Reform Judaism ideals of Europe. Firstly, in Europe, Reform Judaism was anti-Zionistic
due to the lack of importance placed on the idea of a Messiah, as well as Jews’ desire to
assimilate into the nationalism of the countries in which they lives. When the State of
Israel was founded in 1948, the UAHC had to decide whether it was possible to remain
loyal American citizens while pledging loyalty to the Jewish homeland. As part of the
Pittsburgh Platform of 1885, the UAHC released the following statement: "we consider
ourselves no longer a nation, but a religious community, and therefore expect neither a
return to Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the sons of Aaron, nor the restoration
of any of the laws concerning the Jewish state."17 Many Reform Jews did not agree with
the black and white decision made by the UAHC, including Louis Brandeis, who was
publicly supported American Zionism. He retorted by stating that "indeed, loyalty to
America demands rather that each American Jew become a Zionist. For only through the
ennobling effect of its strivings can we develop the best that is in us and give to this
country the full benefit of our great inheritance." The majority of American Jews heeded
Brandeis’s words, and greatly contributed to the development of Israel through financial
contributions and political action. Israel inspired a sense of pride in Reform Jews living
in America, and spurred a reconnection to the Hebrew language and to the pluralistic
Jewish community.
17
Golden, Jonathan. "Educational Resources." 350th.Org. 2003. American Jewish History. 1 Dec. 2006
<http://www.350th.org/er/lp/haven/lp09.html>.
12
Reform Judaism today is reminiscent of the Reform Judaism of 19th century
Europe, though the attitudes of the synagogues have changed dramatically. Services are
on Friday evenings and Saturday mornings, synagogues are open seven days a week and
Hebrew is becoming more and more prevalent as the primary language of prayer. UAHC
prayer books are currently under revision, shifting back to more traditional wording that
the Reform movement had chosen to change, such as replacing “metim” with “hakol”
throughout the liturgy to avoid Messianic ideals. Children must attend religious and
Hebrew school through 8th grade in order to become b’nai mitzvah, while in Europe, the
bar mitzvah celebration was considered irrelevant and was not practiced in many
synagogues. Reform Judaism, which once attempted to completely differentiate cultural
life and religion, prides itself on being such a close-knit community. Youth programs
such as North American Federation of Temple Youth and Kesher encourage the creation
of a “holy Jewish community,” in which participants “feel a sense of belonging,
friendship, safety, and purpose.”18 Fostering connections between Reform Jews through
social action, tikkun olam, Israel programming, creative events, and other meaningful and
memorable Jewish experiences, is at the core of Reform Judaism today. Set against the
initial aim of the movement to separate Jewish identity and culture from the actual
religion, the modern view of Reform Judaism is very different.
In conclusion, the emergence of Reform Judaism was influenced by a number
of different leaders and historical causes. It would be interesting to study the trend
towards increased religiosity that Reform Judaism is currently exhibiting, and to discuss
the future of the movement with this respect. As Samuel Holdheim, one of the fathers of
18
"NFTY-Our Goals and Values." North American Federation of Temple Youth. 2006. Union of Reform
Judaism. 3 Dec. 2006 <http://www.nfty.org/about/goals/>.
13
Reform Judaism said in 1853, “It is the destiny of Judaism to pour the light of its
thoughts, the fire of its sentiments, the fervor of its feelings upon all souls and hearts on
earth.”19 Even now, the Reform movement maintains this sentiment, integrating
modernity while retaining passion and respect for Judaism.
19
Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "Samuel Holdheim: This is Our Task (1853)." The Jew in
the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 186.
14
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<http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/IWise.html>.
3. Central Conference of American Rabbis, New York, and Union of Liberal and
Progressive Synagogues, London. Gates of Prayer - The New Union Prayerbook
for Shabbat, Weekdays and Festivals. Services and Prayers for Synagogue and
Home. 1975 ISBN 0-916694-01-1 LC: 75-13752.
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These are the Words of the Covenant (1819)." The Jew in the Modern World.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 167-169.
10. Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "The New Israelite Temple
Association: Constitution of the Hamburg Temple (1817)." The Jew in the
Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 161.
15
11. Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds. "Samuel Holdheim: This is Our Task
(1853)." The Jew in the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. 186.
12. "NFTY-Our Goals and Values." North American Federation of Temple Youth. 2006.
Union of Reform Judaism. 3 Dec. 2006 <http://www.nfty.org/about/goals/>.
13. Philipson, David. "The Beginnings of the Reform Movement in Judaism." The Jewish
Quarterly Review 15 (1903): 480-488. 12 Oct. 2006
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