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2-3
I. The Chemistry of Carbon
A. Characteristics of Carbon
1. 4 valence electrons
a. allows C to form strong
covalent bonds
2. Can form C to C bonds
a. Types of bonds
i. single C-C
ii. double C=C
iii. triple C=C
3. Very versatile (can make
many different compounds)
II. Macromolecules
A. Formed by polymerization
1. Process of joining many
monomers
B. Types of Biological macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Nucleic Acids
4. Protein
III. Carbohydrates
A. Made of C, H, O
B. Main energy source for living
systems
C. Types:
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1. Monosaccharide
a. simple sugars
b. examples:
i. glucose (C6H12O6)
-used as energy for cell
activities
ii. galactose, fructose
2. Polysaccharides
a. used to store excess
monosaccharides
b. examples:
i. glycogen
-excess sugar stored by
animals
ii. cellulose
-gives plants strength
and structure
IV. Lipids
A. Characteristics
1. Composed mostly of C and H
2. Insoluble in H2O
3. Stored energy
4. Make up biological membranes
B. Examples
1. Steriods- act as chemical
messengers
2. Fatty acids
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i. Saturated
ii. unsaturated (olive oil)one C=C
iii. polyunsaturated (cooking
oils: corn, peanut, sesame,
canola) – many C=C
V. Nucleic Acids
A. Characteristics
1. Contain H, O, N, C, P
2. Made up of nucleotides
a. 5-C sugar
b. Phosphate Group
c. Nitrogenous base
3. Held together by covalent bonds
4. Store genetic information
5. Transmit heredity info.
B. Example:
1. DNA
2. RNA
VI. Proteins
A. Characteristics
1. Made up of C, H, O, N, S
2. Made up of amino acids
3. Most diverse macromolecule
a. 20 amino acids
b. number and type of amino
acids determine the protein
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B. Functions
1. Control rate of chemical reactions
2. Regulate cell processes
3. Form bone and muscle
4. Transport material
5. Help fight disease
6. Act as enzymes
C. Structure
1. Primary- chain of amino acids
2. Secondary- folded/twisted chain
of amino acids
3. Tertiary- folded folded chain
4. Quatnary- 3-D structure- globular
structure
2-4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes
I. Chemical Reactions
A. Laws of Conservation
1. Mass
2. Energy
B. Parts of Chemical Reactions
1. Reactants
2. Products
C. Examples:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2
reactants
products
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II. Energy in Reactions
A. Energy is:
1. Released- bonds are broken
2. Absorbed- bonds are formed
B. Chemical Reactions and Energy
1. Release energy
a. occur spontaneously
b. energy is released as heat
(usually)
2. Absorb energy
a. will not occur w/o a source of
energy
b. many reactions that occur in
living systems
C. Activation Energy
1. Energy required to start chemical
reactions
2. Types of reactions:
a. Energy Absorbing
i. require lots of energy
b. Energy Releasing
i. require less energy
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II. Enzymes
A. Act as biological catalysts
B. Act by:
1. Lowering activation energy
2. Speeding up chemical reactions in
cells
C. Enzymes are specific
1. Catalyze only one reaction
2. Named based on the reaction they
catalyze or chemicals being acted on
a. Examples:
i. Lactose- Lactase
ii. Sucrose- Sucrase
iii. Usually end in –ase
III. Enzyme Action
A. Parts of an enzyme reaction
1. Substrate
2. Enzyme- active site
a. place where substrate binds
b. substrate specific
3. Enzyme substrate complex
4. Product
B. Regulating Enzyme Activity
1. Factors that influence enzyme
activity
a. pH
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b. Temperature
c. Proteins in the cells (regulator
proteins)
d. Availability of substrate
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