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Part 1: Mesopotamia Part 2: Egypt Theme: Comparing civilizations Lsn 3 Part 1: Mesopotamia Lsn 3 Mesopotamia • Greek for “land between the rivers” – Tigris and Euphrates – Modern-day Iraq Empires and Dominance • • • • • • Sumer 3200-2350 B.C. Babylonian 2350-1600 B.C. Sargon of Akkad 2334-2315 B.C. Hittite 1450-1200 B.C. Assyrian 1000-612 B.C. New Babylonian 605-550 B.C. Characteristics of a Civilization • • • • • • Intensive agricultural techniques Specialization of labor Cities A social hierarchy Organized religion and education Development of complex forms of economic exchange • Development of new technologies • Advanced development of the arts. (This can include writing.) Agriculture Sumerian sledge Agriculture • Tigris and Euphrates brought large volumes of water to an otherwise dry region • As early as 6000 B.C., people began small scale irrigation • Artificial irrigation increased food supplies which in turn supported a rapidly increasing population Fertile Crescent Irrigation • Tigris and Euphrates irrigation allowed Mesopotamians to grow barley, wheat, and peas Map of fields and irrigation canals near Nippur, Mesopotamia from cuneiform tablet, ca 1300 B.C. Agriculture’s Impact • Abundant harvests supported increased populations • Semetic people (those who spoke Akkadian, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Phoenician) began to migrate to Sumer Cities Ur and Babylon Cities • Beginning around 4000 B.C., as populations increased in southern Mesopotamia, the Sumerians built the world’s first cities Cities • Unlike earlier villages, these cities were centers of political and military authority, and their jurisdiction extended into the surrounding regions – Economic centers where buyers and sellers congregated – Cultural centers where priests maintained organized religion and scribes developed traditions of writing and formal education • Mesopotamians had numerous, denselypopulated city-states Ur • Built around 2100 B.C. – Sometimes called the world’s first city • Sumerian capital of Mesopotamia • Believed to have been surrounded by a moat • Home of Abraham (Genesis Chapter 11) Babylon • Made a lavish showplace by Nebuchadnezzar • More than 2,100 acres • 1,729 temples • Massive defensive walls • Hanging Gardens • Fell to Cyrus the Great in 539 B.C. Social Hierarchy Social Hierarchy • Kings and nobles originally won their positions by community election based on valor and success as warriors – Soon royal status become hereditary – Nobles were mostly members of the royal family • Closely allied with the ruling elites were priests and priestesses, many who were younger relatives of the rulers – Lived in temple communities Social Hierarchy • Free commoners worked mostly as peasant cultivators in the countryside on land owned by their families, although some worked in cities • Dependent clients usually worked on agricultural estates owned by others – Both free commoners and dependent clients paid taxes to support the ruling classes, military, and temple communities Social Hierarchy • Slaves came from: – Prisoners of war – Convicted criminals – Heavily indebted individuals who sold themselves into slavery to satisfy their obligations • Patriarchal society – Authority over public and private affairs vested in adult men – Law recognized men as heads of households and had disproportionate punishments for men and women Specialization Mesopotamian potter’s wheel from Uruk Engraving Sumerian earrings Specialization • Abundant food supplies and cities as population centers allowed some people to perform tasks not associated with agriculture • People expanded into the areas of pottery, textile manufacture, woodworking, leather production, brick making, stonecutting, and masonry Religion and Education Religion and Education • Polytheism – The ancient Mesopotamians worshipped hundreds of gods, each with his/her own name and sphere of activity. – Every city had its own patron god or goddess, and there were also deities connected with various professions such as scribes and builders. – Individual people also had their own personal god who protected them and interceded for them with the great deities. Enki, god of water Religion and Education • Kings often portrayed as offspring of gods or gods themselves • Priests intervened with the gods to ensure good fortune for their communities – In exchange, priests and priestesses lived in temple communities and received offerings of food, drink, and clothing from the city inhabitants – Temples also generated income and work • Epic of Gilgamesh teaches there is no afterlife – Death is dark, dank, and inert Ziggurats • Ziggurats were huge stepped structures with a temple on top – Built in honor of the city’s god (other gods might have smaller temples) – Intended to reach nearer to the heavens Tower of Babel Code of Hammurabi • Hammurabi (King of Babylonian Empire from 1792 to 1750 B.C.) maintains control of empire by a code of law • Claims the gods had chosen him “to promote the welfare of the people,… to cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and evil, [so] that the strong might not oppress the weak, to rise like the sun over the people, and to light up the land.” Code of Hammurabi • High standards of behavior and stern punishments for violators • Death penalty for murder, theft, fraud, false accusations, sheltering of runaway slaves, failure to obey royal orders, adultery, and incest • Civil laws regulating prices, wages, commercial dealings, marital relationships, and the conditions of slavery Code of Hammurabi • Relied on lex talionis– the law of retaliation – Offenders suffered punishments resembling their violations • If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out. [ An eye for an eye ] (196) • If he break another man's bone, his bone shall be broken. (197) • If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out. [ A tooth for a tooth ] (200) Economic Exchange Economic Exchange • Trade occurred by ship and donkey caravan • Sumerians traded woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil, and jewelry with India for copper, ivory, pearls, and semi-precious stones • Babylonians imported silver from Anatolia, cedar wood from Lebanon, copper from Arabia, gold from Egypt, tin from Persia, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, and semiprecious stones from India • Barter was the main form of commerce until silver became popular around 1750 B.C. Cylinder seals were used to record a contract, record, or official receipt. By affixing a seal to a tablet, the user validated its contents. New Technologies Metallurgy • Metallurgy ranks among the most important aspects of technology and specialization • Metallurgy evolved from copper to bronze and by 1000 B.C., Mesopotamians were working with iron as well • Important implications for agriculture and weaponry The Wheel • First use of wheels probably occurred about 3500 B.C. • Sumerians were building wheeled carts by 3000 B.C. • The wheel increased the mobility of society and allowed heavy loads to be moved over great distances Chariot model, discovered in the Royal tomb of Ur in Sumer around 6000 BC Art and Writing Dragon of Marduk Gudea of Lagash Winged Guardian Art and Writing • Cuneiform • Epic of Gilgamesch • Hanging Gardens of Babylon Cuneiform • Latin for “wedge-shaped” – Beginning around 2900 B. C., Sumerians developed a flexible writing system that combined pictographs and other symbols – Scribes used a reed stylus to impress symbols on wet clay leaving lines and wedge-shaped marks • Babylonians, Assyrians, and others later adapted the Sumerians’ script to their own languages and cuneiform writing continued for three thousand years Cuneiform Examples Epic of Gilgamesh • Classic example of Mesopotamian literature • Began in the Sumerian city-states, but the entire epic represents the work of compilers during the days of the Babylonian empire • Originally written on 12 clay tablets in cuneiform script • Recounts experiences of Gilgamesh and Enkidu – Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk, ca. 3000 B.C., and Enkidu is a wild-man, raised by animals that becomes the friend of Gilgamesh after they fight. Epic of Gilgamesh • Principle vehicle for Mesopotamian reflection on moral issues – Friendship – Relations between humans and the gods – The meaning of life and death Hanging Gardens of Babylon • One of the “Seven Wonders of the World” • Built by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 B.C. on top of stone arches 23 meters above ground and watered from the Euphrates by a complicated mechanical system. • Series of terraces filled with plants. Part 2: Egypt Lsn 3 Upper and Lower Egypt • Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions: Upper and Lower Egypt. • Lower (northern) Egypt consisted of the Nile River's delta made by the river as it empties into the Mediterranean. • Upper (southern) Egypt was the long, narrow strip of ancient Egypt located south of the Delta. Characteristics of a Civilization • • • • • • Intensive agricultural techniques Specialization of labor Cities A social hierarchy Organized religion and education Development of complex forms of economic exchange • Development of new technologies • Advanced development of the arts. (This can include writing.) Agriculture The Nile River Basin: A Ribbon of Green Agriculture • Herodotus called Egypt the “Gift of the Nile” • Egyptians took advantage of the Nile’s annual floods to become an especially productive agricultural region – After the floods receded in late summer, cultivators could go into the floodplains in late summer and sow their seeds without extensive preparation of the soil Agriculture • Expanded agriculture led to expanded populations and demand for increased production • Cultivators moved beyond the Nile’s immediate floodplains building dikes to protect their fields from floods and catchment basins to store water for irrigation Shaduf • To lift water from the canal Egyptians used a shaduf, a large pole balanced on a crossbeam with a rope and bucket on one end and a heavy counter weight at the other. • When the rope was pulled, the bucket would be lowered into the canal. • The counterweight would raise the bucket. • The farmer would then carry the bucket to the field and water it. Specialization Brewing and Breadmaking Sailing Ploughing and Sowing Harvesting Papyrus and Herding Specialization • Nile societies were much slower than their Mesopotamian counterparts to adopt metal tools and weapons • Did develop pottery, textile manufacture, woodworking, leather production, stonecutting, and masonry occupations Egyptian pottery makers Specialization • Building a pyramid would require – Laborers – Architects – Engineers – Craftsmen – Artists Cities Cities • Relatively few cities and high administrative centralization • Memphis – Founded by Menes around 3100 BC as capital of a united Upper and Lower Egypt – Located at the head of the Nile River Delta • Thebes – Administrative center of Upper Egypt – Seat of worship for Amon Religion and Education Religion and Education • Two main gods were Amon (Thebian deity associated with the sun, creation, fertility, and reproductive forces) and Re (the sun god worshipped at Heliopolis) – Eventually the two were combined in the cult of Amon-Re Brief Period of Monotheism • For a brief period Akhentan challenged the Amon-Re cult by proclaiming Aten as the one and only true god – Once Akhenaten died, traditional priests restored the Amon-Re cult The sun disc Aten shining on the names of the royal family Mummification • In order to prepare a person for the long and hazardous journey before they could enjoy the pleasures of the afterlife, the body of a dead person was preserved by a process called mummification. The Judgment • The Egyptians viewed the heart as the seat of intellect and emotion. • Before entering the pleasures of eternity, the dead person had to pass a test in which Anubis, the god of the dead, weighed the person's heart against Ma'at, the goddess of justice and truth, who was represented by a feather. The Judgment • If the deceased’s good deeds outweighed the bad, the his heart will be as light as the feather (heavy hearts bore the burden of guilt and evil), and Osiris would welcome the newcomer to the next world. • If the deceased fell short in his judgment, his body would be eaten by a monster that was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus. Osiris • Patron of the underworld, the dead, and past pharaohs • Cult of Osiris demanded observance of high moral standards – As lord of the underworld, Osiris had the power to determine who deserved the blessing of immortality and who did not Social Hierarchy Social Hierarchy • Pharaoh – Egyptian kings of a centralized state – Claimed to be gods living on earth in human form • Bureaucrats – Because the pharaoh was an absolute ruler there was little room for a noble class as in Mesopotamia – Instead professional military forces and an elaborate bureaucracy of administrators and tax collectors served the central government • Patriarchial – Vested authority over public and private affairs in men – However, more opportunities for women than in Mesopotamia as evidenced by Queen Hatshepsut reigning as pharaoh • Peasants and slaves – Supplied the hard labor that made complex agricultural society possible – Among the slaves were the Hebrews Pharaohs Tutankhamun (King Tut) 1334 and 1325 BC Ramesses II 1279-1213 BC Bureaucrats • Below the pharaoh, the most powerful officer in the hierarchy was the vizier, the executive head of the bureaucracy – The vizier was a prince or a person of exceptional ability. His title is translated as "superintendent of all works of the king". – As the supreme judge of the state, the vizier ruled on all petitions and grievances brought to the court. All royal commands passed through his hands before being transmitted to the scribes in his office. • The scribes in turn dispatched orders to the heads of distant towns and villages, and dictated the rules and regulations related to the collection of taxes. • The king was surrounded by the court, friends and favored people who attained higher administrative positions. – The tendency was to fill these positions on the basis of heredity. One of the most ardent wishes of these administrators was to climb the bureaucratic ladder through promotions and to hand their offices to their children Economic Exchange In this scene from the grave of Ipui at Thebes, sailors are seen leaving the boat carrying sacks containing grain. A woman is selling bread and possibly beer (top left), beside her a sailor is exchanging grain for fish. On the right a buyer checks out a cake or a loaf of bread while beside him another is acquiring some vegetables. Economic Exchange • The Nile provided excellent transportation which facilitated trade. • Nile flows north so boats could ride the currents from Upper to Lower Egypt. • Prevailing winds blow almost year-round from the north so by using sails, boats could then make their way back upriver. Economic Exchange • Egypt needed to trade because, beside the Nile, it had few natural resources – For example, Egypt has very few trees so all its wood came from abroad, especially cedar from Lebanon • Much trade between Egypt and Nubia – Importance of trade is reflected in the names of southern Egyptian cities • Aswan comes from the ancient Egyptian word swene which means “trade” • Elephantine owed its name to the elephant ivory trade New Technologies Ramps and stonecutting required to build pyramids New Technologies • Papyrus – The raw material came from the plant Cyperus papyrus which grew along the banks of the Nile – Used not only in the production of paper but also used in the manufacture of boats, rope and baskets • Shipbuilding – – – – Wooden boats Multiple-oars Sails Rope trusses to strengthen hulls Art and Writing Art and Writing • Pyramids – Symbols of the pharaoh’s authority and divine stature; royal tombs – Pyramid at Khufu involved the precise cutting and fitting of 2,300,000 limestone blocks with an average weight of 2.5 tons – Estimated construction of the pyramid at Khufu required 84,000 laborers working 80 days per year for 20 years The Sphinx and Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. Art and Writing • Hieroglyphs – Pictures that were used to write the ancient Egyptian language – Originally used to keep records of the king's possessions. Scribes could easily make these records by drawing a picture of a cow or a boat followed by a number. • As the language became more complex, more pictures were needed. Eventually the language consisted of more then 750 individual signs. Mesopotamia and Egypt Mesopotamia Egypt Agriculture +“Land between the rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates forms Fertile Crescent +Artificial irrigation +”Gift of the Nile” +Artificial irrigation Specialization +Pottery, textiles, woodworking, leather, brick making, stonecutting, masonry +Pottery, textiles, woodworking, leather production, stonecutting, masonry Cities -Numerous, densely populated city-states (Ur and Babylon) -Fewer cities with high centralization (Memphis and Thebes) Social Hierarchy -Noble class -Patriarchal +Slaves -Absolute authority of the pharaoh made a noble class unnecessary (had bureaucrats instead) -Patriarchal, but the presence of Queen Hatsheput may indicate greater opportunities for women +Slaves Mesopotamia and Egypt Mesopotamia Egypt Religion and Education -Polytheism -No afterlife -Polytheism, but brief period of monotheism under Akhentan -Afterlife and judgment (mummification) New Technologies -Superior in metallurgy -Papyrus, shipbuilding, pyramids Economic exchange -Trade by land and water -Trade principally by water along the Nile -Trade more important because Egypt lacked natural resources beside the Nile Art and Writing -Cuneiform -Hieroglyphs (more pictorial than cuneiform) Next Lesson • Ancient (Shang and Zhou) and Resurgent (Tang and Song) China