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Name ________________________________________________ SC PASS Science Testing begins 4/20 Cells & Heredity SC PASS Review Material Cell Cell Theory Organelle Functions Organelle Similarities & Differences Bacteria & Protists Cellular Processes Genetics Genetic Mutations Genetic Engineering smallest unit of life that conducts life functions; organelles (parts) cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane, vacuole, chloroplasts**, mitochondria, cell wall** (**found only in plant cells); many organelles too small to be seen without aid of microscope; cells vary in size and shape 1) All living things are made of one or more cells; 2) The cell is the basic unit of life; 3) All cells come from preexisting cells. Know the Famous Scientist that helped developed this theory. chloroplast – has chlorophyll & does photosynthesis; vacuole - storage center (water & waste); cytoplasm - holds other organelles; cell membrane - controls what enters and leaves the cell (diffusion – movement of particles or water across membrane from area of high concentration to low concentration & osmosis – diffusion of water across membrane); cell wall – gives support and shape to cell & made mostly of cellulose; nucleus – has DNA & control center; mitochondria/powerhouse – makes energy & does respiration; lysosomes - digesting certain materials Similar - plant and animal have cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, and vacuoles Different – plants have cell wall and chloroplasts; plant cells usually have one or more large vacuole(s), while animal cells have smaller vacuoles, if any are present Prokaryotic - cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (Bacteria & some Protists); Eukaryotic- cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. (Plant, animal, and protist); Unicellular organisms are composed of one cell and would include most protists and bacteria; Multicellular – more than one cell organisms; photosynthetic contain chloroplasts and the pigment chlorophyll (plants and some protists); Non-photosynthesizing lack chloroplasts and chlorophyll (animals) Bacteria – Moneran Kingdom; single celled organism classified by body shapes; (spiral – corkscrew, bacillus – rod, coccus – round) Bacteria helpful – 1)aid in breaking down and absorbing food; 2) used to make a variety of foods including cheese and yogurt; 3) decompose dead organisms and release those nutrients back into the environment. Bacteria harmful – 1) can be pathogens and cause diseases like strep throat, food poisoning, and tuberculosis; 2) Bacteria, such as wheat blight can infect plants that are used as crops. Protists – Protista Kingdom; single celled & live in moist areas; classified by movement & way obtain food; euglena – move by pulling w/flagella (whiplike) & have chloroplast, paramecium – move by beating cilia (hair-like oars) & uses cilia to direct food to its mouth; amoeba – move w/pseudopods (false foot) & use pseudopods to trap food Photosynthesis – occurs in chloroplasts; plants use sunlight to combine (CO2) & (H2O) to make (C6H12O6) & release (O2) Respiration – occurs in mitochondria; plants & animals breakdown (C6H12O6) & (O2) into (CO2) & (H2O) & release energy; use to build, repair & reproduce cells Waste elimination – get rid of harmful waste; waste moves from high concentration to low concentration Mitosis – occurs in nucleus; cell reproduction; makes exact copy of cell; produces 2 identical daughter cells (look like parent cell) from 1 parent cell; use for growth, replacement, & asexual reproduction Genetic information (DNA) is passed from parent to offspring causing offspring to have similar traits as the parents; sex cells (egg & sperm) have ½ o/DNA; Heredity/inheritance – passing of traits from one generation to next Chromosomes – structure in nucleus that contains DNA Genes – segment of DNA that determines inherited trait; responsible for inherited characteristics that distinguish one individual from another; come in pairs (or two alleles); genes are expressed by genotype – set of genes carried by organism, phenotype – physical expression o/gene; Dominant trait—always expressed (capital letters); Recessive trait—expressed if two recessive alleles are present (lowercase letters); Homozygous – two copies of same allele dominant or recessive; Heterozygous – one dominant & one recessive allele. DNA has 4 nitrogenous base pairs (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) and a phosphorous and sugar backbone; adenine always pairs with the thymine & cytosine always pairs with the guanine; RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single strand of nitrogenous base pairs with a phosphorous and sugar backbone. RNA is used by the cell to aid the process of DNA transcription and translation. Inherited Traits – characteristics passed from parent to offspring (eye color, eye shape, etc); dominant traits - always be expressed in the phenotype. Alleles for dominant traits are represented by capital letters; recessive traits – only expressed in the phenotype if two recessive alleles are present. Alleles for recessive traits are represented by lowercase letters Mutation - change in the genes of an organism. Many mutations occur randomly where others can be the result of some environmental exposure; can be beneficial, harmful, or have neutral effect on the organism; EX. genetic disorder sickle cell anemia is harmful to the persons that have that disorder. However, the disorder arises from a mutation to protect humans from Malaria; most mutations are automatically repaired by enzymes and have no effect; when not repaired, the resulting altered chromosome or gene structure is then passed to the offspring; If the mutant cell is a body cell (somatic cell), the daughter cells can be affected by the altered DNA, but the mutation will not be passed to the offspring of the organism (cause cancers); If the mutant cell is a gamete (sex cell), the altered DNA will be transmitted to the embryo and may be passed to subsequent generations (cause genetic disorders). ● In some cases mutations are beneficial to organisms. Beneficial mutations are changes that may be useful to organisms in different or changing environments. These mutations result in phenotypes that are favored by natural selection and increase in a population Deletion - when DNA is removed or deleted. Insertions - when DNA is inserted into another section of DNA. Frameshift - an insertion or deletion that is not in a multiple of three. Translocation - when large chunks of DNA is swapped between non-homologous chromosomes. Genetic engineering is the manipulation of an organism’s genes (genome). Selective breeding - a process humans use Name ________________________________________________ SC PASS Science Testing begins 4/20 Punnett Square Inherited Traits Vs. Acquired Traits to breed or reinforce desired traits into a particular organism. Ex. Diversity of dogs; Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) - used in food or in other commercial applications. Ex. resistance to plant diseases can be added to corn’s genome so the plant is not affected by these diseases; Biomedical research - employs a variety of techniques to advance medical science and improve human lives. EX. the human genome project has mapped the entire human genome. This information can be used to inform individuals during genetic counselling and when making health decisions. Used determine the possibilities of the combinations of alleles that the offspring may receive; tool used to predict the ratio or percentage of the possible genes that an offspring will have based on the genes of the parent; alleles for one parent are placed at the top and the alleles of the other parent are placed on the left; individual squares show the possibilities of allele pairs in the offspring; purebred genotype- two alleles are the same (TT or tt); hybrid genotype two alleles are different (Tt); monohybrid cross- cross that shows the inheritance of a single characteristic; It is sometimes difficult to predict certain traits in humans (for example hair color or eye color) because there may be several different genes that control these traits. You need to be able to determine the genotypic ratios and phenotypic ratios of monohybrid crosses. Incomplete dominance is a condition when the dominant allele does not completely mask the recessive. As a result some of the recessive trait will be observed in the phenotype. An example of an incomplete dominance in plants may be color of flowers. The color red is dominant over the recessive color white. Pink flowers are a result of a blending of red and white; Co-dominance is a condition when there is more than one dominant allele. As a result, both alleles will be expressed in the phenotype. An example of co-dominance in plants may be the color of the flowers. If both red and white alleles are dominant, both traits will be expressed in the flower. The AB blood type in humans is another example of co-dominance. Inherited trait- genetically determined characteristic that distinguishes one organism from another organism ( some dominant & some recessive & some neither); ex inherited trait in plants – color of flowers; ex. Inherited trait in animals – eye color Acquired trait – influenced by environmental factors (temperature, nutrients, injuries, disease, exposure to sun, living conditions) Human Body SC PASS Review Material Levels of Organization of Human Body System Major Organs Function of Major Organs cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism; cell – basic unit of structure & function in body, ex. neuron (nerve), blood, & bone cells; tissues – group or cells working together, ex. nerve tissue – carries impulses to & from the brain, muscle tissue – make body parts move by contracting & shortening, epithelial tissue – covers surfaces o/body, connective tissue – connects all parts of body and provide support (tendons (muscle to bone), ligament (bone to bone), cartilage (flexible cushion)); organ – group of two or more tissues, ex. heart; organ system (system) – group of organs working together (CRIS DEERMIN) circulatory, respiratory, integumentary (skin), skeletal, digestive, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, muscular, immune, & nervous Circulatory – heart, blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins); Respiratory – nose, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm; Digestive - mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, anus (2 ndary – liver, gallbladder, pancreas); Excretory – kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra; Nervous – brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves; Muscular – skeletal, smooth, cardiac muscles; Skeletal – bones; Integumentary - skin Heart – causes blood to flow through body by its pumping action Blood vessels – tubes that carry blood through out entire body (Artery – carries blood with oxygen & nutrients to all parts of body, Veins – carries waste products from all parts of body back to heart, Capillaries – small vessels where oxygen & nutrients leave the blood to go into cells & carbon dioxide & other waste products enter blood from cells) Nose – collects air from the environment & moistens & heats the air before it enters trachea Trachea – windpipe; moves air from nose to lungs Bronchi – tubes that move air from trachea to lungs Human Body SC PASS Review Material Continued Function of Major Organs Cont’d Lungs - main organs where gases are exchanged between air & blood (Alveoli – in lungs where gas exchange takes place) Diaphragm – muscle that aids in breathing Mouth – breaks down food into smaller pieces (Mechanical Digestion – process of chewing, Chemical Digestion – started by saliva in mouth) Esophagus – transport tube; carries chewed food to stomach Stomach – continues mechanical digestion; secretes gastric juices that continue chemical digestion started in mouth Small intestines – organ where most of the chemical digestion of food takes place; absorbs nutrients Large intestines – organ that absorbs water from food taken into bloodstream; prepares undigested food for elimination Rectum – short tube that stores solid waste Anus – eliminates solid waste Liver – organ that produces bile (Bile – breaks up fat particles) Gallbladder – organ that stores bile Pancreas – organ that produces digestive juices that break down food in small intestine kidneys – get rid of urea (excess water) & other waste materials released by cells – eliminated as urine Ureters – tubes that connect each kidney to bladder Bladder – saclike muscular organ; stores urine until released Urethra – tube which urine passes before removed from body Name ________________________________________________ SC PASS Science Testing begins 4/20 Relationships of Major Systems Diseases Brain – control & coordinates activities of body Spinal cord – bundle of nerves from brain to center of back vertebrae; connects to peripheral nerves Peripheral nerves – branch out from spinal cord and connect to rest of body; transmit signal to & from brain Skeletal muscles – voluntary muscle attached to bones; provide force need to move bones Smooth muscles – involuntary muscles control many types of movement in body Cardiac muscles – involuntary muscle that form the heart Bones – provide shape and support for body; protects many organs and structures; produce blood cells; store minerals (Joints – where two bones meet) Skin- covers body; prevents loss of water; protect from infection & injury; regulates body temperature; get rid of waste (sweat), receive information from environment; makes vitamin D All body systems are dependent upon the circulatory system to transport materials; circulatory system works with the excretory system to help remove wastes from the Body; respiratory system works with the circulatory system to make sure that oxygen (O2) reaches the bloodstream and carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the bloodstream; digestive system works with the circulatory system to make sure that nutrients made available by digestion (for example glucose) get to the cells of the body; nervous system works with the muscular and skeletal systems to direct behavior and Movement; nervous system controls internal processes in the body (for example digestion and circulation); Muscles control the movement of materials through some organs (for example the stomach, intestines, and the heart); muscular and skeletal systems work together to help the body move. Disease - condition that does not allow the body to function normally; affects organs or organ systems; either infectious or noninfectious Infectious disease – caused by pathogens (bacteria, virus, protist, fungus) from contaminated area, another person, animal bite, or environment; pathogens damage single cell or attack the entire system; ex. cold, flu, athlete’s foot, AIDS, strep throat, tetanus, pneumonia, malaria Cold – caused by virus infecting respiratory system; multiples and attacks mucous membranes of nose & throat causing side effects of sore throat, runny nose, & fever Flu – caused by viral infection of respiratory system; causes fever, muscle aches, severe cough, & lasts longer than cold Athlete’s foot – caused by fugal infection of skin on feet; obtained from public environment; grows in warm, moist areas between toes; can be difficult to cure AIDS - Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); attacks cells of immune system making organism unable to fight off pathogens Strep throat – caused by bacterial infection; side effects (mild or severe) are fever, pain, redness, & swelling of throat and tonsils tetanus (caused by bacteria), pneumonia (caused by a virus or bacteria), or malaria (caused by a protist spread by mosquitoes) Noninfectious disease - caused by malfunctions in body systems that are either inherited or caused by environmental factors; ex. diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, skin cancer, asthma, allergies, arthritis, heart disease, & multiple sclerosis Diabetes – caused by inability to produce or use insulin properly; causes high glucose level in blood; can lead to kidney disease, cause vision problems, or heart disease Parkinson’s Disease – affects cells in nervous system causing them to stop affecting muscular system; symptoms are serve shaking (tremors) & disabilities involving movement; no cure Skin Cancer – damages outer layer skin cells; caused by damaging ultraviolet rays (UV) from the sun or tanning beds & heredity Asthma – affects lungs and airways that deliver air to lungs; cause periodic attacks of wheezing and difficulty breathing when airways inflame due to dust, mold, pets, exercise, or cold weather Chemistry SC PASS Review Material Atoms Classification of Matter Physical Properties of Metals & Nonmetals Periodic Table Smallest unit of matter (too small to be seen with classroom microscope); smaller part of element & has its properties; it has mass and takes up space; Atomic/Bohr Model states of matter – solid, liquid. gas; classified by composition as pure substance of mixture; pure substances are elements (made of one kind of atom that can’t be broken down) or compounds (two or more chemically combined elements that can be broken down to elements by chemical changes; molecule – 2 or more atoms combined; mixtures are made up of two or more different substances physically combined that can be separated by filtering, sifting, & evaporating; mixture types are homogeneous/solution (uniformed/can not see different parts) & heterogeneous (uniformed/can see different parts) Metal Properties: luster – shiny or reflects light brightly, conductor – heat & electricity easily move through, malleable/bendable – can be hammered into shapes, ductile – can be made into wire, high density – heavy for its size Nonmetal Properties: Dull – not shiny, Nonconductors – heat & electricity do not move through easily , Brittle – break or shatter easy (solids) Organizes elements; arranges elements by atomic number; period – horizontal row; group/family – vertical columns numbered 1-18 and have similar properties; each element has square with atomic number, atomic mass, element name & symbol; zigzag line on left side of periodic separate metals (left of line) from nonmetals (right of line); metal ex. Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), and Aluminum (Al); majority of elements are metals; nonmetal ex. Chlorine (Cl), Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), and Iodine (I) Name ________________________________________________ SC PASS Science Testing begins 4/20 Chemical Symbols & Chemical Formulas Acids & Bases Reactants & Products Balanced Equations Physical & Chemical Properties of Matter Physical & Chemical Changes of Matter Chemical Bonds Density Chemical symbols – show atoms composing the element; written w/one, two, or three letters; first letter always capitalized; elements have different symbols; common elements - Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Silicon (Si), Cooper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Helium (He), Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), Phosphorus (P), Iodine (I), Fluorine (F) Chemical formulas – made from symbols composing substance; subscript – show how many of each kind of atom in compound (written to lower right of element symbol); no subscript written means only one atom of that element is present; table salt (NaCl), water (H2O), simple sugar (C6H12O6), oxygen gas (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrogen gas (N2); coefficient – shows # o/ molecules & comes before chemical formula substances can be classified as acids, bases or neutral based on their pH; acids and bases are solutions usually with water as the solvent pH- measures how basic or acidic a solution is; scale range of 0-14; pH of neutral is 7 (pure H2O); acid range 0-6; base range 8-14 Acid – taste sour; react with some metals; react with base to form neutral Base – taste bitter; feel slippery; react with acid to form neutral Indicators- used to determine whether solution is acidic, basic, or neutral; litmus paper – has special dye that changes colors in presence of acid or base, blue litmus paper turns red in presence of acid, violet in presence of neutral, & stays blue in presence of base, red litmus paper turns blue in presence of base, violet in presence of neutral, & stays red in presence of acid; Phenolphthalein – liquid test presence of base by turning magenta (bright pink) & stays colorless in presence of acid or neutral; pH paper - range of colors (compared to the chart on the vial to determine the pH) depending on the pH of the solution Chemical reaction – when a substance is broken apart or when substances are combined and at least one new substance is formed Chemical equation - used to represent a chemical reaction that has occurred; contains chemical names or chemical formulas of the substances involved in reaction; an arrow (means yields or makes) is used to distinguish between the substances that are broken apart or combined from the substances that are formed in the reaction Reactant – left side of arrow; substances broken apart or combined ex. 2H2 + O2 in equation below Product – right side of arrow; new substance formed ex. 2H2O in equation below 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O amount of matter does not change during a chemical reaction, only that the atoms are rearranged to form new substances law of conservation of matter - states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be changed in form; total mass of the material(s) before reaction is the same as total mass of material(s) after the reaction balanced chemical equation - has the same number of each kind of atom on the reactant side as on the product side; determined by multiplying number in front of the chemical formula in the equation (coefficient) by the number written below the symbol for the element(s) (subscript) in the formula; if no coefficient then its understood to be 1; # of each kind of atom must match on the left side and the right of equation arrow Physical properties –use to ID substance; can be observed and measured without changing the substance (melting point, boiling point, density, & color); melting point – temp solid changes to liquid (unchanging under constant conditions), melting point of ice 00C (32oF); boiling point – temp liquid boils (liquid to gas), begins when the liquid starts to form bubbles throughout, which grow larger, rise to the surface, and burst, boiling point of water at sea level 1000C (212oF); density – relationship between mass & volume of object, denser objects have more matter, stays same no matter how large or small the sample substance is; color – not significant indicator, absence of color is physical property as well Chemical properties – used to ID substance; recognized when substance react or not react chemically w/another substance (ability to burn & rust); ability to burn – substance reacts quickly with oxygen to produce light & heat (burning); ability to rust – substance reacts slowly with oxygen (rusting) Physical change – changes physical properties of substance (change in state of mater, size & shape); Change in state of matter - when a substance changes directly from a gas to a solid (the forming of frost from water vapor) or from a solid to a gas (dry ice, solid air fresheners) that change of state is called sublimation Chemical change – forms one or more new substances with new chemical & physical properties (color or temperature change, formation of gas or precipitate (solid)) Ionic Bonds- when metals and nonmetals chemically bond to form a new substance; electrons are transferred from the metals to the nonmetals. Covalent Bonds- when nonmetals bond with other nonmetals; electrons are shared. Density changes with phase changes due to the difference in the particle arrangement in solids, liquids and gasses. density = mass (g)/volume (mL) Ex. If the mass of an object is 20 grams and the volume of the same object is 10 mL, what is the density of the object? D=20g/10mL D= 2 g/mL