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Memory
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Introduction
Human Memory is a complicated system for storing and retrieving vast
amounts of various types of information. There is some disagreement as to
the precise nature of the human memory system, however most experts
accept a distinction between sensory memory, short term memory (STM) and
long term memory (LTM)
Sensory memory is a system for retaining a brief impression of a sensory
stimulus after the stimulus has ceased. It is also characterised by being
outside of conscious control (i.e. it happens automatically and unbidden). The
duration of sensory memory varies for each of the senses, although it is
generally said to be under a second. The purpose of sensory memory is to
help people make initial subconscious assessment and judgement of sensory
stimuli.
Sensory memory is evident when we view a person moving on television; we
perceive him or her moving quite normally. However the information that is
presented to us is a series of frozen images (frames) separated by brief
periods of darkness. In order to see the moving image, it is necessary for the
brain to store visual information from one frame until the arrival of the next
(Baddeley, 1999). Auditory sensory memory works in the same way. If a
person hears the word “dyslexia” their sensory memory stores the “dys” and
the “lex” sound until the end of the word after the “ia” sound is made in order
for us to hear it as a single word.
Short term memory (STM) is a store of limited size and duration. It is used
for more advanced processing then sensory memory and is generally said be
a conscious memory system. I.e. we are aware when we are using it and
often have control over what we use it for. In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch
developed the model of STM into a slightly more complicated model which
they called working memory. Despite this more recent development the
fundamental principles remain the same.
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It can hold about seven meaningful bits of data such as words or
numbers.
It only stores information for a limited amount of time (between several
seconds and a minute)
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It is a gateway to the long term memory store.
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It can use information from LTM to help in completing and
understanding tasks.
STM is used for many simple tasks that encompass day to day life, and is
required for us to work things out and understand them.
For example if you read or hear a sentence, you need to remember the
beginning until you get to the end in order to make any sense of it, or if
someone asks you to divide 212 by 4 you need to remember the two sets of
numbers, the order that they appear and that you have to divide them in order
to complete the sum. Both of these procedures require information from long
term memory such as how to read the words in the sentence, the meaning of
the words in the sentence, the structure of numbers and how to divide them.
Short term memory only holds data for a limited period of time. This is
demonstrated in the following experiment. Read the following set of numbers
a couple of times…
3489243
…and then turn away and write them down (without looking back at the set).
It is likely that someone without any short term memory difficulties would not
have too many problems and get most of the numbers correct.
However, if you read the following set of numbers a couple of times…
4093217
…and read on for 10 minutes, and then try to write them down, it is not so
likely that you would be able to remember them. (Try to remember the
numbers after you have read this article)
When a task is completed, the information is either lost from STM or it is
retained and moved into long term memory system.
Long term memory is a store of arguably limitless capacity and duration.
Long term memory is like a library in which all our knowledge, our memories
of past events and of how to do things are stored. Any information that can
be remembered for after a period of about a minute would usually be
classified as being stored in LTM. This is because memory that is stored for a
minute or longer acts in very much the same way as memory that is stored for
several days or weeks, and very differently to memory that is stored for
several seconds (Baddeley, 1999). Some memory experts argue that LTM
has an infinite duration and that forgetting is really an inability to find a
particular memory in the store. Other experts say that some memories do
actually decay from long term memory and disappear.
There are however divisions within the long term memory system. These
divisions are categorised by the type of memories that are stored. Episodic
long-term memory is a store of particular incidents that happen to an
individual, such as going to the supermarket yesterday or watching a film the
day before. Semantic long-term memory is a store of knowledge such as
knowing that Paris is the Capital city in France, or the number of strings on a
classical guitar.
How the stores interact.
Information impinges upon the senses and sensory memory is at constant
work in order for us to group sensory input into simple meaningful forms. If
we decide to focus on any of these simple meaningful forms and want to
process the information into more complicated meanings, our short term
memory takes over. STM provides enough storage for us to focus upon
simple tasks, such as listening to and understanding a sentence, or
structuring a question to ask somebody. STM also relays information from
LTM to further aid this task, such as the meaning of words and the sounds
words make. Most information from STM is only required for a small time and
is therefore forgotten, however sometimes it is necessary for the information
to be held for a longer period. Information of this type is usually rehearsed,
analysed or associated with other memories. This moves the information into
LTM where it is stored for a longer duration. Information that is in LTM needs
to be actively used and rehearsed or it becomes harder to retrieve and can be
eventually forgotten.
Some neurologically diverse (and neurotypical) students can experience
difficulties with memory. When it comes to the collecting, understanding,
ordering and remembering the information required by many undergraduate
courses, difficulties with memory can affect their ability to carry out the tasks
as effectively as they might like.
It is however possible to improve our memory by using our understanding of
how the memory system works.
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR MEMORY
In order for information to get to Long Term Memory (LTM) it has to pass
through Short Term Memory (STM). Difficulties with STM can limit the
amount and quality of the information that gets into LTM. There are however
several conscious strategies that can further enhance this process.
Motivation
It might seem an obvious point, but we are much more likely to remember if
we want to remember. Animal studies have shown that animals learn things
better if they are rewarded at the end of it. One of the BRAINHE interviewees
who has Asperger Syndrome experienced this and said, ‘Choose a course
that you are interested in and not one your parents want you to do.’
If the act of memorising or remembering is just a chore, it will be much more
difficult. Most courses contain compulsory modules that you may not find as
interesting as the others. Try to imagine how you would feel if you got a good
mark in such a module, a good degree or a good job after getting your
degree. Why not reward yourself for learning a piece of material with a
chocolate bar or by going out for a drink.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal is required to get information into LTM, and to increase the
chances of being able to recall that information. Take the following sentence:
“Baddeley and Hitch proposed the model of working memory in the 1970’s”
If you were to repeat this sentence continuously for five minutes and did not
get confused, you would undoubtedly be able to recall it at the end of the five
minute period. However you do not have to constantly rehearse information
in order to recall it. There is a method called expanded rehearsal which has a
similar effect, and you should be able to recall the information for several
days, weeks or even permanently.
Keep repeating information, with widening gaps between the repetitions.
Every 30 seconds for several minutes, every minute for 10 – 15 minutes,
every five minutes for an hour, every 15 minutes for 2 hours, every 30 minutes
for 5 hours, every hour for the rest of the day, then once a day for a while and
it be stored to its maximum potential.
Chunking
To some degree we do this automatically. It is literally a case of chunking
several pieces of information into one meaningful chunk, which takes up less
space in STM
For example
0 1 2 1 3 3 1 5 6 2 3 is not very easy to remember and will probably be
forgotten if you don’t write it down. However if you put the information into
chunks as follows it becomes a bit easier:
(0121) the Birmingham code (331) (56) (23)
You don’t have to divide the information into the same chunks as above. You
can split it up in any way you want. Phone numbers in France are usually
broken up into pairs. You could therefore split the number up like this and use
the French way
(zero-one) (twenty-one) (thirty-three) (fifteen) (sixty-two) (three)
Chanting the Rhythm
To make the number or sentence even easier to recall you could rehearse it
by chanting the numbers or the chunks to make a sort of rhythm. This can
also be applied to words, sentences or whatever information you want to
store.
Names and Faces
Names and faces can difficult to code. They are difficult to rehearse. Look out
for unusual names, which maybe easier to remember.
There are lots of special techniques for remembering names but they often
involve hearing the name properly in the first place and then coding it. Try
repeating somebody's name and say it a couple of times.
Try to associate someone’s name with one of their features. For example
Billy might have Blue eyes: Billy Blue eyes.
Visualisation and Association
Many neurologically diverse people, especially dyslexic people, have strong
visual abilities. Visual images can be very powerful memory cues. If we
visualise in detail where we were when we first learnt a piece of information, it
can be easier to recall it. It is often a good idea to make a mental note of the
environment that you are in whilst you learn something.
Many people find that making a mental visualisation of numbers, words or
other information whilst learning helps them to recall it more effectively.
For Example
You could see a telephone number or chunks of a telephone number in your
mind. Imagine them as a set of decorative house numbers that appear on
doors, or imagine them in a style of text that you like.
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You could even remember a phone number by associating each
number or chunk with sections of a route or rooms in a house that you
know well. This method is known as the Greek walk. It is a technique
which involves remembering the various places in a route, house, room
or an environment with which you are familiar and then placing what
you want to remember within those locations. For instance, if I
memorise the rooms in my parent’s house I can easily have 19 places
in which to put objects I wish to remember.
Tell a Story. Remember a sequence of items by telling a story. This
involves a narrative, in which strange and bizarre things are linked
together. These work best if there is much colour, action, humour,
movement, sound, sex-- involve all the senses.
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For more complicated information such as a piece of text it is a good
Idea to convert it into diagrammatic from such as a spider diagram or
flow chart of the main points and try to remember that. The best way to
do this is to go through the piece of text highlighting the main points.
Summarise these main points and write them down. Put these points
into a diagram, using the diagrammatical structure to show the
relationship between the main points.
This method takes some practise but it can really help aid recall.
It is often helpful to associate new information with other memories that you
have in long term memory. For example the phone number referred to
previously
01213315623
could be associated with information already in LTM:
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(0121) – dialling code for Birmingham
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33 – my age
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15 – Andy Warhol quote "In the future, everyone will be world-famous
for 15 minutes."
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6 – part of my date of birth 6th Feb
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23 – Beckham’s Real Madrid number
It is also important to take some time remembering the order of the
associations.
(Birmingham) (age) (Warhol) (birthday) (Beckham)
The fact that you spent some time relating the information to other memories
is also likely to help you remember it, as deeper levels of processing aid
better recall. It seems that the more associations that are made between the
information and what the person already knows, the more the person will be
able to recall at a later date.
Peg lists.
In his book on memory, Speed memory, Tony Buzan was very keen on linking
numbers with other visual memories as follows:
The number rhyme system.
one = bun two = shoe three = tree four = door five = hive six = sticks
seven = heaven eight = gate nine = wine ten = hen
If you memorise the rhyming words for each number, it becomes easier to
remember numerical lists of up to ten items.
If you needed to remember the following list
1 Bag
2 Tomatoes
3 Chair
4 Bed
5 Donkey
You would then assign the list to the appropriate rhyming words and try to
make a visual link:
1 = bun + Bag: A big bag of buns
2 = shoe + tomatoes: Someone squashing a tomato with their shoe
3 = tree + chair: A chair made out of wood from a tree.
Another way of using this system is for remembering numbers. So if I wanted
to remember that Malcolm lived number 49, I would imagine going up to
Malcolm’s front door and then noticing a huge bottle of wine leaning against it!
If I wanted to remember the first part of my son's phone number 325, I could
remember the tree with a shoe on it, and precariously balanced on top of that
shoes is a hive, just about to fall off, with who knows what scary
consequences!
Using your fingers
The process of assigning a series of words or numbers to your fingers can
help you to remember them. This is usually done by assigning one word or
number to each finger The motions made by the fingers activate neural
pathways in the brain. The brain associates these pathways with the words or
numbers you are trying to remember. The process of repeating the motions
again at a later time often helps recall the information.
Remembering numbers, formulae, dates
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chunk them down into small units
visualise numbers
use specific rehearsal techniques for numbers e.g. Buzan
write them down
store them on a mobile phone
Retrieving information from LTM
Long term memory holds a colossal amount of information. Your whole life so
far and everything you know are all stored in long term memory. All the words
you know and all the abilities you have such as riding a bicycle are stored.
Whilst individuals may not be able to recall a particular event at a particular
moment, we are often able to recall the event at a different moment. We
therefore have a lot more stored in our long term memory than we can recall
at any particular instance.
Long term memory has often been likened to a vast library. To access
memories efficiently from LTM the information needs to be stored in a
structured and accessible way. If the books in the library were catalogued by
the colour of the cover, the library would be relatively useless if someone
were looking for a book on Web technology. However if the books were
catalogued by the subject index then the information would be easier to find.
If someone wanted a book they had used before about web technology but
could not remember its name, however they managed to remember that it
was a blue book, then combining the subject index with the book colour would
give them a greater chance of finding it than just using the subject index itself.
This is why the more associations a memory has the easier it is to retrieve.
The multisensory approach.
One of the strongest ways of retrieving memories is by using a multisensory
approach. Smells, tastes and movements are particularly powerful sources of
recollection for many people. If you learnt a piece of information whilst
sucking a strawberry sweet, why not suck another strawberry sweet whilst
trying to remember it. You could have a whole range of different flavoured
sweets for different pieces of information. This method could also work with
smells and movements. Why not revise for an exam a spray some perfume in
the room you are revising in. When it comes to the exam take in a
handkerchief with the same perfume sprayed on it and sniff it when you need
to recall the information.
The tip of the tongue phenomenon
Occasionally we are asked a question where we are sure we know the
answer but we are unable to access it. This answer is often said to be on the
tip of the tongue. Several experiments including Brown and McNeil (1966)
have indicated that there are several methods we can use to help us when
this happens:
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Guess the number of syllables in the word you are trying to find. It is
often the case that when the tip of the tongue phenomenon arises
people actually remember aspects of the word but not the word itself.
People often guess the number of syllables correctly.
Try working through the alphabet to connect with the word you have
lost. Studies have shown that if a person is given the first letter of the
answer, they are more likely to remember it.
Look for the context of what you know about that word. Visualise that
context as much as possible, making it colourful, full of movement and
sound.
If it's a person’s name, visualise them as accurately as you can. Think
of them with other people and in numerous situations.
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If you still cannot remember the word, just relax and it will come before
too long.
Finding your way
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Try to obtain a map or a plan of where you are going. Study the map
and plan the route you need to take. Try to remember key items from
the map, such as street names or other land marks.
Circle the place you want to get to on the map and keep the map with
you.
Write down the route step-by-step using street names, landmarks and
navigational directions.
If it is realistic, save up for a sat nav!
Revising for Exams
There are many techniques for enhancing memory for revision and exams.
Please click here for the BRAINHE exams and revision section.
Daily ways of improving memory
A sharp mind and strong memory depend on the vitality of your brain's
network of interconnecting neurons, and especially on junctions between
these neurons called synapses.
(http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=60455)
Therefore keeping the brain healthy is likely to keep memory healthy.
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Reduce stress. Stress is a main cause of synaptic dysfunction. When
stressed, we produce too much glutamate which can become a toxin
at high levels, and interfere with learning and cause cell damage in the
brain's memory regions. Make time for leisure activities. Learn
relaxation techniques such as yoga or meditation. Cut down on
unnecessary responsibilities and avoid over-scheduling. Become more
organised and stick to a routine.
Whilst routine is important in reducing stress, it is also important to
enjoy new sensory experiences and to challenge your mind and body
with new situations. This helps to keep the brain healthy by creating
new neural connections.
Exercise: A brisk walk or other cardiovascular workout oxygenates the
brain and promotes brain growth factors.
It is essential to get plenty of adequate sleep and rest. Adequate sleep
reduces stress and new brain cells grow as we sleep.
What you eat can improve your memory
(http://www.helpguide.org/life/improving_memory.htm) Antioxidants
and vitamin A are key brain boosters, because they improve the flow of
oxygen through the body by fighting free radicals, strengthen blood
circulation and combat fatigue. Good foods for memory boosting are
blackcurrants, blueberries, watermelon, strawberries, cherries,
asparagus, red cabbage and tomatoes.
Constant daily training will improve memory:; for instance:
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Make a point of listening to people’s names and repeating them to
yourself.
Put essential items at home in the same place each day e.g. keys.
This takes the burden off the memory system by trying to remember
things that are unnecessary.
Keep a diary or personal organiser and regularly fill it in. The process
of writing things down can help you to remember by using deeper
levels of processing. Keeping organised gives you a framework to
relate to when trying to remember.
If your memory is usually quite poor . . .
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Have a notebook and write things down
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Keep items in a special place e.g. keys, purse, wallet
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use a wall chart and diary
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Also keep a personal diary to write down daily events after they've
happened
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Make plenty of lists. Consider using Web-based systems such as Tada, backpack etc
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Keep noting your ideas, either with a notebook or a tape recorder or
MP3 player.
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If you take medication, use standardised medicine boxes
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Improve your memory through playing games, crosswords, mind
games with yourself (for instance try counting down from a hundred in
2s, 3s, 4s, etc, as fast as you can)
Bibliography
Baddeley, A.D., (1999). Essentials of Human Memory., Psychology Press:
East Sussex
Baddeley, A.D., (1974). Working Memory. In G.A. Bower (Ed.), The
psychology of Learning and Motivation (pp.47-89). Acedemic Press : New
York
Bartlett, D., & Moody, M., (2000) Dyslexia in the workplace., Whurr
Publishers: London
BBC Bite size. (2007). Mind maps revision techniques, Available from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/teachers/supportingstudentsrev4.s
html
[ Accessed 4 February 2007].
Buzan, T. (2006). Brilliant memory. BBC books.
Goodwin, V. & Thomas, B. (2004) Making Dyslexia Work for You., David
Fulton Publishers: London.
Iddon, Jo and Williams, Huw. (2005). Memory Boosters. Hamlyn. ISBN 0 600
61324 0.
Medical News Today, Want to improve Your Memory? , 11 Jan 2007
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=60455
Myers, D.G. (1998). Psychology 5th ed, Worth Publishers: New York
Stein, J. (2007 ). 30 ways to improve your memory/Independent newspaper.
[ Double Your Brain Power Supplement . 30 ways to improve your memory,
by Rita Carter and John Stein. A3 leaflet ].
Ta-da lists. (2007). Homepage .Available from: www.tadalist.com/ [Accessed
4 February 2007].
External links about memory and learning