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Teacher’s
Toolbox
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANS
Suggested for Beginning of Year Review
Earth Science
Toolbox for Eighth Grade
Created by Michigan Teachers for Michigan Students
St. Clair County Regional
Educational Service Agency
499 Range Road  PO Box 1500
Marysville, Michigan 48040
Phone: 810/364-8990  Fax: 810/364-7474
www.sccresa.org
"These materials are produced by St. Clair County Regional Educational Service Agency and are not authorized by the Michigan
Department of Education. Please use these materials within the guidelines of the Office of Educational Assessment and Accountability
(OEAA) of the Michigan Department Education. These guidelines can be found at:
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/Prof_Assessmt_Practices_108570_7.pdf "
Eighth Grade Earth Science Toolbox
Table of Contents
Letter of Introduction .......................................................................................................... 2
Important Notices ............................................................................................................... 3
How to Read a Lesson Plan ............................................................................................... 5
Web Resources .................................................................................................................. 7
Overview Earth Science Toolbox ....................................................................................... 8
Lesson 1: The Earth is Made of Rocks............................................................................... 9
Lesson 2: Soil ................................................................................................................... 13
Lesson 3: Sandstone Formation ...................................................................................... 17
Lesson 4: Landforms and Topographic Maps .................................................................. 23
Lesson 5: Water Movement and Groundwater ................................................................. 33
Lesson 6: Weather ........................................................................................................... 41
Lesson 7: Phases of the Moon and Eclipses .................................................................... 51
Lesson 8: Seasons ........................................................................................................... 56
Lesson 9: Comparing Earth to Other Planets ................................................................... 59
8th Grade Earth Science Vocabulary ................................................................................ 61
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
1
Letter of Introduction
Dear Educators,
While creating this toolbox, we spent a great deal of time worrying. We worried about:

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devoting enough time to reviewing the benchmarks taught in previous grades;
being developmentally appropriate;
including just the right amount of best practice instructional activities;
incorporating to, with, and by into the Day-by-Day lesson plans;
interpreting and aligning the Benchmarks accurately;
making the lessons interesting and motivating; and
addressing the teaching and learning standards within the lessons.
We worried about everything, so you wouldn’t have to worry. We know teaching is a difficult
profession at best and even more difficult when faced with increased academic standards and
content expectations. We wanted to help you through this transition period by providing this easyto-use model designed to prepare Michigan’s students for future statewide assessments.
We realize we are providing a way for you to prepare your students for the MEAP. We also
understand the best way for students to prepare for the MEAP is through excellent instruction
aligned to a carefully designed curriculum. With changing content expectations and statewide
assessments, it has been challenging for schools and districts to keep pace. We offer this
Toolbox in light of the previous statements. We hope you will find, within these day-by-day lesson
plans, instructional strategies, and pedagogical ideas you can use everyday of the school year. If
you do, we have done our job. It means we have created more than MEAP preparation materials.
It means we have influenced your instruction and possibly your curriculum.
St. Clair County teachers created this Toolbox for use by Michigan teachers with Michigan
students. It was a time consuming effort we hope other teachers find useful and will appreciate.
We would like to extend a special thanks to Autumn McClellan, a 2005 graduate of Yale High
School, for her help in the production of the Bell in a Jar video.
Sincerely,
Eighth Grade Toolbox Team
Monica Hartman - St. Clair RESA
Marea Sherwood, Crystal Harris - St. Clair RESA
Steven Hunt, Julie McDowell -Yale Public Schools
Michael Larzelere - Port Huron Area School District
Kathy Lentz - Capac Community Schools
Mike Maison, Jason Letkiewicz - St. Clair RESA
Glen McBride – Marysville School District
Barbara Smith – East-China School District
Tracie Stubbs - Algonac Community Schools
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
2
Important Notices
Michigan Curriculum Framework: Science Benchmarks
The science toolboxes are a suggested review at the beginning of the year for Michigan’s
eighth grade students. Our emphasis is placed on the constructing and reflecting
benchmarks. We embed them in the Physical, Earth and Life Science content standards
of the Michigan Curriculum Framework. Use of these toolboxes does not guarantee all
benchmarks have been addressed. The benchmarks chosen are the ones that are
among the bigger ideas in science or the ones that seem to be more difficult for many
students.
The lessons are designed to make use of the “to”, “with”, and “by” format. First, you
model the skills and strategies for your students. Modeling means explicitly showing
how the skill or strategy is completed and all the thinking that goes on during its
completion. Second, you help your students practice the skills and strategies. This help
can be whole class, small group, or individual guidance. Third, you let your students
complete the skills and strategies on their own. This format starts on the first day. Model
the inquiry process. Think aloud as you ask the investigation question, make a prediction,
graph data, interpret results and draw a conclusion. In the lessons that follow, students
will be given opportunities to practice these skills with less and less intervention until they
can do them on their own.
Each daily lesson is designed to engage the students for the full science period of 50-60
minutes. However, depending on the students’ prior experiences, some lessons may
require more time. This Toolbox is designed as a review of content taught in fifth through
seventh grade. During instruction, it is important for students to participate in the handson activity. In the Toolbox, however, the students are not doing the investigations
themselves. Rather they are graphing, analyzing, and interpreting data collected by the
project teachers or their students. This is not the best way to teach science, but given the
time constraints of fifteen days, this is the format we chose. In a few cases, pictures and
videos were made of the data collection. The video clips are provided on a separate CD.
We invite teachers to extend the full investigation to their students, when time permits.
Use your professional judgment and consider the needs of your students.
We hope that some of the ideas presented will be springboards to further inquiry projects
after the review period. We look forward to your suggestions and feedback.
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
3
Children do not learn by doing.
They learn by thinking,
discussing,
and reflecting
on what they have done.
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
4
How to Read a Lesson Plan
Identifies
lesson focus
and lists the
topics for the
lesson
Lesson Focus

Lesson 2
Using Physical Science
Matter
Step-by-step
instructions for
lesson delivery
 Benchmark
clarification
with key
concepts and
real-world
contexts
 Lesson
description and
management
 Key
Question to
drive the
inquiry
 Procedures
to follow
Lesson 2: Arrangement and Motion of Molecules
molecule
Describe the arrangement and motion of molecules in solids, liquids,
and gases.
Key concepts: Arrangement—regular pattern, random. Distance
between molecules—closely packed, separated. Molecular motion—
vibrating, bumping together, moving freely
Real-world contexts: Common solids, liquids, and gases, such as those
listed above.
motion
Materials

LESSON
During the elementary grades, students study the visible properties of
solids, liquids and gases. In the middle school, students learn the
molecular properties. In this lesson, students are asked to draw a
picture of molecules in a flask filled with air and again, after the air is
removed. The big ideas in this lesson are 1) all matter is made of
particles that have mass and take up space; 2) the particles are evenly
distributed, and 3) the molecules in matter are always moving. These
ideas are difficult for students because you cannot see atoms and
molecules. It is especially difficult for students to understand that
molecules in a solid are moving.


KEY QUESTION
How can you best represent air particles before and after most of the air
in a flask is removed by a vacuum pump?
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
 Additional
Resources
Vocabulary
IV.1.M.4 Using Physical Science Knowledge
4.
Students complete Journal page 6 independently. While
students are working, walk around the room, looking for
students who may still hold naïve ideas.
Compare students’ ideas with the scientific ones. Read the
text, Solids, Liquids, and Gases, from the Student Journal
page 7 with the class.
Pass out copies of the rubric from page 17 in the Teachers’
Toolbox to the students and discuss them with the class.
This rubric includes the big ideas that are needed for the
explanation and drawing of the air molecules in the flask.
Give students time to read the anonymous student work
included in the Teachers’ Toolbox on pages 20 - 24
individually.

Student
Journal pages
6-8.
Indicates
scientific
vocabulary
needed to
understand
the
benchmark
and lesson
Transparencie
s of student
page 6
Make
transparencies
of the
anonymous
student work
on pages 20 24 from the
Teachers’
Toolbox and/or
make paper
copies for each
student.
Make copies of
scoring rubric,
Teachers
Toolbox page
17, for each
student. Note:
There are two
rubrics on
each page.
Indicates
everything
you need
to prepare
for the
lesson
and
activities
RESOURCES
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
5
Materials Needed for Lesson Activities
Student Journals – All days
Special materials listed below
Lesson 1
 Hot plate
 Safety goggles
 Tongs
 Pocket pencil/crayon sharpener
 Vise (optional)
For each group
 8 crayons - 2 each of four different colors
 newspaper
 aluminum foil (30 cm square)
 Two pieces of
2 x 4 lumber about 10
inches long
Lesson 3
 Paper copies for students or a transparency for an overhead projector of the scoring rubric on
teachers’ page 20
 Paper copies of anonymous student work from teachers’ pages 21-22; one per student pair.
 Transparency of anonymous student work from teachers’ pages 21-22.
Lesson 4
 Color transparencies of Teacher pages 31 and 32
 Casserole dish, plastic storage containers such as Gladware, Ziploc, or dish with high sides
(about 4-5 inches) that can hold water for each group (one per group)
 Plastic cups or bowls (one per group) or clay (about 2 sticks per group)
 Blank transparency for each group to fit over the container
 Overhead/wet erase pens
 Centimeter Rulers
 Colored Pencils
Lesson 5
Colored Pencils
Lesson 6
Colored Pencils
Lesson 7
 Small Styrofoam balls (about 2 inch); one for each student
 Barbecue skewers or pencils
 Lamp without a shade
 Extension cord for lamp to reach center of the room
Lesson 8
 Data projector, monitor, or computers to show web site visualization models
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
6
Web Resources
National Science Teachers Association: Science Links
http://www.scilinks.org/ Members can search by Keywords. Students and guest teachers can
enter the codes found in their textbooks or other publications.
The codes listed here are from these references:
Smith, P. S., & Ford, B. A. (2001). Project Earth Science: Meteorology (Second ed.). Arlington,
VA: NSTA Press.
Ford, B. A. (2001). Project Earth Science: Geology. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Smith, P.S. (2001). Project Earth Science: Astronomy. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Use these codes at the SciLinks website for these listed topics found in this Toolbox:
Volcanoes – PESG101
Magma, lava – PESG111
Rocks – PESG163
Rock Cycle – PESG140
Rock Formations – PESG149
Earth’s layers – PESG31
Plate tectonics – PESG41
Ocean floor – PESG83
Ring of Fire – PESG119
Atmosphere – PESM163
Ozone – PESM170
Air Pollution – PESM174
Weather and Energy – PESM178
Greenhouse Effect – PESM186
Acid Rain – PESM190
Severe Weather – PESM200
Solar System – PESA29
Seasons – PESA84
Moon Phases – PESA92
Earth Science from Schools from Moorland School
http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/ Includes these topics:
Earth Origin
Earth Structure
Plate Tectonics
Rock Cycle
Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Earth's Atmosphere
Fossil Fuels
Annenberg Videos Essential Earth Science for Teachers: Earth and Space Science
This is a series of 8 one-hour videos on Earth Science topics. This is an excellent review of the
science content for teaching.
http://www.learner.org/resources/series195.html
National Geographic Marco Polo X-peditions
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/
U.S. Geological Survey
http://www.usgs.gov/
USGS for Educational Resources
http://education.usgs.gov/
Source for Topography Maps
http://www.topozone.com/
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
7
Overview Earth Science Toolbox
Lesson 1
Geosphere
Rock Cycle
Explain how rocks
are formed
Lesson 2
Describe the
composition and
characteristics of the
atmosphere.
Explain the behavior
of water in the
atmosphere.
Lesson 5
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Soil
Sandstone Formation
Explain how rocks
are broken down, soil
is formed, and how
surface features
change
Analyzing
characteristics of
student writing for a
constructed response
Landforms and
Topographic Maps
Water Movement and
Groundwater
Describe and
identify surface
features using
maps
Describe how water
in Michigan reaches
the ocean and
returns.
Lesson 7
Explain how rocks are
broken down, soil is
formed, and how
surface features change
Solar System, Galaxy,
and Universe
Phases of the Moon
and Eclipses
Seasons and Other
Planets
Describe, compare,
and explain the
motions of solar
system objects.
Compare the earth to
other planets and
moons in terms of
supporting life.
Describe and explain
common
observations of the
night skies.
Describe, compare, and
explain the motions of
solar system objects.
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
Explain how water
exists below the
earth’s surface and
how it is replenished.
Lesson 8
Solar System,
Galaxy, and
Universe
Weather
Explain patterns of
changing weather
and how they are
measured.
Lesson 4
Geosphere
Lesson 6
Atmosphere and
Weather
Lesson 3
Geosphere
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
8
Lesson 1
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Geosphere
Lesson 1: The Earth is Made of Rocks
Vocabulary
igneous rock
V.1.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
metamorphic rock
Explain how rocks are formed
Key concepts: Rock cycle processes – melting and cooling (igneous rocks);
heat and pressure (metamorphic rocks); cementing and crystallization of
sediments (sedimentary rocks); minerals; heat source is interior of Earth.
Materials – silt, clay, gravel, sand, rock, lava, magma, remains of living things
(bones, shells, plants).
Real-world contexts: Physical environments where rocks are being formed;
volcanoes; depositional environments such as ocean floor, deltas, beaches,
swamps; metamorphic environments deep within the earth’s crust.
sedimentary rock
LESSON
In this lesson, students will observe a simulation of the rock cycle using
crayon shavings to represent the rocks. This can be done as a teacher
demonstration or with small groups of students. The hot plate can be shared,
if necessary. The procedure, as described, will be for small groups of
students. The informational text can be assigned for independent work or for
homework, depending on the needs of the students. This activity is adapted
from Project Earth Science: Geology published by NSTA Press.
The important ideas for students to understand about rocks are:
 The rock cycle occurs slowly over geological time. Since it happens
so slowly, people don’t notice it.
 Mechanical and chemical weathering break down rocks at the
surface of the Earth
 Igneous rocks form when magma cools
 Sedimentary rocks form by the compaction of rock fragments
beneath Earth’s surface
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by the extreme pressure that is found
usually where plates are converging
KEY QUESTION
How are rocks formed?
PROCEDURE
1. Students share what they know about the rock cycle. This can be
done within their small group or with the whole class.
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
mineral
crystallization
silt
clay
gravel
sand
lava
magma
erosion
Materials
 Student Journal
pages 2-3
Hot plate
Safety goggles
Tongs
Pocket
pencil/crayon
sharpener
 Vise (optional)
For each group
 8 crayons - 2 each
of four different
colors
 newspaper
 aluminum foil (30
cm square)
 Two pieces of
2 x 4 lumber about
10 inches long




9
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tell students they will simulate the rock cycle processes with the crayon shavings.
Student tables should be covered with newspaper.
Cover the hot plate burner with aluminum foil.
Students shave their crayons, keeping all the shavings for each color in its own pile.
Ask the students: If crayons represent rocks, what part of the rock cycle is simulated by
shaving the crayons? (weathering)
7. Fold the 30 cm square piece of foil in half to form a rectangle. Place one color of rock
fragments (crayon shavings) in the center of the foil. Spread the shavings so they are in
a square layer about 1 cm thick.
8. Carefully spread another color of crayon shavings on top of the first layer forming a
second layer. Continue with layering the crayon shavings until there are four layers. Ask
the students what this represents in the rock cycle. (Deposition of rock layers as
sediment)
9. Carefully fold the aluminum foil over the four layers of shavings, but not tightly. Leave a
gap of about a cm around all the edges.
10. Place the foil wrapped crayon shavings between the two boards and place them on the
floor. Press on the boards with your hands. What part of the rock cycle does this
represent? (This is like how sedimentary rock is formed. Pressing on the rock layers with
your hands is like the compaction of rock sediment by the layers above it)
11. Carefully open the foil package and observe the rocks. Carefully, break the rock into two
pieces. If there are loose fragments, save them.
12. Put the two pieces back into the aluminum foil and wrap them as before. Place between
the two boards, but this time use a vise or step on the boards to apply more pressure
than before.
13. Open the foil package and observe. What part of the rock cycle does this represent?
(Increased pressure and heat that forms metamorphic rock)
This next part can be demonstrated by the teacher:
14. Fold another 30 cm square sheet of aluminum foil into a bowl-shape large enough to
place the crayon shavings.
15. Using safety goggles and a lab apron, melt the crayon on the hot plate at a medium
setting. Be careful to melt the crayon slowly enough to avoid spattering. Stop before the
fragments are completely fused together.
16. Turn off the hot plate. Carefully remove the foil packet from the hot plate with the tongs
and let it cool for about ten minutes. What part of the rock cycle does this step
represent? (Melting of rock and it becomes magma. Then it cools and forms igneous
rock)
17. After students have a chance to read the informational text in their student journals,
discuss how the simulation with crayons is similar to the the rock cycle and how it is
different.
18. Be sure students also understand the difference between erosion and weathering.
RESOURCES
 Introduction to Plate Tectonics: Layers of the Earth
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part1.html
 The Rock Cycle: After students read about rocks at this web page, they can take a little
rock test. http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/rockcycle.htm
 The Rock Cycle http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/K12/rkcycle/rkcycleindex.html
 Ford, B. A. (2001). Project Earth Science: Geology. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press Ford, B.
A. (2001). Project Earth Science: Geology. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
10
Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 1
The purpose for reading this selection is to be able to explain how rocks are formed. Be sure to
be able to explain the constructive forces that combine to form rock materials as well as the
destructive forces that combine to break them down.
The Earth is Made of Rocks
Thousands of different types of rocks and minerals have been found on Earth. Most
rocks at the Earth's surface are formed from only eight elements: oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium. These elements are
combined in a number of ways to make rocks that are very different.
Rocks are divided into three basic types, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic,
depending upon how they were formed. Igneous rocks form when melted rock from
deep within the Earth cools and becomes solid. The chemical composition of the
magma and cooling rate determine the type of igneous rock it becomes. Sedimentary
rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. Weathering breaks rocks into smaller bits and
pieces. Wind, water, and ice carry these pieces and deposit them and they accumulate
in layers on the Earth’s surface. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to
high heat and pressure. The heat and pressure substantially changes them from their
original form.
The Rock Cycle
The Earth’s crust is made of huge chunks of land called plates. There are seven major
plates and lots of little ones. They move around very slowly. When plates shift, pull
apart, or push together, mountains are formed. Of course this takes a very long period
of time. The movement of these plates is called plate tectonics. The plate tectonics
theory provides an explanation for how rocks are recycled from igneous to sedimentary
to metamorphic and back to igneous again.
The movement of these plates results in intense heat and pressure. Some rocks get
pushed deep into the Earth and melt. The melted rock is called magma. When magma
cools and hardens, it forms igneous rock. If the magma cools and hardens slowly
underground, large crystals are formed and the rock is called intrusive igneous rock. If
the magma cools quickly, perhaps after erupting from a volcano, small crystals are
formed and the rock is called extrusive igneous rock.
On the surface, weathering breaks rocks into bits and pieces and erosion carries them
away. These bits of rock are deposited on the Earth’s surface, often under water. Over
time, many layers accumulate, creating pressure and heat. Salts that are present in the
sediment crystallize as water is squeezed out of the layers. This helps to cement the
particles of sediment together making sedimentary rock.
The very intense heat and pressure resulting form the moving plates can also form
metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary, igneous, or other
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
11
metamorphic rocks undergo a change in crystal structure and texture from the heat and
pressure of the moving plates. Metamorphic rock is not formed from rock that has
melted. Remember melted rocks form magma, which then becomes igneous rock when
it cools.
This cycle has continued over the ages, constantly forming new rocks, breaking those
down in various ways, and forming still younger rocks.
Weathering and Erosion
Mountains wear down from the processes of weathering and erosion. What's the
difference between weathering and erosion? Weathering involves two processes that
often work together to decompose rocks, chemical and mechanical.
Mechanical weathering involves physically breaking rocks into fragments without
changing the chemical make-up of the minerals within it. This can happen when energy
from the sun causes the heating and cooling of Earth’s surface. When water gets into
cracks and then freezes, it expands and breaks the rock into smaller pieces. Water in
the form of glaciers is another mechanical weathering agent. Tree roots is another
weathering agent that can cause rock to crumble.
Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in at least some of the minerals
within a rock. Rock is broken into smaller pieces by chemical reactions. Acid rain can
cause chemical weathering. Plants can cause chemical weathering as well as
mechanical weathering. Roots produce chemicals that can break up rocks. Lichens also
help to break down rocks. They can live on bare rock and survive extremes of heat,
cold, and drought. They are one of the first living organisms that can be found after a
volcanic eruption.
Erosion
Once the rock is broken down into smaller bits, it has to move somehow. Wind, water,
or ice can move rock particles. Through time, erosion gradually carves canyons into
mountainous areas. The greater the flow of water, the greater the erosive force.
Streams with steep sides can move more material. The churning action of flood waters
with sediment and debris pulverize rocks into fragments that make soil; gravel, sand,
silt, and clay.
Plants typically cover the landscape and hold the soil together. This helps to prevent
erosion. But when a particularly long-slow drenching rain occurs, the mountain slopes
become saturated. The added weight causes rock falls, landslides, and other forms of
mass movement of material down slope.
Weathering and erosion are part of the destructive forces that combine to break down
rocks. Weathering breaks them down and erosion moves them.
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
12
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
SP3
Lesson 2
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Geosphere
Lesson 2: Soil
Vocabulary
V.1.M.3 Using Earth Science Knowledge
mineral
Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features changes.
Key concepts: Chemical and mechanical weathering; erosion by glaciers,
water, wind, and down slope movement; decomposition, humus
Real-world contexts: Regions in Michigan where erosion by wind, water, or
glaciers may have occurred such as river valleys, gullies, shoreline of Great
lakes; chemical weathering from acid rain, formation of caves, caverns, sink
holes; physical weathering, frost action such as pot holes and crack in
sidewalks; plant roots by bacteria, fungi, worms, rodents, other animals
silt
clay
chemical weathering
mechanical weathering
erosion
decomposition
LESSON
This lesson continues to develop the concepts about rocks by focusing on
how rocks are broken down to form soil. Building on the weathering
process from Lesson 1, students read about the characteristics of different
kinds of soil and the importance of living things that is necessary to make
the rock form soil.
KEY QUESTION
How is soil formed?
PROCEDURE
1. Students will use the pair/share reading strategy for the informational
text on this page. For this strategy, a student with lower reading skills
can be paired with a student who has higher reading skills. Pair all
students
2. Students take turns reading the paragraphs. While one student is reading
aloud, the other student is listening. After the paragraph is read, the
student who was listening shares the main idea with the student who was
reading. Likewise, the student who was reading shares what he/she
thinks is the main idea. The roles switch for the next paragraph. Continue
until the entire selection is read.
3. Students complete the table and the graphic organizer together.
4. If there is time, assign page 7- Sandstone Formation to be completed
independently.
Materials
 Student Journal
pages 4-6
RESOURCES
The Dirt on Soil
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part1.html
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
 St. Clair County RESA 2006
13
Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 2
Soil
Soil is more than rock particles. It includes all the living things and the materials they
make or change. Living things don’t just have a home in the soil. Living things actually
made the soil, as we know it. Without life, there is no soil. Mars and Venus have plenty
of rocks. Mars has windstorms that erode rocks into dust. Venus has an acidic
atmosphere that chemically changes rocks, but there is no soil on those planets.
Every soil type is a mixture of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter.
Components of Soil
Soil Particle
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Size
Larger than 2mm
2mm to 0.05 mm
0.05 mm to 0.002 mm
Less than 0.002 mm
Description
Coarse
Gritty
Flour-like
Sticky when wet
Soils with a lot of sand have big spaces between the particles. They don't hold water or
nutrients. Sandy soils don't stick together very well. The roots of plants can't hold onto
this soil, but the big spaces do allow air into the soil. Some plants are able to grow in
sandy topsoil by putting their roots deep through the sand to the subsoil.
Silt is finer than sand, but it still feels gritty. Silt is commonly found in floodplains and is
what makes mud. Soils with a lot of silt make excellent farmland, but the silt erodes
easily. This is the kind of soil that is blown away in dust storms and carried down stream
in floods.
Clay makes the soil heavy and dense. The spaces between soil particles in clay are
very tiny. When clay soil is dry, it's almost as hard as concrete. Plant roots can't push
through it. No air can get in from the surface. Most bacteria and other soil organisms
that need oxygen can't breathe. But clay is important because it can change the soil
chemistry. Clays give off minerals and absorb acids.
The perfect soil for plants and soil organisms has about the same amount of sand and
silt, plus a small amount of clay. This soil has enough large and small spaces for air and
water to flow. It also has enough clay that helps it stick together and hold humus. These
clumps make space for plant roots to grow. This perfect kind of soil is called loam or
topsoil.
Making Living Soil
To make soil, start with a fresh lava flow, a solid granite dome, or some limestone.
When weathered or broken down, these will become the parent material that will start
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the soil making process. The next step is physical weathering. Break some of the parent
material into pieces. Use a glacier to grind off big boulders and fine sediment. Wind or
running water work great to make small mineral particles. The next step is chemical
weathering. Chemical weathering changes some of the parent material and the mineral
particles into other kinds of minerals. When it rains, water falling on the limestone
dissolves it. This makes the water more acidic. Expose fresh rock with iron in it to the air
to oxidize the rock.
Finally, add the actions of living things. Start with lichens. Then throw in the microscopic
decomposers like bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. They all make humus out of dead
organic matter. They also turn minerals from the parent material into nutrients that
plants can use. Pretty soon you'll have enough humus for plants to begin growing.
Instead of being just dust or sand, your soil will clump together. Water will stay longer
instead of draining away.
Add tiny arthropods like mites and springtails. They'll pass the organic matter from the
plants on to the smaller decomposers. Don't forget to add some larger animals like
earthworms, moles, and gophers. They'll loosen the top layer and stir air in for you. Add
rain regularly as needed. Now you've got living, breathing soil.
1. Use the information in the text to fill in the chart below.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Soil Types
Soil Type
Sand
Description
Advantage
Disadvantage
Has big spaces
between particles
Big air spaces allow air to get into
soil
 Doesn’t hold water
 Plant roots can’t hold onto soil
 Soil doesn’t stick together
Silt
Finer than sand but
still gritty
Makes excellent farmland
 Erodes easily by wind or
water
Clay
Heavy and dense
Clay can change soil chemistry by
giving off minerals and absorbing
acids
 Spaces between particles are
very tiny
 It’s very hard when dry
 Plant roots can’t push through
it
 Air from the surface can’t get
in it so organisms that need
oxygen can’t breathe
Loam
or
Topsoil
Has about equal
amounts of sand
and silt with some
clay
Has enough large and small
spaces for air and water
Has enough clay to stick together
and hold humus
Plant roots can easily grow
through the spaces
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Name _____________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 2
2. Explain how soil is formed.
Step 1
Start with a parent material like a fresh lava flow, granite, or limestone
Step 2
Physical weathering – this could be done by a glacier, wind, or running
water
Step 3
Chemical weathering – run water over limestone to dissolve it and make the
water acidic. This acid rain can chemically change the rock, Oxidize rock
with water
Step 4
Add living things like lichens and decomposers to make humus
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Lesson 3
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Geosphere
Lesson 3: Sandstone Formation
Vocabulary
igneous rock
V.1.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
metamorphic rock
Explain how rocks are formed
Key concepts: Rock cycle processes – melting and cooling (igneous rocks);
heat and pressure (metamorphic rocks); cementing and crystallization of
sediments (sedimentary rocks); minerals; heat source is interior of Earth.
Materials – silt, clay, gravel, sand, rock, lava, magma, remains of living
things (bones, shells, plants).
Real-world contexts: Physical environments where rocks are being formed;
volcanoes; depositional environments such as ocean floor, deltas, beaches,
swamps; metamorphic environments deep within the earth’s crust.
sedimentary rock
V.1.M.3 Using Earth Science Knowledge
mechanical weathering
Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features changes.
Key concepts: Chemical and mechanical weathering; erosion by glaciers,
water, wind, and down slope movement; decomposition, humus
Real-world contexts: Regions in Michigan where erosion by wind, water, or
glaciers may have occurred such as river valleys, gullies, shoreline of Great
lakes; chemical weathering from acid rain, formation of caves, caverns, sink
holes; physical weathering, frost action such as pot holes and crack in
sidewalks; plant roots by bacteria, fungi, worms, rodents, other animals.
LESSON
In this lesson, students have an opportunity to apply the benchmarks from
the previous days’ lesson. This question is from the 1996 NAEP Science
Assessment for 8th grade. Included are samples of student work. This will
give students practice with writing a constructed response item on an
assessment and analyzing the characteristics of good and not so good
responses. If there was time the previous day, students completed page 7
and this day’s lesson will focus on analyzing the responses from other
students and then their own.
mineral
silt
clay
lava
magma
chemical weathering
glaciers
erosion
Materials
 Student Journal


page 7
Paper copies for
students or
transparency of
the scoring rubric
on teachers’ page
20
Paper copies and
transparencies of
anonymous
student work from
teachers’ pages
21-22.
KEY QUESTION
What are the characteristics of a good written response?
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PROCEDURE
1. Give students time to complete the question on student page 7 independently.
2. Distribute copies of the scoring rubric or show it to the students on a transparency.
Discuss.
3. Show the transparency of Student 1’s response. This is found on the top of teacher
page 21. (The water running into the lake makes sandstone).
4. Ask students to use the rubric and score the response.
5. Discuss this student’s work with the class. Find out how many students gave the
student’s response a score of 2 points, 1 point, or no points. This can be done by having
students raise their hands indicating their choice. Let students share their reasons for
choosing that score.
6. Student #1’s response scored zero (0) points. The “water running” does not describe a
process from part 1 of the scoring rubric. There is no mention of any of the processes
from part 2 of the rubric.
7. Distribute copies of the other responses. Allow students to score the other three papers
by themselves. Then have students discuss their scoring results.
8. Discuss these scores with the entire class. The following are the actual scores from
NAEP:
Student 2 (1 point)
Sediment from the mountain is carried down in the stream.
The sediment collects here.
Reason: This student addresses the transportation of sedimentary material by rivers but
does not address the layering, compaction, or hardening of the particles.
Student 3 (2 points)
Rivers carry dirt and rock material from the mountain to the lake.
The material is deposited either under the lake or around the shore. Eventually the material
hardens after more and more material is deposited on top of it.
Reason: This student shows good understanding of both processes.
Student 4 (1 point)
Sand from mountain
Layers of sand
Sandstone formed from pressure
Reason: This student addresses the compacting of materials to form sandstone, but
does not adequately address the breaking up and transportation of particles by the river.
9.
If time, students can score their own paper and revise. They can also exchange papers
and score their classmates’ written response.
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Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 3
Sandstone Formation
The picture below can be used to show how sandstone can form along the edge of a
large lake. Draw and write on the picture to show the two main processes of sandstone
formation.
Source of item: NAEP Science Grade: 8 Block: 2005-8S14 No.: 5
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrls/itemdisplay.asp
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Scoring Rubric for Sandstone Formation
Complete (2 points)
Student response includes both parts of the sedimentary
process.
Part 1 should include at least one of the following ideas
about the breaking up and transportation of the materials by
the river:
a. Rivers erode mountain material
b. Mountain material is carried by river
c. Erosion
Part 2 should include one of the following ideas about the
layering and compaction of the sediments:
a. Hardens
b. Solidifies
c. Compacts
d. Builds up in layers
Partial (1 point)
Student response includes part 1 or part 2 of the sedimentary
process.
Unsatisfactory/Incorrect (0 points)
Student does not demonstrate an
understanding of the sedimentary
process.
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Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 3
Student 1
Student 2
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Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 3
Student 3
Score ____
Rivers carry dirt and rock
material from the mountain to
the lake
The material is deposited either
under the lake or around the shore.
Eventually the material hardens
after more and more material is
deposited on top of it.
Student 4
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Lesson 4
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Geosphere
Lesson 4: Landforms and Topographic Maps
Vocabulary
plain
V.1.M.1 Using Earth Science Knowledge
desert
Describe and identify surface features using maps.
Key concepts: Landforms—plains, deserts, plateaus, basin, Great Lakes,
rivers, continental divide, mountains, mountain range, or mountain chain.
Tools: Maps—relief, topographic, elevation.
Real-world contexts: Maps showing continental and regional surface
features, such as Great Lakes or local topography.
plateau
LESSON
In the first part of this lesson, students are given a three dimensional
hands-on opportunity to discover what the contour lines of a contour map
represent. In the second part, they are given practice interpreting contour
lines.
elevation
A topographic map is a representation of a three-dimensional surface on
a flat piece of paper. The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is
that the shape of the Earth's surface is shown by contour lines,
sometimes called level lines. Contours are imaginary lines that join points
of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or below a reference
surface, such as mean sea level. The closer together the contour lines
appear on a topographic map, the steeper the slope (assuming constant
contour intervals). Contours make it possible to measure the height of
mountains, depths of the ocean, and steepness of slopes.
Interpreting the colored lines, areas, and other symbols is the first step in
using topographic maps. Features are shown as points, lines, or areas,
depending on their size and extent. The first features usually noticed on a
topographic map are the area features, such as vegetation (green), water
(blue), and densely built-up areas (gray or red). Many features are shown
by lines that may be straight, curved, solid, dashed, dotted, or in any
combination. The colors of the lines usually indicate similar classes of
information: topographic contours (brown); lakes, streams, irrigation
ditches, and other hydrographic features (blue); land grids and important
roads (red); other roads and trails, railroads, boundaries, and other
cultural features (black).
basin
continental divide
relief
topographic map
Materials
 Student Journal pages
8-13
 Color transparencies






of Teacher pages 31
and 32
Casserole dish, plastic
storage containers
such as Gladware,
Ziploc, or dish with
high sides (about 4-5
inches) that can hold
water for each group
(one per group)
Plastic cups or bowls
(one per group) or clay
(about 2 sticks per
group)
Blank transparency for
each group to fit over
the container
Overhead/wet erase
pens
Centimeter Rulers
Colored Pencils
Individual houses may be shown as small black squares. For larger
buildings, the actual shapes are mapped. In densely built-up areas, most
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individual buildings are omitted and an area tint is shown. On some maps, post offices,
churches, city halls, and other landmark buildings are shown within the tinted area.
Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy exploration, natural resource conservation,
environmental management, public works design, commercial and residential planning, and
outdoor activities like hiking, camping, and fishing.
KEY QUESTIONS
What do contour lines on a topographic map represent?
How can topographic maps be used to describe and identify surface features?
PROCEDURE PART ONE
1. Arrange students in groups of 3 or 4.
2. Depending on the materials available,
students create a model of a mountain with
clay or they can use a plastic drink cup or
bowl that will fit inside the plastic container
or casserole type dish. (Use a little clay to
anchor the cup onto the bottom of the
container. Two sticks of clay were used for
the mountain in the picture. The clay was
placed over a 3 oz plastic cup so less clay
would be needed.)
3. Put one centimeter of water in the bottom of
the container.
4. Students place the overhead transparency
over the container and trace the outline of
where the water meets the mountain. This
represents where the mountain is one cm
tall. Also, have them trace the outline of
where the transparency meets the
container. That way, they will be able to line
up the transparency later in the exact same
place.
5. Students then remove the transparency and
add exactly one more cm of water to the
container.
6. Replace the transparency in the same spot
and trace where the water meets the
mountain. The person drawing the contour
line should stand and look at the drawing
from the same height for each time the
contour lines are drawn. This line
represents where the mountain is two cm
tall.
7. Continue this process several times until a
topographic map has been created for the
mountain model. Explain that each line represents one cm of height on the clay
mountain. This is the similar to real topographic maps. Each line represents a change in
height/elevation from the last line.
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PROCEDURE PART TWO
Students complete pages 8-13 in their student journals.
Page 9:
Students make a profile of the hill similar to the example on page 8.
Page 10:
Be sure students go back to the graphic on the bottom of page 9 to answer
questions 5-7.
Page 11:
Students use topographic map of Salt Lake City on page 12 to answer question
nine. Display the color transparency of the Continental Divide or show the page
on the computer monitor so you can see the blue contour lines that indicate the
glaciers. If you have access to the Internet, go to
http://www.topozone.com/map.asp?z=12&n=4513329&e=424430&size=l&datum
=nad83 to display the interactive map online. Or go to topozone.com http://www.topozone.com/ ; view maps, Utah, Salt Lake County, scroll down to
State Capitol
RESOURCES
Online digital topography maps; browse by Michigan counties at this web site:
http://www.topozone.com/states/Michigan.asp
Resources for teaching about Topographic Maps from USGS:
http://education.usgs.gov/common/secondary.htm#topographic
What do maps show?
http://interactive2.usgs.gov/learningweb/teachers/mapsshow_download.htm
Credit: U.S. Geological Survey
Department of the Interior/USGS
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Name _____________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 4
What Do Topographic Maps Show?
One special kind of map is called a topographic map. A topographic map is a
representation of a three-dimensional surface on a flat piece of paper. The shape of the
Earth's surface is shown by contour lines, sometimes called level lines. These are
imaginary lines that join points of equal elevation on the surface of the land. The closer
together the contour lines appear on a topographic map, the steeper the slope.
The top of this drawing has contour lines showing the hills that are illustrated at the
bottom. On this map, the vertical distance between each contour line is 10 feet.
Hill A
Hill B
1. Which is higher, Hill A or Hill B? How do you know?
Hill B is higher. The map shows that Hill A is 40 ft and Hill B is 50 feet.
2. Which is steeper, Hill A or Hill B? How do you know?
Hill B is steeper. The contour lines are closer for Hill B.
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3. Draw lines from where the horizontal line intersects the contour lines in the map to
the appropriate lines below them. The first one is done for you. Connect the end
points of your lines to show the profile of this hill.
N N
W
W
E
E
S
S
4. Which side of the hill is the steepest? How do you know?
The eastern slope is the steepest. The contour lines are close together
Use the picture below to answer questions 5-7 on the next page.
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The topographic map at the bottom of page 9 shows Willow Hill (elevation 312 feet) and
Hobbes Creek. On the map, each contour line represents 20 feet of elevation.
5. What is the elevation at point X?
A) 240 feet
B) 250 feet
Correct Answer C
C) 280 feet
D) 300 feet
6. In which general direction does Hobbes Creek flow?
A) To the north
B) To the east
Correct Answer A
C) To the south
D) To the west
7. Which side of Willow Hill has the most gradual slope?
A)
B)
C)
D)
North side
East side
South side
West side
Correct Answer B
8. How might a topographic map help if you were selecting:
a) A route for a hike
Choose a route that is not too steep. When planning a long hike, you may want to see if
water is available or whether it should be carried in. Forested or wooded areas would mean
that there is shade.
b) The best location for an airport
Make sure airplanes have plenty of room to take off and land before the ground rises. The
airport should not be built in a swamp, in the woods, or in a built up area.
c) A route for a new road
Find a shallow grade rather than a steep one. Do not cross too many rivers because you
would need to build a bridge and bridges are expensive.
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9. Use the topographic map of Salt Lake City on page 12 to answer the following
questions:
a) What is the approximate elevation of the State capitol?
4,500 feet (accept answers between 4300 and 4600)
b) What is the approximate elevation of Jackson School?
Between 4,220 and 4,225
c) Would you be walking uphill or downhill to go from the State capitol to Jackson
School? Explain.
Downhill, from 4,500 ft elevation to almost 4,220.
d) List things you would see along the way from the State capitol to Jackson
School.
A museum, West High School, a fire station, and two churches
10. The continental divide runs along the crest of the Rockies, from British Columbia,
through the United States, and continues southward into Mexico and Central
America. It divides the continent's principal drainage into that flowing eastward to
the Hudson Bay in Canada or to the Mississippi River and that flowing westward to
the Pacific Ocean. The topographic map of the continental divide on page 13
shows the continental divide as it runs through mountain ranges in Wyoming.
a) Use a colored pencil to trace the continental divide on the topographical
map.
b) Find Lizard Head Peak. Circle it in red.
c) Find Pingora Peak. Circle it in green.
d) Use the color copy of the map from your teacher’s overhead transparency
or computer monitor. Outline the glaciers by Camels Hump, Pingora Peak
and Wolfs Head in blue.
e) Use a blue pencil to trace the path of the stream that flows from the glacier
on the north side of Pingora Peak into Lonesome Lake. Into which body of
water will some of that water finally flow?
Some water will eventually flow east into the Mississippi River
f) Trace the path of the stream that flows from the glacier west of the
continental divide into Texas Lake. Into which body of water will some of
that water finally flow?
Water will eventually flow into the Pacific Ocean
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Topographic Map of Salt Lake City
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SP 12
The Continental Divide
Scale 1:50,000
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SP 13
Lizard Head Peak, Wyoming
San Juan Mountains
Koren Nydick July, 2005
http://www.piquaclimber.com/past/lizardhead/lizardhead.htm
Pingora Peak, Wyoming
Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest,
Jim Peaco, 1998
http://www.nps.gov/yell/slidefile/scenics/outsideynp/Page-3.htm
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Lesson 5
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Hydrosphere
Lesson 5: Water Movement and Groundwater
Vocabulary
V.2.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
runoff
Describe how water in Michigan reaches the ocean and returns.
Key concepts: Water path—runoff, creeks, streams, wetlands, rivers,
Great Lakes, Sources—snowmelt, rainfall, gravity.
Real-world contexts: Maps showing streams, lakes, rivers, oceans;
examples of motions of rivers and lakes; investigations of rivers and lake
temperatures; saltiness of ocean.
creek
V.2.M.3 Using Earth Science Knowledge
gravity
Explain how water exists below the earth’s surface and how it is
replenished.
Key concepts: Ground water—water table, spring, porous, saturate,
filtration. Sources—snow melt, rain fall.
Real world contexts: Examples of groundwater, including springs, wells,
water soaking into the ground.
water table
LESSON
This lesson is a review of the benchmarks for the hydrosphere. Follow the
reciprocal teaching strategies described below as the students read the
information.
Naïve Conceptions
Some students believe:
 groundwater exists in the form of underground streams or rivers.
 most of earth’s fresh water is found in the form of rivers, lakes,
and streams rather than in the form of groundwater.
stream
wetland
river
snowmelt
spring
porous
saturate
filtration
Materials
 Student Journal


pages 14 -18
Colored Pencils
Transparency of
Student Page 18
RECIPROCAL TEACHING 1
Palincsar (1986) describes the concept of reciprocal teaching:
"Definition: Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that
takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students
regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four
1
Retrieved from the NCREL website at http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm
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strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and
students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.
Purpose: The purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and
students as well as among students in the task of bringing meaning to the text. Each strategy
was selected for the following purpose:

Summarizing provides the opportunity to identify and integrate the most important
information in the text. Text can be summarized across sentences, across paragraphs,
and across the passage as a whole. When the students first begin the reciprocal
teaching procedure, their efforts are generally focused at the sentence and paragraph
levels. As they become more proficient, they are able to integrate at the paragraph and
passage levels.

Question generating reinforces the summarizing strategy and carries the learner one
more step along in the comprehension activity. When students generate questions, they
first identify the kind of information that is significant enough to provide the substance for
a question. They then pose this information in question form and self-test to ascertain
that they can indeed answer their own question. Question generating is a flexible
strategy to the extent that students can be taught and encouraged to generate questions
at many levels. For example, some school situations require that students master
supporting detail information; others require that the students be able to infer or apply
new information from text.

Clarifying is an activity that is particularly important when working with students who
have a history of comprehension difficulty. These students may believe that the purpose
of reading is saying the words correctly; they may not be particularly uncomfortable that
the words, and in fact the passage, are not making sense. When the students are asked
to clarify, their attention is called to the fact that there may be many reasons why text is
difficult to understand (e.g., new vocabulary, unclear reference words, and unfamiliar
and perhaps difficult concepts). They are taught to be alert to the effects of such
impediments to comprehension and to take the necessary measures to restore meaning
(e.g., reread, ask for help).

Predicting occurs when students hypothesize what the author will discuss next in the
text. In order to do this successfully, students must activate the relevant background
knowledge that they already possess regarding the topic. The students have a purpose
for reading: to confirm or disprove their hypotheses. Furthermore, the opportunity has
been created for the students to link the new knowledge they will encounter in the text
with the knowledge they already possess. The predicting strategy also facilitates use of
text structure as students learn that headings, subheadings, and questions imbedded in
the text are useful means of anticipating what might occur next.
In summary, each of these strategies was selected as a means of aiding students to construct
meaning from text as well as a means of monitoring their reading to ensure that they, in fact,
understand what they read.
KEY QUESTIONS
Where can water be found on Earth?
What processes move water through the water cycle?
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PROCEDURE
1. Students read Water Movement and Groundwater on pages 14-15. Follow the
reciprocal teaching strategies.
2. Students complete the two-column notes organizer to organize the concepts about
light presented in the reading. They can use the suggested outline headings, or use
their own loose-leaf paper and create their own outline.
3. To assess student understanding of watersheds, use the Great Lakes Watersheds
map that follows the lesson. Have students approximate the boundaries of each
watershed and then trace each boundary. Then they can color each watershed area
a different color. If you feel it necessary, you may want to create an overhead of the
map and model for the students how to approximate where the boundary of one
watershed would be. A teacher guide has been provided to show the different
boundaries between the watersheds.
4. An animated review of how the Great Lakes were formed is at this web site:
http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/greatlakeskids/GreatLakesMovie5.html
RESOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Resources for Teachers 4-8
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/teachers_4-8.html
Drinking Water and Ground Water Kids’ Stuff
Resources for Kids and Teachers
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/index.html
The Water Source Book
The Water Sourcebooks contain 324 activities for grades K-12 divided into four
sections: K-2, 3-5, 5-8, and 9-12. Each section is divided into five chapters: Introduction
to Water, Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment, Surface Water Resources,
Ground Water Resources, and Wetlands and Coastal Waters.
This environmental education program explains the water management cycle using a
balanced approach showing how it affects all aspects of the environment. All activities
contain hands-on investigations, fact sheets, reference materials, and a glossary of
terms. Activities are organized by objectives, materials needed, background information,
advance preparation, procedures, and resources.
All parts of the program may be printed and copied. For more information, see the links
below under "About Water Sourcebooks".
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/wsb/index.html
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Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 5
Water Movement and Groundwater
Earth is a water planet. Over 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with it, but almost all
of that (97%) is salt water found in oceans and salt lakes. Of the remaining 3% fresh
water, 68.7% is locked up in glaciers and icecaps, about 30% is groundwater, and the
rest is found in the freshwater lakes (0.26%), rivers (0.006%), and the atmosphere
(0.04%). Water is also present in plants, animals, and soil.
Freshwater on Earth
Groundwater
Lakes
Rivers
Other
Atmosphere
Icecaps & Glaciers
Groundwater
Lakes
Atmosphere
Rivers
Icecaps & Glaciers
Water on the Earth is continually moving above, below, and on the surface of the Earth.
Along the way it may change state from liquid to a gas or solid. For example, in
Michigan, water may evaporate from the lakes, rivers, streams, or ponds but it may also
get into the atmosphere from animals and plants. Once the water vapor is in the air, it
may cool and condense, forming clouds, which may be blown to another place.
Eventually the water will fall as some form of precipitation. The rain and melted snow
runs off into wetlands or inland lakes, which empty into rivers that flow into one of the
Great Lakes. The ground will absorb some and some water infiltrates through the soil
into the groundwater. Some water will move through the Great Lakes, into the St.
Lawrence Seaway, and into the Atlantic Ocean. There are many paths that water can
take as it moves around the planet. This continuous movement of water is called the
water cycle.
Groundwater
Groundwater is water that exists beneath the soil surface. When it rains or snow melts,
water soaks into the ground and seeps through the soil until it reaches a depth where all
of the pore spaces are filled with water, very much like water filling the empty spaces
within a sponge. Water in this saturated zone is called groundwater, and it can flow
vertically and horizontally at a rate influenced by the shape of the land and type of
material it is moving through. Groundwater is found in aquifers, formations where
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significant amounts of water can be stored, moved or supplied to a well or spring.
Eventually, some groundwater flows to the surface to feed into lakes and streams. In
Michigan, groundwater typically leaves the ground to replenish rivers, lakes, or
wetlands. Conversely, surface waters recharge groundwater sources by soaking into
the ground as described above.
Surface Water and Watersheds-How Everything Is Connected
Surface water can exist in many forms, including rivers, streams and lakes. These can
be part of what is called a watershed. We all live in a watershed. A watershed is an area
of land from which all the water drains (runs downhill) to a particular body of water such
as a stream, pond, lake or river. A ridge or other area of elevated land, called a divide,
separates one watershed from another. Streams on one side flow in a different direction
than streams on the other side.
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A watershed can be large, such as the Lake Huron Watershed or quite small, such as a
couple of acres that drain into a pond. Larger watersheds are often called basins and
usually contain many smaller watersheds. The Lake Huron Watershed would include all
of the surface water that drains into Lake Huron. The Great Lakes Basin would include
all of the surface water that drains into the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes are, in turn,
part of the St. Lawrence Seaway System. Water from the Great Lakes flows into the
Atlantic Ocean
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Cornell Two-Column Notes
Use the reading to help you outline the big ideas about groundwater.
Keywords:
Water Cycle
Notes:
I. Water goes through the water cycle.
A. Evaporation
1. Evaporates from lakes, rivers, streams, ponds
2. Evaporates from animals and plant
B. Condensation
1. Water vapor cools
2. Changes back to water as clouds
C. Precipitation
1. Water in clouds is too heavy
2. Falls to earth
D. After precipitation
1. Evaporate
2. Flow as runoff to a stream
3. Soak into ground and be used by plants
4. Become groundwater
Groundwater
II. Groundwater
A. Comes from 2 places
1. Rain
2. Snow melting
B. How does water become groundwater?
1. Soaks into ground
Saturation
2. Fills in all the pores like filling a sponge--Saturation
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C. What influences the water’s movement?
1. Shape of land
2. Material water is moving through
D. Where does it go in Michigan?
1. Rivers
2. Lakes
3. Wetlands
Watershed
III. Watersheds
A. What are they and how are they divided?
1. Area where all surface water drains to same body of water
2. Divided by ridges
B. Examples of large and small watersheds
1. Lake Huron--large
2. Pond--small
C. What a basin is and one example
1. Large watershed
2. Great Lakes
D. Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean-How?
1. Flows through St. Lawrence Seaway System
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Name ___________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 5
Find the boundaries for these watersheds in the Great Lakes Basin.
Hint: Find the divides by tracing the flow of the rivers into each of the
Great Lakes.
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Lesson 6
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Atmosphere and Weather
Lesson 6: Weather
Vocabulary
V. 3.M.1 Using Earth Science Knowledge
cold front
Explain patterns of changing weather and how they are measured.
Key concepts: Weather patterns—cold front, warm front, stationary front,
air mass, humidity.
Tools: Thermometer, rain gauge, wind direction indicator, anemometer,
weather maps, satellite weather images.
Real-world contexts: Sudden temperature and cloud formation changes;
records, charts, and graphs of weather changes over periods of days;
lake effect snow.
warm front
stationary front
air mass
humidity
anemometer
molecule
water vapor
V. 3.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Describe the composition and characteristics of the atmosphere.
Key concepts: Composition—air, molecules, gas, water vapor, dust
particles, ozone. Characteristics— air pressure and temperature changes
with altitude, humidity
Real-world contexts: Examples of characteristics of the atmosphere,
including pressurized cabins in airplanes, demonstrations of air pressure;
examples of air-borne particulates, such as smoke, dust, pollen, bacteria;
effects of humidity, such as condensation, dew on surfaces, comfort level
of humans.
ozone
evaporation
condensation
precipitation
relative humidity
dew point
fog
V. 3.M.3 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Explain the behavior of water in the atmosphere.
Key concepts: Water cycle—evaporation, water vapor, warm air rises,
cooling, condensation, clouds; Precipitation—rain, snow, hail, sleet,
freezing rain; Relative humidity, dew point, fog
Real-world contexts: Aspects of the water cycle in weather, including
clouds, fog, precipitation, evaporating puddles, flooding, droughts
Materials
 Student Journal

pages 19-25
Colored Pencils
LESSON
Students will have an opportunity to read, construct and interpret weather
charts and graphs. They will also draw a picture and explain the water
cycle. Information that students are not expected to master, but are
important for interpreting the graphs, is included in the scenario of some of
the problems. Students should learn to read all the text as a test taking
strategy. There may be information in the text that could help them answer
some questions.
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KEY QUESTIONS
How can charts and graphs help interpret weather data and show relationships?
What is the water cycle?
PROCEDURE:
1. Students work on the first two questions about dew point and temperature. Information
needed to answer these questions is contained in the text before the question. Discuss
answers and strategies for finding the answers.
2. For question 3, students draw a picture that will represent the water cycle. Students
should continue answering questions four through nine on their own to give others time
to draw and explain. Take time for students to share their drawings of the water cycle.
Some students think that water disappears when it evaporates. Listen during their
explanations to be sure they understand the science. Students’ responses should
include the motion of molecules as reviewed in earlier lessons.
3. In the next set of questions, students construct graphs of the data and describe an
interesting pattern from the data of wind speed and air pressure. If there is not enough
time during class to do the graphs, students can do these as a homework assignment
and they can be discussed the next day.
RESOURCES
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/wsb/index.html
The Water Sourcebooks contain 324 activities for grades K-12 divided into four sections: K-2, 35, 5-8, and 9-12. Each section is divided into five chapters: Introduction to Water, Drinking
Water and Wastewater Treatment, Surface Water Resources, Ground Water Resources, and
Wetlands and Coastal Waters.
Weather Underground: http://www.wunderground.com/
Intellicast.com: http://www.intellicast.com/
University of Illinois Online Weather Guide:
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/home.rxml
The Weather Channel: http://www.weather.com/maps/
USA Today Weather Maps: http://www.usatoday.com/weather/fronts/latest-fronts-systems.htm
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Name _____________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 6
Weather
The graph below shows the temperature and dew point for Detroit on July 16, 2005.
Use it to answer questions 1 and 2.
Detroit, Michigan
July 16, 2005
Temperature
Dew Point
90
80
Temperature (°F)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5:00
AM
6:00
AM
7:00
AM
8:00
AM
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00
AM AM AM PM PM
2:00
PM
3:00
PM
4:00
PM
5:00
PM
6:00
PM
7:00
PM
8:00
PM
9:00 10:00
PM PM
Time of Day
The temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid is called the dew point
temperature. If the air temperature and the dew point temperature are close to each
other, dew can form or the weather can be misty, foggy or rainy. Temperatures at or
below freezing may cause water vapor to condense as frost instead of dew.
1. Using information from the graph, at what time might there have been dew on the
grass or fog in the area? Explain.
There may have been dew or fog between 5:00 and 7:00 in the morning.
The temperature and the dew point temperature were close.
2. It rained in Detroit on July 16 in the afternoon. According to the graph, at what time
did it most likely rain?
It rained between 3:00 pm and 6:00 pm because the temperature and the
dew point were close.
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3. Draw a diagram to show how the water that falls as rain in one place may come
from another place that is far away. Explain your drawing.
A correct response includes three steps:
1. Evaporation of water from a source
2. Transportation of water as vapor/clouds to another place
3. Precipitation in another place
An explanation would refer to the water cycle in which water evaporates
into the air. This happens when the molecules are heated, usually from
the sun, and move rapidly, breaking the molecular attraction that holds
them together. When they escape, they become gas. Eventually, the
molecules cool, losing energy, and forming liquid water again. These
small drops of water condense on salt or dust particles in the air, forming
clouds and are carried away in currents of air to another place. The
molecules of water fall from the clouds as precipitation in the form of
rain, sleet, or snow.
4. The diagram below shows a map of the world with the lines of latitude marked.
Which of the following places marked on the map is most likely to have an average
yearly temperature similar to location X.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Location A
Location B
Location C
Location D
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Answer: A
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The following weather maps from http://www.intellicast.com/ show the weather
conditions in the United States at 6:00 pm Eastern Daylight Time on July 18 and July
19, 2005. Use the maps to answer questions 5 – 7.
1
Date: July 18, 2005 Time: 2100UTC
2
Date: July 19, 2005
Time: 2100 UTC
5. What statement best describes the weather in Michigan’s Lower Peninsula on
July 18?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1
2
High pressure with clouds and rain
High pressure with high temperatures and rain
Stormy as a cold front passes through the state
Stormy as a warm front passes through the state
Answer: C
Surface Analysis retrieved from http://www.intellicast.com/ July 18, 2005
Surface Analysis retrieved from http://www.intellicast.com/ July 19, 2005
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6. What statement best describes the weather across most of Michigan on July 19
compared to the day before?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Higher temperatures with high air pressure
High pressure with sunny skies and cooler temperatures
Low pressure with sunny skies and higher temperatures
Higher winds and cooler temperatures
Answer: B
7. In which direction did Hurricane Emily move?
A.
B.
C.
D.
North
Northwest
Southwest
South
Answer: B
8. A storm is classified as a Tropical Depression if the maximum sustained wind
speeds are 38 mph or less. It becomes a Tropical Storm if the maximum sustained
wind speeds are 39 mph to 73 mph. When the wind speeds reach 74 mph, it is
classified as a Hurricane. The chart below lists the hurricane categories according
to the Saffir-Simpson Scale.
Saffir-Simpson Chart
Hurricane Category
Lowest Air Pressure
(Millibars)
Wind Speed
(miles per hour)
Damage
1
980+
74-95
Minimal
2
965-979
96-110
Moderate
3
945-964
111-130
Extensive
4
920-944
131-155
Extreme
5
Below 920
159+
Catastrophic
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Name ____________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 6
The tracking chart below shows Ivan’s wind speed and air pressure.
Hurricane Ivan Tracking Chart
Date
9/2
9/3
9/4
9/5
9/6
9/7
9/8
9/9
9/10
9/11
9/12
9/13
9/14
9/15
9/16
9/17
Wind
(mph)
30
50
50
125
105
120
140
150
140
165
150
160
140
135
60
20
Air Pressure
(mb)
1009
1000
994
950
958
956
947
921
937
914
916
912
929
939
980
999
9. On which date did Tropical Storm Ivan become Hurricane Ivan?
A.
B.
C.
D.
September 3
September 4
September 5
September 6
Answer: C
10. According to the chart, on what date did Ivan first become a Category 5 Hurricane?
A.
B.
C.
D.
September 9
September 11
September 12
September 13
8th Grade Earth Science Toolbox
Answer: B
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S
P
11. Use the data from the Hurricane Ivan
Tracking Chart to plot the air pressure at the
4 point. Use a different color pencil for each
center of the storm. Connect each
3
stage of Ivan from Tropical Depression to Category 5 Hurricane. Use the
information in the Saffir-Simpson chart to determine the Hurricane category.
Air Pressure at the Center of Hurricane Ivan
From September 2 – September 17
9/2
9/3
9/4
9/5
9/6
9/7
9/8
9/9
9/10
9/11
9/12
9/13
9/14
9/15
9/16
9/17
12. What relationship is there between the hurricane categories and air pressure?
As the hurricane became stronger, the air pressure
decreased.
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13. Use the data from the Hurricane Ivan Tracking Chart to plot his wind speeds.
Connect each point. Use a different color pencil for each stage of a hurricane from
Tropical Depression to Category 5.
Maximum Sustained Wind Speeds for Hurricane Ivan
From September 2 – September 17
9/2
9/3
9/4
9/5
9/6
9/7
9/8
9/9
9/10
9/11
9/12
9/13
9/14
9/15
9/16
9/17
14. What relationship is there between the categories of the hurricane and wind speed?
As the hurricane became stronger, the wind speed
increased.
15. Looking at the graphs of air pressure and wind speed, what relationship is there
between the air pressure and the wind speed?
As the air pressure decreases, the wind speed increases.
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Maximum Sustained Wind Speed
Hurricane Ivan 2004
180
160
140
mph
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
9/2
9/3
9/4
9/5
9/6
9/7
9/8
9/9 9/10 9/11 9/12 9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17
Date
Air Pressure at the Center of
Hurricane Ivan 2004
1020
1000
980
mb
960
940
920
900
880
860
9/2
9/3
9/4
9/5
9/6
9/7
9/8
9/9 9/10 9/11 9/12 9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17
Date
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Lesson 7
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Solar System, Galaxy and
Universe
Lesson 7: Phases of the Moon and Eclipses
Vocabulary
V.4.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Describe, compare, and explain the motions of solar system objects.
Key concepts: Orbit, rotation (spin), axis, gravity, planets, moons,
comets, asteroids, seasons. Tilt of the earth on its axis, direct/indirect
rays.
Real-world contexts: Observations of comet motion over days and
weeks, length of day and year on planets, changes in length of daylight
and height of sun in sky; changes in daily temperature patterns; summer
and winter solstices, spring and fall equinoxes.
orbit
rotation
axis
gravity
planets
moon
comet
V.4.M.3 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Describe and explain common observations of the night skies.
Key concepts: Perceived and actual movement of the moon and planets
across the sky, moon phases, eclipses, stars and constellations, planets,
Milky Way, comets, comet tails, meteors; Sun is light source for all solar
system objects (except meteors; friction with atmosphere), emitted light,
reflected light
Real-world contexts: Outdoor observation of the skies, using telescopes
and binoculars when available, as well as “naked-eye” viewing; viewing
with robotic telescopes via the World Wide Web; telescopic and
spacecraft-based photos of planets, moons, and comets; news reports of
planetary and lunar exploration
LESSON
This is a review lesson of phases of the moon and lunar and solar
eclipses. To make these abstract concepts easier to visualize, models
will be used. Students will then be given an opportunity to explain their
ideas in writing. For these investigations, the room should be as dark as
possible. Even a small amount of light from a source other than the
lamp will shine on the Styrofoam bulbs and affect the results.
KEY QUESTIONS
How can I model and explain the phases of the moon?
How can I model and explain solar and lunar eclipses?
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meteor
asteroid
season
moon phase
eclipse
constellation
Materials
 Student Journal
pages 26-27
 Small Styrofoam



balls (about 2 inch);
one for each student
Barbecue skewers
or pencils
Lamp without a
shade
Extension cord for
lamp to reach center
of the room
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PROCEDURE: PHASES OF THE MOON
1. Darken the room as much as possible. Put a lamp in the center of the room. Position
the lamp so the bulb is eye level for the students.
2. Give each student a Styrofoam ball and a skewer or pencil. (The pencil makes a larger
hole, so a skewer is preferred.) Stick the skewer into the ball.
3. Students stand in a circle facing the lamp. Their heads will represent the Earth. The ball
represents the moon. The lamp represents the Sun.
4. With all lights out except for the lamp, students hold their ball out in front of them. Since
the moon orbits the Earth, the students will move the ball in a circle around their head.
The motion needs to be counterclockwise. This models the orbit of the moon. Make
sure students understand the moon’s orbital path. Many students believe that the moon
stays in one place in relation to the Earth, just like the Sun. They think that when the
Earth turns and faces the sun, it is day. When the Earth faces the moon it is night.
Because the Earth is spinning on its axis, the moon appears to travel across the sky.
5. The moon rotates in the same amount of time that it takes to revolve around the Earth—
27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 11.47 seconds! We always see the same side of the
Moon facing us. To better see the phases of the moon in our model, the students will
have to turn with the moon’s orbit. The time between two consecutive full moons is 29.5
days. This longer period of time is due to the fact that the Earth is also moving along its
orbit as it revolves around the Sun. In reality, Earth would have made about 29 turns
during the time it takes the moon to complete one orbit.1
6. Students hold the ball in front of them. The people living on the dark side of the Earth
(the students’ backside) cannot see the moon because the moon faces the side of Earth
that is having day. When the moon is in this position, it is the new moon. The dark side
of the moon is facing the daytime side of the Earth.
7. Take a few steps counterclockwise, while continuing to hold the ball straight out in front
of you. The right side of the Styrofoam ball will sparkle a bit as it reflects the light from
the lamp. This models the crescent moon.
8. Continue to take a few more steps counterclockwise. When you have made a quarter of
a turn from the starting position, you will see a representation of the first quarter moon.
The right side of the ball will sparkle as it reflects the light from the lamp.
9. Continue to take steps in the counterclockwise motion and watch an increasing amount
of the ball become illuminated. This represents the waxing gibbous moon.
10. When you have made a half turn from the original position, your back will be facing the
lamp. The entire side of the ball facing you will be reflecting the light from the lamp.
This is a full moon. Since you cannot see the lamp, you are on the nighttime side of the
Earth facing the full moon.
11. Continue to move counterclockwise as you continue to hold the ball in front of you. The
amount of light reflected off the ball will begin to decrease. You will see the waning
gibbous and the last quarter of the moon, the waning crescent, and finally back to the
new moon.
12. Be sure to remind students that the Earth and the moon do not complete this path
simultaneously.
1
See Teacher Background Information at this web site:
http://www.eyeonthesky.org/lessonplans/08sun_moonplayground.html
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PROCEDURE: SOLAR ECLIPSE
1. The solar eclipse occurs when the moon is positioned
between the sun and the Earth in such a way that the
moon blocks the sun and creates a shadow on part of
the Earth. The solar eclipse can only occur when there
is a new moon.
2. To model the solar eclipse, stand facing the lamp and
hold the ball so it covers the light bulb. Look at the faces
of the students across from you to see the shadow of the
ball on them. If their heads were the Earth, the people
living in that shadow would experience the solar eclipse.
PROCEDURE: LUNAR ECLIPSE
1. The lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is positioned between
the sun and the moon so that the Earth blocks the light from the
sun and makes a shadow on the moon.
2. To model the lunar eclipse, stand with your back to the lamp. The
ball is held straight out in front of you, but you will need to position
it so that your head, which represents the Earth, blocks the light
from the lamp and makes a shadow on the Styrofoam ball.
RESOURCES
Demonstration of the phases of the moon and the moon’s orbit around the Earth
http://pmo-sun.uoregon.edu/images/lunarphases.mpg
The current moon phase
http://kids.msfc.nasa.gov/Earth/Moon/Moon.asp
U.S. Naval Observatory: Phases of the Moon
If you continue to scroll down this page, there is a movie that shows the phases of the moon.
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/moon_phases.html
Resource for software that helps students understand moon phases, seasons, and weather
concepts through interactive visualizations. A 30-day free trial is available.
http://www.riversci.com/
Sneider, C. I. (1986). Earth, Moon, and Stars. Berkeley: Lawrence Hall of Science.
A GEMS unit for grades 5-8 that teaches the concepts of a spherical Earth, Moon Phases, and
Eclipses
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Name _________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 7
The Moon and Its Phases
1. Explain how we can see the moon.
The moon does not make its own light. The sun shines on the moon and that light is reflected
toward the Earth.
2. Describe how the moon appears to change its shape. Use may use pictures to
explain.
The part of the moon that is illuminated by the Sun changes as the moon orbits the Earth.
After the new moon, you see a small crescent shape. The lit part gradually increases until the
moon appears full. Then the lit part of the moon gradually decreases until it is a new moon
again. This takes about 29 days because it takes the moon about 29 days to complete its orbit
around the Earth
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Name _________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 7
Eclipses
Draw the position of the Moon on the diagram below to show what is meant by an
eclipse of the Sun, a solar eclipse. Explain your drawing.
Earth
Moon
Sun
When the moon comes between the Sun and the Earth and it casts a shadow on the Earth,
there is a solar eclipse.
Draw the position of the Moon on the diagram below to show what is meant by an
eclipse of the Moon, a lunar eclipse. Explain your drawing.
Earth
Moon
Sun
When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, and the Earth’s shadow falls on the
moon, there is a lunar eclipse.

Note: This diagram is not drawn to scale
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Lesson 8
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Solar System, Galaxy and
Universe
Lesson 8: Seasons
Vocabulary
V. 4.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Describe, compare, and explain the motions of solar system objects.
Key concepts: Orbit, rotation (spin), axis, gravity, planets, moons,
comets, asteroids, seasons; tilt of the earth on its axis, direct/indirect
rays.
Real-world contexts: Observations of comet motion over days and
weeks, length of day and year on planets, changes in length of daylight
and height of sun in sky; changes in daily temperature patterns; summer
and winter solstices, spring and fall equinoxes
LESSON
Students will start this lesson by thinking about why there are seasons on
Earth. A common misconception is that distance to the Sun is the
reason for the seasons. Textbooks exaggerate the elliptical orbit of the
Earth around the Sun. Our orbit around the Sun is nearly circular. The
Earth-Sun distance varies only by 1.5% and this distance is not
significant to be the reason for seasons. Students may believe that we
are closer to the Sun in the summer, but the Earth is actually closest to
the Sun on January 2 and farthest on July 4. A more subtle
misconception students have is that when the Northern hemisphere is
tilted toward the sun, the Northern Hemisphere is closer to the sun.
Given the diameter of the Earth is 12,000 kilometers or about 7,900
miles, that difference is even more insignificant.
orbit
rotation
axis
planet
moon
comet
asteroid
Materials
 Student pages 29
 Data projector,
monitor, or
computers to show
web site
visualization models
There are two main factors responsible for seasons on Earth. First, there
are more daylight hours where the parts of the Earth are tilted toward the
sun. Second, during the summer, the sun’s position is higher in the sky.
This increases the angle of incidence of sunlight and the concentration of
light on the ground, so the ground gets warmer.
These are complex ideas and it takes time for students to develop this
scientific understanding. An excellent resource for a unit that helps
students develop these concepts is the GEMS book listed in the
Resource section.
KEY QUESTIONS
What causes the seasons?
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PROCEDURE
1. Students write a response to the first question on their Journal page.
2. Have students share their ideas. List them on the board, but do not judge them at this
time. However, allow students to agree or disagree with each other. If students
disagree with another student’s statement, they should state the evidence they have to
support their claim.
3. Show the NASA online video from
http://kids.msfc.nasa.gov/Earth/Seasons/Seasons.htm. It is a short video. Show it in its
entirety the first time. Repeat it and use the controls at the top of the screen to stop the
video for discussion. Discuss any of the ideas listed on the board and compare them to
the ideas presented in the video.
4. Students compare their own responses and improve or revise them.
RESOURCES
Gould, A., Willard, C., & Pompea, S. (2000). The Real Reasons for Seasons: Sun-Earth
Connection. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Hall of Science.
Online Video Clip: What Causes the Seasons?
http://kids.msfc.nasa.gov/Earth/Seasons/Seasons.htm
Resource for software that helps students understand moon phases, seasons, and weather
concepts through visualizations
http://www.riversci.com/
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Name _________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 8
Seasons
1. Why do you think it is hotter in the United States in June than in December?
Because the Earth is tilted on its axis, the United States receives more hours
of sunlight in June. The Sun is positioned higher in the sky, so the rays of
light are more direct.
Watch the NASA online video about the seasons at:
http://kids.msfc.nasa.gov/Earth/Seasons/Seasons.htm
2. Compare your ideas to those presented in the video. Discuss them in your class.
What ideas are the same as yours? What ideas are different?
Revise or improve your response to the first question.
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Lesson 9
Lesson Focus

Using Earth Science
Solar System, Galaxy and
Universe
Lesson 9: Comparing Earth to Other Planets
Vocabulary
V. 4.M.1 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Compare the earth to other planets and moons in terms of supporting
life.
Key concepts: Surface conditions—gravity, atmospheres, temperature;
relative distances, relative sizes. Sun produces the light and heat for
each planet. Molecules necessary to support life—water, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon
Real-world contexts: Examples of local and extreme conditions on earth
vs. conditions on other planets; exploration of planets and their satellites
V. 4.M.2 Using Earth Science Knowledge
Describe, compare, and explain the motions of solar system objects.
Key concepts: Orbit, rotation (spin), axis, gravity, planets, moons,
comets, asteroids, seasons; tilt of the earth on its axis, direct/indirect
rays.
Real-world contexts: Observations of comet motion over days and
weeks, length of day and year on planets, changes in length of daylight
and height of sun in sky; changes in daily temperature patterns; summer
and winter solstices, spring and fall equinoxes
gravity
atmosphere
orbit
rotation
axis
planet
moon
comet
asteroid
Materials
LESSON
This lesson gives students an opportunity to use what they know to
interpret the characteristics of other planets given in a chart.
 Student page 29
KEY QUESTIONS
How does the Earth compare to other planets?
PROCEDURE
Allow students to work in pairs. They will answer the questions using
information from the chart. Discuss as a whole group after students are
finished.
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Name ____________________________________________ Earth Science Lesson 9
Comparing Earth to the Other Inner Planets
Mean Distance
from the Sun
Time to Move
around the Sun
Period of
Rotation
Main
Components of
Atmosphere
Mercury
57.9 km
88 days
59 days
Virtually none
Venus
108.2 km
224.7 days
243 days
Carbon Dioxide
Earth
149.6 km
365.3 days
23 hr. 56 min.
Nitrogen,
Oxygen
Mars
227.9 km
687 days
24 hr. 37 min.
Carbon Dioxide
1. Name each planet listed on the chart that has a year shorter than a year on Earth.
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
Mercury and Venus have a year that is shorter than Earth’s. The time it takes
a planet to move around the sun determines the year. It takes Mercury only
88 days to move around the sun. It takes Venus 224.7 days to move around
the sun. It takes Earth 365.3 days.
2. Name each planet on the chart with a cycle of light and dark that is shorter than
Earth’s cycle of day and night. Which planet’s cycle is similar to Earth’s? Explain
how you arrived at your answer.
No planet listed on this chart has a day and night cycle that is shorter than
Earth’s. The period of rotation gives the length of a planet’s day and night
cycle. Earth’s cycle of day and night is 23 hours and 56 minutes. Mars cycle is
similar at 24 hours and 37 minutes.
3. Name each planet from the chart that might support human life. Explain.
No planet listed on this chart could support human life. Humans need oxygen
to breathe and we are the only inner planet that has oxygen in its atmosphere.
Mercury and Venus are closer to Sun and it would be too hot. Mars is farther
from the Sun and it would be too cold.
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8th Grade Earth Science Vocabulary
acid rain - Rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas
emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water.
air mass - A large body of air with only small horizontal variations of temperature,
pressure, and moisture.
air pressure - The pressure exerted by the atmosphere.
altitude - The height of a thing above a reference level, especially above sea level or
above the earth's surface.
anemometer - An instrument for measuring wind force and velocity.
asteroid - Any of numerous small celestial bodies that revolve around the sun, with
orbits lying chiefly between Mars and Jupiter and characteristic diameters between
a few and several hundred kilometers.
atmosphere - The gaseous mass or envelope surrounding a celestial body, especially
the one surrounding the earth, and retained by the celestial body's gravitational
field.
axis - A straight line about which a body or geometric object rotates or may be
conceived to rotate.
basin – 1) A broad tract of land in which the rock strata are tilted toward a common
center. 2) A large, bowl-shaped depression in the surface of the land or ocean
floor.
carbon - A naturally abundant nonmetallic element that occurs in many inorganic and in
all organic compounds, exists freely as graphite and diamond and as a constituent
of coal, limestone, and petroleum, and is capable of chemical self-bonding to form
an enormous number of chemically, biologically, and commercially important
molecules.
cavern - A large underground chamber, as in a cave.
cave - A hollow or natural passage under or into the earth, especially one with an
opening to the surface.
cementing - A building material made by grinding calcined limestone and clay to a fine
powder, which can be mixed with water and poured to set as a solid mass or used
as an ingredient in making mortar or concrete.
clay - A fine-grained, firm earthy material that is plastic when wet and hardens when
heated, consisting primarily of hydrated silicates of aluminum and widely used in
making bricks, tiles, and pottery.
cold front - The leading portion of a cold atmospheric air mass moving against and
eventually replacing a warm air mass.
comet - A celestial body, observed only in that part of its orbit that is relatively close to the sun,
having a head consisting of a solid nucleus surrounded by a nebulous coma up to 2.4
million kilometers (1.5 million miles) in diameter and an elongated curved vapor tail arising
from the coma when sufficiently close to the sun. Comets are thought to consist chiefly of
ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and water.
condensation - The process by which a gas or vapor changes to a liquid.
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constellation - An arbitrary formation of stars perceived as a figure or design,
especially one of 88 recognized groups named after characters from classical
mythology and various common animals and objects.
continental divide - An extensive stretch of high ground from each side of which the
river systems of a continent flow in opposite directions.
continental glacier - A broad ice sheet resting on a plain or plateau and spreading
outward from a central n['e]v['e], or region of accumulation.
comet - A celestial body, observed only in that part of its orbit that is relatively close to
the sun, having a head consisting of a solid nucleus surrounded by a nebulous
coma up to 2.4 million kilometers (1.5 million miles) in diameter and an elongated
curved vapor tail arising from the coma when sufficiently close to the sun. Comets
are thought to consist chiefly of ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and water.
creek - A small stream, often a shallow or intermittent tributary to a river.
crystallization - The formation of crystals or the assumption of a crystalline form.
dam - A barrier constructed across a waterway to control the flow or raise the level of
water.
decomposition - The act or result of decomposing; disintegration.
desert - An arid region with little or no vegetation.
dew point - The temperature at which air becomes saturated and produces dew.
dumping - To release or throw down in a large mass.
eclipse - The partial or complete obscuring, relative to a designated observer, of one
celestial body by another.
elevation - Distance of something above a reference point (such as sea level); "there
was snow at the higher elevations.”
erosion – The condition in which the earth's surface is worn away by the action of water
and wind and involves the movement of these particles away from the surface.
evaporation - The change by which any substance is converted from a liquid state into
and carried off in vapor.
extinct - No longer existing or living.
filtration – 1) The process whereby fluids pass through a filter or a filtering medium. 2)
The act of changing a fluid by passing it through a filter.
fog - Condensed water vapor in cloudlike masses lying close to the ground and limiting
visibility.
fossil - A remnant or trace of an organism of a past geologic age, such as a skeleton or
leaf imprint, embedded and preserved in the earth's crust.
glacier - A huge mass of ice slowly flowing over a land mass, formed from compacted
snow in an area where snow accumulation exceeds melting and sublimation.
gravel - An unconsolidated mixture of rock fragments or pebbles.
gravity - The natural force of attraction between any two massive bodies; the natural
force of attraction exerted by a celestial body, such as Earth, upon objects at or
near its surface, tending to draw them toward the center of the body.
groundwater - Water beneath the earth's surface, often between saturated soil and
rock, that supplies wells and springs.
hail - Precipitation in the form of spherical or irregular pellets of ice larger than 5
millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter.
humidity - Dampness, especially of the air.
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humus - A brown or black organic substance consisting of partially or wholly decayed
vegetable or animal matter that provides nutrients for plants and increases the
ability of soil to retain water.
igneous rock – Rock formed after molten rock solidifies.
landfills - A method of solid waste disposal in which refuse is buried between layers of
dirt so as to fill in or reclaim low-lying ground.
lava - Molten rock that reaches the earth's surface through a volcano or fissure.
magma - The molten rock material under the earth's crust, from which igneous rock is
formed by cooling.
mechanical weathering - The erosion or breakdown of rock into smaller fragments by
natural physical agents with no chemicals involved; also called disintegration.
metamorphic rock – Rock formed by the alteration of preexisting rock by heat and/or
pressure.
meteor - A bright trail or streak that appears in the sky when a meteoroid is heated to
incandescence by friction with the earth's atmosphere.
milky way - The galaxy containing the solar system, visible as a broad band of faint
light in the night sky.
mineral - A naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a
definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and
hardness.
molecule - The smallest particle of a substance that retains the chemical and physical
properties of the substance and is composed of two or more atoms.
moon - The natural satellite of Earth, visible by reflection of sunlight and having a slightly
elliptical orbit, approximately 356,000 kilometers (221,600 miles) distant at perigee and
406,997 kilometers (252,950 miles) at apogee. Its mean diameter is 3,475 kilometers
(2,160 miles), its mass approximately one eightieth that of Earth, and its average period of
revolution around Earth 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes calculated with respect to the sun.
moon phase - One of the cyclically recurring apparent forms of the moon or a planet.
orbit - The path of a celestial body or an artificial satellite as it revolves around another
body.
oxygen - A nonmetallic element constituting 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume
that occurs as a diatomic gas.
ozone - An unstable, poisonous allotrope of oxygen, O3, that is formed naturally in the
ozone layer from atmospheric oxygen by electric discharge or exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, also produced in the lower atmosphere by the photochemical
reaction of certain pollutants. It is a highly reactive oxidizing agent used to
deodorize air, purify water, and treat industrial wastes.
planet - A non-luminous celestial body larger than an asteroid or comet, illuminated by
light from a star, such as the sun, around which it revolves. In the solar system
there are nine known planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
plain - An extensive, level, usually treeless area of land.
plateau - An elevated, comparatively level expanse of land; a tableland.
polar cap - Either of the regions around the poles of the earth that are permanently
covered with ice.
porous - Able to absorb fluids.
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P
2
4
t
0
precipitation - Any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, that falls to the
earth's surface.
rain gauge - A device for measuring rainfall.
relative humidity - The ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air at a specific
temperature to the maximum amount that the air could hold at that temperature,
expressed as a percentage.
relief - The variations in elevation of an area of the earth's surface.
relief map - A map that depicts land configuration, usually with contour lines.
river - A large natural stream of water emptying into an ocean, lake, or other body of
water and usually fed along its course by converging tributaries.
rock cycle – All the processes of rocks forming, breaking down, reforming, and
transportation taken together.
rotation - The act or process of turning around a center or an axis.
run off - To flow off; drain away; run off as waste; "The water wastes back into the
ocean."
sand - Small loose grains of worn or disintegrated rock.
season - One of the four natural divisions of the year, spring, summer, fall, and winter,
in the North and South Temperate zones. Each season, beginning astronomically
at an equinox or solstice, is characterized by specific meteorological or climatic
conditions.
saturate - To soak, fill, or load to capacity.
sedimentary rock – Rock formed when layers of sediment compact.
sediments - Solid fragments of inorganic or organic material that come from the
weathering of rock and are carried and deposited by wind, water, or ice.
sewage - Liquid and solid waste carried off in sewers or drains.
silt - A sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles intermediate in size
between sand and clay.
sleet - Precipitation consisting of generally transparent frozen or partially frozen
raindrops.
snowmelt - The runoff from melting snow.
spring - A natural flow of ground water.
stationary front - A transition zone between two nearly stationary air masses of
different density.
stream - A natural body of running water flowing on or under the earth.
timelines - A representation or exhibit of key events within a particular historical period,
often consisting of illustrative visual material accompanied by written commentary,
arranged chronologically.
topographic map - A map showing the relief features of the earth's surface, usu. by
means of contour lines to show changes in elevation; also called topo map, topo
quad, contour map.
uplift - A rise of land to a higher elevation.
warm front - A front along which an advancing mass of warm air rises over a mass of
cold air.
water table - The level below which the ground is completely saturated with water.
water vapor - Water in a gaseous state.
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weathering – The process by which rock fragments are broken down, transported, and
deposited.
wetland -A lowland area, such as a marsh or swamp, which is saturated with moisture.
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