Download AP EH: CHAPTER 21---Reaction, Revolution

AP EH: CHAPTER 21---Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism, 1815-1850
I.
THE CONSERVATIVE ORDER (1815-1830)
A. The Peace Settlement
1. the immediate response to the defeat of Napoleon was the
desire to contain revolution and the revolutionary forces by
restoring much of the old order.
2. in March 1814, even before Napoleon had been defeated, his
four major enemies—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and
Russia(Quadruple Alliance)—had agreed to remain united,
not only to defeat France but to ensure peace after the war.
3. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Quadruple Alliance restored the
old Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII.
4. the Congress of Vienna (1814)
a. set up to arrange the final peace settlement by the
Quadruple Alliance following the Napoleonic War.
b. created policies that would maintain the “balance of
power” among the members of the Quadruple Alliance
c. Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian foreign
minister and diplomat, dominated the Congress
d. at the Congress, Metternich pursued the policy of
legitimacy, meaning he endeavored to restore
legitimate monarchs on the thrones of every major
European power to preserve traditional institutions
and values
e. Metternich believed European monarchs shared the
common interest of stability
f. thanks in part to the work of French representative
Talleyrand, France was not overly weakened by the
Congress of Vienna and was allowed to remain a great
power, albeit one encircled by strong neighbors
g. the Vienna peace settlement of 1815 is sometimes
criticized for its failure to recognize the liberal and
national forces unleashed by the French revolutionary
and Napoleonic eras.
h. containing these revolutionary forces was precisely
what the diplomats at Vienna hoped to achieve
i. Congress of Vienna is credited for establishing a
European order that managed to avoid a general
European conflict for almost a century
B. The Ideology of Conservatism
1. conservatism, the dominant political philosophy following the
fall of Napoleon was best expressed in Edmund Burke’s
Reflections on the Revolution in France, emphasizing the
dangers of radical and “rational” political change
1
2. at its most elementary level, conservatism sought to preserve
the achievements of previous generations by subordinating
individual rights to communal welfare
C. The Conservative Domination: the Concert of Europe
1. the great powers’ fear of revolution and war led them to
develop the Concert of Europe as a means to maintain the
new status quo they had constructed
2. the Concert of Europe helped maintain peace in Europe for
over a quarter of a century by successfully putting down
revolutionary movements in Italy and Spain.
3. Metternich had been particularly disturbed by the revolts in
Italy which were a threat to Austrian domination of the Italian
Peninsula
4. The Revolt of Latin America
a. although the American Revolution had freed much of
North America of European domination in the 18th
Century, Latin America remained in the hands of
Spanish and Portuguese.
b. when the Bourbon monarchy of Spain was toppled by
Napoleon, Spanish authority in its colonial empire was
weakened
c. from 1810 to 1825, nearly all of Latin America was
freed from Spanish and Portuguese control through a
series of revolutions led by men such as Bolivar and
San Martin
d. continental European powers still posed a threat to
these newly independent Latin American nations
e. the most important factor in preventing the European
overthrow of these new independent countries of Latin
America was British naval power (Spielvogel did not
believe that Europe was that intimidated by the US
Monroe Doctrine)
5. The Greek Revolt (1821-1832)
a. Greeks revolted against Ottomans
b. was successful largely due to European intervention
c. first successful revolt against the status quo which
represented a victory for liberal and national forces
that the great powers were trying to suppress
D. The Conservative Domination: the European States
1. Great Britain: Rule of the Tories
a. in 1815, Great Britain was governed by the aristocratic
landowning classes that dominated both houses of
Parliament
b. within Parliament there were two factions:
1. Tories
a. largely dominated the government until
1830
b. had little desire to change the existing
political and electoral system
2
c. Napoleonic wars made them wary of
radicalism
2. Whigs
a. opposition party
b. received support from the new moneyed
interests generated by industrialization
c. popular discontent grew apace after 1815 because of
severe economic difficulties
d. the Tory government’s response to falling agricultural
prices was the Corn Law of 1815, a measure that
placed extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain
e. Corn Law proved beneficial to landowners but greatly
raised the prices of bread which led to unrest
f. when 60,000 protesters of high bread prices in
Manchester, England clashed with government
authorities, the resulting conflict was known as the
Peterloo Massacre which resulted in deaths of 11
people and future repressive measures
g. eventually the Tory ministry was broadened by the
addition of men who believed that some concessions
to change rather than sheer repression might best
avoid revolution
2. Restoration in France
a. in 1814, the Bourbon family was restored to the throne
in France in the person of Louis XVIII (1814-1824)
b. Louis kept Napoleon’s Concordat with the pope and
accepted Napoleon’s Civil Code for judicial
administration
c. Louis’s grudging moderation was opposed by liberals
anxious to extend the revolutionary reforms and by
ultraroyalists who criticized the king’s willingness to
compromise and retain so many features of the
Napoleonic era
d. upon Louis’s death the ultraroyalist won out when
Charles X (1824-1830) became king
e. passed legislation that angered liberals such as:
1. granting an indemnity to aristocrats whose
lands had been confiscated during the
Revolution
2. encouraged the Church to reestablish control
over French education
3
f.
a protest by the deputies led the king to dissolve the
legislature in 1830 and call for new elections
g. France was on the brink of another revolution
3. Intervention in the Italian States and Spain
a. by 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, the Italian
Peninsula remained divided into nine states subject to
the domination of northern European powers
b. much of Italy was under Austrian control, and all the
states had extremely reactionary governments eager
to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment
c. the crushing of attempts at revolt in the kingdom of
the Two Sicilies and Piedmont in 1821 discouraged
opposition (Carbonari were an exception)
d. In Spain, another Bourbon dynasty had been restored
in the person of Ferdinand VII in 1814
e. Ferdinand agreed to observe a liberal constitution but
soon reneged
f. He dissolved the Cortes and persecuted its members
g. Actions caused a revolt; forced king to restore the
Cortes and the constitution
h. Metternich sent a French Army into Spain which
forced the revolutionary government to flee
i. Ferdinand began a policy of torture following the
reinstatement of his full powers (against French
advice)
4. Repression in Central Europe
a. after 1815, the forces of reaction were particularly
successful in Central Europe
b. the Vienna settlement in 1815 recognized the existence
of 38 sovereign states (Germanic Confederation) in
what had once been the Holy Roman Empire
c. the purpose of the Confederation was strictly to
provide a common defense from outside attack
d. the Confederation was dominated by Austria and
Prussia and used by Metternich as a tool to repress
revolutionary movements
e. Frederick William III (1797-1840)
1. King of Prussia
2. instituted a number of political and institutional
reforms in reaction to Prussia’s defeat at the
hands of Napoleon
3. reforms included: the abolition of serfdom,
municipal self-government, expansion of
primary and secondary schools, and universal
military conscription
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4. after Napoleon’s defeat, Frederick William grew
more reactionary and was content to follow
Metternich’s lead
f. liberal and national movements in the German states
seemed largely limited to university professors and
students
g. the Burschenschaften was a radical student society
that advocated the spread of German nationalism and
culture through a free, united German state
h. from 1817 to 1819, the Burschenschaften pursued a
variety of activities that alarmed German governments
i. in 1819, Metternich had the diet of the Germanic
Confederation draw up the Karlsbad Decrees which
did the following:
1. closed the Burschenschaften
2. provided for censorship of the press
3. placed most German universities under close
government supervision
j. Metternich, who was hostile to nationalist movements
due to the multi-ethnic nature of the Austrian Empire,
merely postponed the inevitable revolution against his
government’s reactionary policies until 1848
5. Russia: Autocracy of the Czars
a. at the beginning of the 19th Century, Russia was
overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic
b. Alexander I (1801-1825)
1. came to the Russian throne after a group of
aristocrats assassinated his detested father,
Czar Paul I
2. raised in the Enlightenment, Alexander seemed
willing to make reforms
3. with the aid of his liberal advisor, Michael
Speransky, Alexander relaxed censorship, freed
political prisoners, and reformed the education
system
4. however, he refused to grant a constitution or
free the serfs, and he became more of a
reactionary by reverting to a system of arbitrary
censorship after the defeat of Napoleon
c. secret societies in opposition to the czar started
popping up in Russia such as the Northern Union
which favored a constitutional monarchy and the
abolition of serfdom
d. Decembrist Revolt (1825)
1. started after Alexander I died and the heir to the
throne, his brother Constantine, renounced his
claim to the throne in favor of his brother
Nicholas
2. Northern Union members in the Russian
military revolted against Nicholas’ accession
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3. crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas and
rebellion leaders were executed
4. revolt transformed Nicholas from a
conservative into a reactionary
e. Nicholas I (1825-1855)
1. nicknamed the “Policeman of Europe” because
of his willingness to use Russian troops to
crush revolutions
2. feared both internal and external revolutions
3. strengthened both the government bureaucracy
and secret police
4. secret police given power to deport suspicious
or dangerous persons, maintain close
surveillance of foreigners, and report regularly
to the czar about public opinion
II.
THE IDEOLOGIES OF CHANGE
A. Liberalism
1. owed much to the Enlightenment of the 18th Century and to
the American and French Revolutions
2. all liberals believed that people should be as free from
restraint as much as possible
3. embraced most by members of the industrial middle class
4. economic liberalism had laissez-faire as its primary tenet
5. the case against government interference in economic
matters was greatly enhanced by Thomas Malthus (17661834)
a. wrote Essay on the Principles of Population
b. argued that population must be held in check for any
progress to take place
6. the ideas of Malthus were further developed by David Ricardo
(1772-1823)
a. wrote Principles of Political Economy
b. developed the idea of the “iron law of wages” which
was an unstoppable vicious cycle of economics
related to workers’ wages
7. Political liberals believed in the protection of civil liberties
above all else
8. Many liberals advocated a system in which the ministers of
the king would be responsible to the legislature rather than
the king
9. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
a. one of the most important advocates of liberalism in
the 19th Century
b. wrote On Liberty (1859)
c. considered a classic statement on the liberty of the
individual
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d. Mill’s On the Subjection of Women advocated equal
rights for women
e. Argued the legal subordination of females to males is
wrong since men and women did not possess different
natures
B. Nationalism
1. was based on an awareness of being part of a community
that has common institutions, traditions, language, and
customs
2. was fundamentally radical in that it threatened to upset the
existing political order, both internationally and nationally by
encouraging people to shift their loyalties away from kings
3. allied with supporters of liberalism
C. Early Socialism
1. ideology that rose out of the pitiful conditions found in slums,
mines, and factories of the Industrial Revolution in the first
half of the 19th Century
2. wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and
believed that human cooperation was superior to the
competition that characterized early industrial capitalism
3. later became associated with Marxism
4. utopian socialist were against private property and industrial
competition (EX: Charles Fourier’s plan for cooperative
communities called ‘phalansteries’)
5. one female socialist, Flora Tristan (1803-1844), demanded
absolute equality of the sexes (largely ignored by her
contemporaries)
III.
REVOLUTION AND REFORM (1830-1850)
A. Another French Revolution
1. the new elections Charles X had called in 1830 produced
another victory for the French liberals
2. he believed that concessions had brought about the downfall
of Louis XVI and was determined not to make the same
mistake
3. on July 26, 1830, Charles issued a set of edicts (July
Ordinances) that imposed a rigid censorship on the press,
dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the
electorate in preparation for new elections
4. his actions caused an immediate rebellion (July Revolution)
5. Charles X was forced to flee to Great Britain
6. a cousin of Charles X, Louis-Philippe, was persuaded to be
the new king of France in a constitutional monarchy
7. Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)
a. called the “bourgeois king” because political support
of his monarchy came from the upper middle class
7
b. instituted reforms in the constitution which favored
the upper middle class
c. considered a severe disappointment to lower middle
class and Parisian working class
d. in the Chamber of Deputies, the king cooperated with
Francois Guizot and the more conservative Party of
Resistance over the more liberal Party of Movement
led by Adophe Thiers
e. backed by the Party of Resistance which constituted a
large majority in the chamber, the king effectively
suppressed reform until 1848
B. Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and Italy
1. the primary driving force in the revolutions of Belgium,
Poland, and Italy in 1830 was nationalism
2. the most successful nationalistic European revolution in 1830
was in Belgium (Belgians convinced European powers to
accept an independent, neutral Belgium free from Dutch
control)
3. the revolutionary scenarios in Italy and Poland were much
less successful
a. Metternich sent Austrian forces to crush revolts in
three Italian states
b. Russian forces crushed Polish efforts to break free
after hoped-for assistance from France and Great
Britain did not materialize for the Poles
C. Reform in Great Britain
1. in 1830, new parliamentary elections brought the Whigs to
power in Great Britain
2. although members of the landed classes, the Whigs realized
that concessions to reform were superior to revolution
3. Whigs enacted the Reform Act of 1832
a. the act disenfranchised fifty-six rotten boroughs and
enfranchised forty-two new towns and cities
b. gave urban communities some voice in government
c. retained property qualification for voting so act
benefited the upper middle class
d. number of voters increased from 478,000 to 814,000
(only 1 in 30 people in Great Britain was represented in
Parliament)
4. Thomas Macaulay, historian and Whig member in Parliament,
wrote a speech supporting reforms chiefly as a means of
preventing the outbreak of more radical revolutionary
movements
5. the Whigs also passed the Poor Law of 1834
a. written under the premise that giving aid to the poor
and unemployed only encouraged laziness and
increased the number of paupers
b. tried to remedy situation by making conditions of
provision for state welfare intentionally miserable and
degrading to encourage paupers to choose to work
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6. Parliament also repealed the Corn Laws in 1846
7. reforms allowed Britain to avert revolution when most of
Europe was engulfed by them by 1848
D. The Growth of the United States
1. the US Constitution, ratified in 1789, committed the United
States to liberalism and nationalism in the first half of the 19th
Century
2. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, John Marshall, Andrew
Jackson all played significant roles in turning the fledgling
republic into an emerging power
E. The Revolutions of 1848
1. Yet Another French Revolution
a. an economic depression along with numerous
instances of government graft help bring down LouisPhilippe’s government as it steadfastly refused to
accept reform measures
b. radical republicans, socialists, and the Party of
Movement combined forces under Adolphe Thiers to
force change
c. when the government could not halt their combined
efforts, Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate and flee
to England on February 24, 1848
d. a new provisional government was established which
called for a new constitution to be drawn up by
universal manhood suffrage
e. government also established national workshops
under the influence of Louis Blanc (despite high
hopes, workshops became little more than
unemployment compensation units through public
works projects)
f. new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848,
established a 2nd Republic with:
1. a unicameral legislature of 750 members
serving three year terms elected by male
Frenchman universally
2. president elected to a four year term
g. Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon, was elected
president and soon established an authoritarian order
in France
2. Revolution in Central Europe
a. the social and political upheavals in central Europe
through 1848-1849 led to mass demonstrations for
political reform in Germany
b. the student response in Germany to the French
Revolution of 1848was one of enthusiasm and
optimism for potential reforms in France
c. demonstrations in Budapest, Prague, and Vienna led
to Metternich’s ouster
d. Louis Kossuth led a movement within Hungary to gain
autonomy from Austria in every way except the
sharing of the same Hapsburg monarch
9
e. After much upheaval, new Austrian king Francis
Joseph (1848-1916) was able to put down all
revolutions within his empire with the invaluable aid of
the Russians
3. Revolts in the Italian States
a. under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini’s nationalist
organization Young Italy, Italian unification seemed to
be on the verge of reality in 1848 with revolutions
taking place all over Italy
b. Mazzini’s efforts to achieve risorgimento failed by 1849
due to opposition of the French, the Austrians, and the
pope
4. Failures of 1848
a. throughout Europe in 1848, popular revolts had
initiated revolutionary upheavals that had led to the
formation of liberal constitutions and liberal
governments
b. divisions among the revolutionaries shattered their
ranks in most cases and ended up causing the
collapse of the revolutions
IV.
THE EMERGENCE OF AN ORDERED SOCIETY
A. The Development of New Police Forces
1. the rise in crimes of property caused a severe reaction by
middle-class urban inhabitants who feared the threat of the
urban poor posed to their security and possessions
2. new police forces soon appeared to defend the propertied
classes from criminals and social misfits
3. a number of European states established civilian police
forces whose job was to preserve property and lives,
maintain domestic order, investigate crimes, and arrest
offenders
4. French Police
a. first modern police force in Europe appeared in Paris
in 1828
b. they were lightly armed with white canes during the
day and sabers at night, underscoring the fact that
they made up a civilian, not military, body
c. Paris had 85 policemen on the streets by August of
1829, 500 by 1850, and 4,000 by 1900
5. British Police
a. the British, fearful of the powers exercised by military
or secret police in authoritarian continental European,
states, had long resisted the creation of a professional
police force
10
b. Britain traditionally depended upon a system of unpaid
constables recruited by local authorities
c. the eventual failure of the local constables led to a new
approach
d. Robert Peel introduced legislation in 1829 to create a
metropolitan police force
e. between September 1829 and May 1830, 3,000
uniformed police officers appeared on the streets of
London
f. they were called “Bobbies” in honor of Peel
g. goal was to prevent crime
h. by 1856, the new police had become well established
in all British cities
6. Crime and Social Reform
a. reformers believed that the existing poor laws failed to
address societies problems
b. secular reformers formed institutes to instruct the
working classes in the applied sciences in order to
make them more productive members of society
c. organized religion attacked crime and poverty in a
variety of ways
1. British evangelicals set up Sunday Schools to
improve morals of working children
2. German evangelicals established nurseries for
homeless and orphaned children
3. Catholic missionaries used spiritual instruction
and recreation to turn young males away from
the moral vices of gambling and drinking and
female workers from lives of prostitution
B. The Reform of Prisons
5. by 1820, most European countries were turning away from
the indiscriminate use of capital punishment in favor of
imprisonment
6. the United States led the way in prison innovation with such
prisons as Auburn Prison in New York and Walnut Street
Prison in Philadelphia
7. after examining the American prisons, both the French and
British constructed prisons on the Walnut Street model with
separate cells that isolated prisoners from one another
8. as prison populations increased, solitary confinement proved
expensive and less feasible
9. prison reform and police forces were geared toward the
creation of a more disciplined society
V.
CULTURE IN AN AGE OF REACTION AND REVOLUTION: THE
MOOD OF ROMANTICISM
A. The Characteristics of Romanticism
11
1. the romantic movement had its roots in
Germany
2. The Sorrows of the Young Werther, a German
novel written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
(1749-1832) served as a model for future
romantic writing
3. Romanticism can be identified be the following
characteristics:
a. a strong, pantheistic worship of nature
b. a preoccupation with sentiment,
suffering, and self-sacrifice
c. reverence for history that inspired
nationalism
4. the romantic movement can be viewed as a
reaction against the Enlightenment’s
preoccupation with reason
5. the romantic movement gave rise to the Gothic
literature of such writers as American, Edgar Allan
Poe, and Mary Shelley
B. Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature
1. the most important form of literary expression
for the romantics was poetry
2. romantic poetry gave full expression to one of
the most important characteristics of
Romanticism: love of nature, especially evident
in the works of William Wordsworth
3. the worship of nature also led Wordsworth and
other Romantic poets such as Lord Byron and
Percy Bysshe Shelley to a critique of the
mechanistic materialism of 18th Century
science, which they believed had reduced
nature to a cold object of study
C. Romanticism in Art and Music
1. a major theme of Romantic artists were depictions of
nature and landscapes
2. all artistic expression to Romantic artists was a
reflection of the artist’s inner feelings
3. Painters
a. Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840)
painted many landscapes but with an
interest that transcended the mere
presentation of natural details (Man and
Woman Gazing at the Moon)
12
b. Joseph Malford William Turner (17751851) was an English painter that also
focused on nature (Rain, Steam, and
Speed—The Great Western Railway)
c. Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) was the
most famous French Romantic artist
who was fascinated by the exotic and
had a passion for color (The Death of
Sardanapalus)
4. Composers
a. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was a
German composer served as a bridge
between Classicism and Romanticism in
music (Eroica used elements of
Romanticism)
b. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) was a famous
French composer of the era (Symphonie
fantastique used music to evoke the
passionate emotions of a tortured love
affair)
D. The Revival of Religion in the Age of Romanticism
1. religion experienced a Catholic revival
2. Protestant faith also experienced a revival known as the
“Awakening”
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