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Kuwait University
Language Center
ELU – Education
English Language Skills
for Students Majoring in Science
Workbook
Defining
&
Describing
2
Introduction
When making a hypothesis or other statement, scientists must make sure
that they are understood by other researchers. Misunderstandings occur when
there are different concepts of what is being discussed.
A definition answers the question, “What is it?” Sometimes a definition is
necessary because a word or concept has more than one meaning. For example,
whether carbon is a metal or nonmetal depends on how you define carbon. At
other times, a definition is required because a term is being used in a special
way. For example, physicists use the terms – work and energy in ways that are
more specific than their common meanings. A definition should be complete
enough to include all the items in the category yet narrow enough to eliminate
items that do not belong. The Greek philosopher Plato once defined man as a
two-legged creature that has no feathers. His critic Diogenes left the room and
brought back a bird without feathers, declaring, “Here is Plato’s man!
The problem with Plato’s definition was that it did not distinguish a man from
other two-legged creatures without feathers. Communication between
researchers is dependent on precise definitions of substances, concepts,
processes, and ideas.
3
Short Reading
Directions: Read the following passage and find definitions for as many
types of energy as you can. Also locate the nouns that the
underlined pronouns refer to in each of the following
paragraphs.
The Many Forms of Energy
Energy1 is the ability to do work. When a hammer strikes a
nail, it exerts a force on the nail that causes it to move. The
movement of the hammer has the ability to do work and therefore
has a form of energy that we call kinetic energy. Kinetic energy2 is
the energy of motion.
An object may have energy not only because of its motion but
also because of its position or shape. For example, when a watch
spring is wound, it is storing energy. When this energy is released, it
will do the work of moving the hands of the watch. This form of
energy is called potential energy. Potential energy3 is stored energy.
Water in a dam is another example of potential energy.
There are many types of kinetic and potential energy, including
chemical, thermal, mechanical, electrical, and nuclear energy.
Chemical energy4 is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food,
and oil. Just as the watch spring needs to be released to do the work
of moving the hands, the energy stored in food molecules needs to be
released by enzymes or substances in the body, and the energy stored
in gasoline must be released by the spark plug to do its work of
propelling the car forward. Thermal energy5 may be defined as the
kinetic energy of molecules. When a substance is heated, the
molecules move faster, which causes that substance to feel hot.
Mechanical energy6 is energy related to the movement of objects.
Electric energy7 is energy that is produced by electric charges.
Nuclear energy8 is the energy that is stored in the nucleus of certain
kinds of atoms, like uranium.
4
Recognizing Definitions
Directions:
Look at the following terms in the text you have just read and see if
you can recognize the definitions of the different types of energy.
Write the definitions exactly as they appear in the reading on the
lines next to each term.
1. Chemical energy _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Mechanical energy _______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. Energy __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. Kinetic energy ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Thermal energy __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
6. Potential energy _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5
Using English to Define
Let us look at the definitions that we have written once again.
1.
Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline,
food and oil.
2.
Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement
of objects.
3.
Energy is the ability to do work.
4.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
5.
Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of
molecules.
6.
Potential energy is stored energy.
Here we notice that each of the above definitions is written differently; however,
each one of them has three parts. They are the Term ( T ), General Class word (
GC ) and Specific Characteristics ( SC ).
Term
=
Class word +
Specific Characteristics
1.
Chemical energy is potential energy
that is stored in gasoline, food
and oil.
2.
Mechanical energy
is
energy
(that is) related to the movement
of objects.
3.
Energy
is
the ability
to do work.
4.
Kinetic energy
is
the energy
of motion.
We will have a closer look at how definitions are written later.
6
Aristotle suggested that a good definition should include the general
classification of a term plus the specific characteristics that differentiate the term
from other members of its class. For example, a definition of a giraffe should
include a classification, such as, A giraffe is an animal, and specific
characteristics, such as, A giraffe is a tall, African animal with a very long neck.
I.
THE THREE PARTS OF A FORMAL DEFINITION
A formal definition normally has three parts:
1.
the term which is being defined.
2.
the class or group to which the term belongs and
3.
the characteristic which distinguishes the term from other
members of the same class or group.
Look at the following example sentences:
Term
Class word
A seismograph ( is an)
Gravity
( is the)
An astronomer ( is a )
*Physics
*A volt
Conduction
Specific Characteristic
instrument (that)
amplifies and records small
movements of the ground.
force
(which)
attracts bodies to the
center of the earth.
scientist
(who)
studies the universe.
( is the )
study
of matter and energy.
( is a )
unit
for measuring electrical pressure.
(is a )
process ( by which) heat is transformed.
7
A laboratory
(is a )
place
(where)
experiments are performed.
Exercise 1.
Recognizing the Parts of a Definition
Directions:
Read the following definitions and underline the term, circle the
class word, and underline the characteristic in each of the
following sentences.
1.
Mathematics is the science of numbers.
2.*
Energy is the ability to do work.
3.
A habitat is the place where an animal usually lives.
4.
Vapor is defined as a gas that can be liquefied by pressure.
5.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which it boils and turns
into gas.
6.
A glacier is a mass of ice which moves slowly along a valley.
7.*
Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement of objects.
8.
Helium is an inert gas that is light and nonflammable.
9.
A machine is a device that transforms energy from one form to another.
10.
The cerebrum is the part of the brain that is the center of reasoning.
11.
An insulator is a substance that does not conduct heat or electricity.
12.
Fog is a cloud that forms on the ground
13.
Ecology is the study of the environment.
14.
A satellite is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body.
15.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture food.
8
A.
THE TERM
The term tells us what is defined. It usually comes first in a definition.
Look at some of the sentences that we saw earlier.
1.
A seismograph is an instrument that amplifies and records small
movements of the ground.
2.
Conduction is a process by which heat is transformed.
3.
An astronomer is a scientist who studies the universe.
4.
Ecology is the study of the environment.
5.
The cerebrum is the part of the brain that is the center of reasoning.
As mentioned earlier, the terms, which are underlined, usually come first in the
definition. This depends on how the definition is written.
Look at the definition of seismograph, which can be written in another way.
***6.
An instrument that amplifies and records small movements of the
ground is called a seismograph.
You also notice that before some terms and class words, we use articles, which
are ‘a’, ‘an’, and ‘the’, but for some other terms and class words, we do not use
these articles.
Let us now have a closer look at the use of articles when we form definitions.
9
Language Use 1: Articles
When you write a definition, you must decide whether the term and the class
word need an article ( ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’ or ‘’ called – ‘no article’ or ‘zero article’).
Articles are very difficult to learn because there are many rules, many exceptions,
and many special cases. It is possible, however, to learn a few basic rules that will
help you to use articles when writing definitions.
The two types of articles are
1.
Indefinite (meaning ‘general’), and
2.
Definite (meaning ‘specific’)
1.
Indefinite articles are ‘ a ’ and
2.
the Definite article is ‘the’.
‘ an ’
and
Look at the following examples.
1.
A test-tube…….. ( meaning ‘any test-tube’)
2.
An angle……..
3.
The test-tube…… (meaning ‘ a specific test-tube and we know
which one it is)
(meaning ‘ any angle’)
Whether the term (which is always a noun) requires an article (indefinite or
definite) or no article () depends on how the term is used in the sentence.
Nouns in English can be either countable or uncountable. If a noun is countable,
it must be either singular or plural. If a noun is uncountable, it is always used in
the singular form only. However, there are exceptions to this.
10
1.
If a noun is countable, it needs ‘a’ or ‘ an’ in the singular. The indefinite
articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ mean one.
‘An’ is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. ‘A’ is used before
words that begin with a consonant sound.
e.g.
A test-tube is…
An angle is…
A seismograph is an instrument which…
Some words can be confusing because the spelling does not indicate the
pronunciation. Look at the following examples.
A house….
An hour …
(begins with a consonant sound)
(begins with a vowel sound)
A university…
An umbrella…
(begins with a consonant sound)
(begins with a vowel sound)
The initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will
determine whether it should be ‘a’ or ‘an’.
2.
If a noun is uncountable, it has no plural form , and it has no article ()
e.g.
3.
Water is…
Copper is…
Information is…
Plural nouns NEVER take the indefinite article.
e.g.
Horses are mammals which …
Amphibians are animals which…
4.
Sometimes a countable noun needs the definite article ‘the’. However,
there are very few examples of terms and class words which need ‘the’.
11
Here we are only looking at it in terms of forming definitions.
A.
‘The’ may specify when it is obvious who or what is being referred
to and there is no chance of mistaken identity.
Look at the following examples.
The Sun is a luminous body which is…….. (it is clear which sun is meant)
The moon is …..
The human heart is …..
The decimal system is….
The periodic table is…
If you can meaningfully ask yourself the question “which one is
meant?”, then you should use ‘the’; otherwise do not use ‘the’.
B.
‘The’ usually specifies when the noun is followed by an ‘ of ’
phrase even if the sentence is a general statement.
Look at the following examples.
The area of a circle is…
The coefficient of expansion…
The boiling point of a liquid….
The atomic number of oxygen is….
Students should keep an eye on the use of articles in the sample
sentences that appear in this handout and in the textbook,
English for Science.
12
Exercise 2
Articles
Directions: Decide whether the following terms and class words need articles.
Add the appropriate articles in the space provided. If no articles
are required, write ().
1.
_____ triangle
is
_______
figure which ….
2.
_____ frogs
are
_______
amphibians which ….
3.
_____ sulfur
is
_______
element which…
4.
_____ acids
are
_______
compounds which ….
5.
_____ digestion
is
_______
process by which …..
6.
_____ barometer
is
_______
instrument which ….
7.
_____ snake
is
_______
reptile which ….
8.
_____ geology
is
_______
study of rocks and minerals.*
9.
_____ energy
is
_______
ability to do work.*
10.
_____ kinetic energy
is
11.
_____ Physics
_______
12.*
_____ freezing point of a liquid
is
_______
is
energy of motion.*
study of matter and energy.*
_______ temperature at which…*
13
B.
CLASS WORD
The class word tells us the class or group to which the term belongs.
In this section we are going to study which class words go with which
term words.
Some typical examples of class words are the following.
Oxygen is an element….
Evaporation is a process…
Iron is a metal….
Exercise 3:
Class words
Directions: Match the terms with the correct class word. Write the letter of the
correct class word in the space provided.
Term
Class word
1.
a circle
________
a.
a liquid
2.
zoology
________
b.
a metal
3.
water
________
c.
a structure
4.
glass
________
d.
a process
5.
silver
________
e.
a gas
6.
a cell
________
f.
a substance
7.
respiration
________
g.
an animal
14
8.
a thermometer ________
h.
a shape
9.
oxygen
_______
i.
an instrument
10.
a mammal
________
j.
a science
Exercise 4:
Directions:
Articles and Class words
Write the correct class word for each of the following terms. Add
articles if necessary. If no articles are needed, write ().
1.
___________ wood
is
________
_____________________.
2.
___________ whale
is
________
_____________________.
3.
___________ copper
is
________
_____________________.
4.
___________ computer
is
________
_____________________.
5.
___________ granite
is
________
_____________________.
6.
___________ snakes
are
________
_____________________.
7.
__________
H2SO4
is
________
_____________________.
8.
__________
mosquitoes are
________
_____________________.
9.
__________
antibiotic
is
________
_____________________.
10.
___________ mammals
are
________
_____________________.
JOINING THE TERMS WITH THE CLASS WORDS.
In order to join the terms and the class words to form a sentence, we need to look
at how these simple sentences, which contain the main idea of the definitions, are
formed. We have already looked at the terms and the class words, whether they
are countable or uncountable and whether they require articles or not.
15
In scientific English, the main verbs of sentences are usually in the Present
Simple tense. It is not difficult to see why. Scientific textbooks contain
information about the present state of scientific knowledge. As a result, you will
probably use the Present Simple tense in most of your scientific writing. It is
important to make sure that the correct verb ( ‘be’ , ‘have’ or ‘action verbs’) is
used and that the subjects and verbs agree in your scientific writing.
THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
We have seen that the most common verb in a definition is ‘be’. ‘Be’ is very
important in scientific writing. It is the main verb in about half of all scientific
statements. It is not possible to make a complete sentence in English without a
verb. It is necessary to use the verb be, have, or an action verb in the simple
present tense. If the correct verb and the correct form of any of these verbs are
not used properly, the idea that you are trying to convey in a sentence may not
be understood well by the listener or the reader.
Look at the following sentences. It is correct to say
I have a donkey.
I ride on a donkey.
But none of us would say
I am a donkey.
So if you intended to say that you own a donkey, you would not use the verb be.
I.
The use of verb ‘ to be ’
Verb ‘to be ’ is used to show the state of being, or condition or existence.
It has three forms in the present. They are am, are , and is.
I
am
We
are
You
are
You
are
He/She/It
is
They are
Look at the following examples that we looked at earlier.
Energy
is
the ability to do work.
16
II.
Mathematics
is
the science of numbers.
Horses
are
mammals.
A seismograph
is
an instrument.
The use of verb ‘to have ’
Verb ‘to have ’ is used to show possession. It has two forms in the present.
They are have and has.
Look at the following examples.
Our solar system
has
nine planets.
Fluids
have no shape.
Exercise 5: Verb to be and Verb to have
Directions:
Use the correct form of the verb ‘ to be ’ or ‘ to have ’ to complete
each of the following sentences.
1.
Oxygen _________________ a gas.
2.
A triangle _______________ a figure.
3.
Oxygen and hydrogen _________________ gases.
4.
Triangles __________________ three straight sides.
5.
The pipe _____________ 3 meters long.
6.
Stainless steel _______________ rust-proof.
7.
Water ___________ a boiling point of 1000 C.
8.
Water ________________ two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
9.
Light _______________ a speed of 186,000 miles per second.
17
10.
There ______________ several kinds of vitamins.
III.
Action verbs
These verbs are used in the following situations.
A.
It is used for general statements, factual statements and
observations:
e.g.
Water freezes at 00 C.
Sound travels at a speed of 333 meters per second.
The alloy contains 23% copper.
The liquid in the test-tube weighs 55 grams.
A satellite orbits another celestial body.
B.
It is used for regular actions and regular processes:
e.g.
Ali studies physics six hours a week.
This factory employs thirty people.
The crude oil then passes down the pipeline.
18
Exercise 6: Verbs: Be, Have, and the Simple Present Tense
Directions:
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.
1.
(pass)
The current _________________________ along the wire.
2.
(turn)
Water ____________________________ into ice at 00 C.
3.
(wash)
Rain ________________________ salt from the soil.
4.
(equal)
Area ________________________length times width.
5.
(show)
Satellite pictures of the sea surface ______________the
sea floor in detail.
6.
( be / have ) In chemistry each element _____________ its own symbol.
7.
( be / have )
Isosceles triangles _________________ two equal angles.
8.
( be / have )
Oxygen ___________________ necessary for all growth.
9.
( be / have )
Uranium and radium ____________ radio-active elements.
10.
( be / have ) The Dead Sea in Jordan __________________ a high salt
content.
19
Exercise 7: Forming simple sentences with terms and class words.
Directions:
1.
Combine the term and the class word in each series to form a meaningful
sentence. Use appropriate articles and verbs. Begin you sentence with a
capital letter and end it with a period (full stop).
amoeba / animal
________________________________________________________________
2.
antibiotic / drug
_________________________________________________________________
3.
catalyst / substance
__________________________________________________________________
4.
cyclotron / apparatus
__________________________________________________________________
5.
mercury / metal
__________________________________________________________________
6.
triangle / figure
__________________________________________________________________
7.
reptiles / animals
__________________________________________________________________
*8.
boiling point of a liquid / temperature
__________________________________________________________________
9.
paper / substance
20
__________________________________________________________________
10.
fog
/ cloud
__________________________________________________________________
C.
THE CHARACTERISTIC
The characteristic is the part of the definition which gives us detailed
information about the term. This detailed information usually appears in
the form of a relative clause. Therefore, a definition is really two sentences
that have been combined.
We have already looked at the terms and class words and seen how they
are joined to form the main idea in a definition.
In this section, we shall consider
1.
1.
the GRAMMAR needed to write the characteristic, and
2.
the TYPE OF CHARACTERISTIC INFORMATION appropriate
for a definition.
GRAMMAR
Before we look at the structure of the characteristic part of a definition, we
need to look at the information that appears in this part of the definition.
The information in the characteristic part of the definition appears in
another simple sentence. When the two related ideas, the idea linking the
term and class word, and the idea in the characteristic part, are joined
together, we get a complex sentence. This complex sentence usually has
two clauses called the Main Clause (MCl), which contains the main idea
linking the term with the class word, and the Subordinate Clause (SCl),
which contains the idea of the characteristic part.
The Main Clause is also called Independent Clause, and the Subordinate
Clause is also called Dependent Clause.
Look at the following examples.
21
Example: 1
A vertebrate is an animal.
The animal has a backbone.
When we join these two related simple sentences, we get a complex
sentence, which has two clauses - the Main Clause, which has the main
idea, and the Subordinate Clause, which has the subordinate idea. The
characteristic part of the definition is in the subordinate clause.
When we combine the two above sentences, we get a complex sentence.
A vertebrate is an animal which has a backbone.
Main Clause
Subordinate Clause
Now look at another example.
Example: 2
Gold is a metal.
The metal is used to make jewelry.
Now when we combine the above two sentences, we get a complex
sentence.
Gold is a metal
Main Clause
which is used to make jewelry.
Subordinate Clause
In both the sentences, we use the relative pronoun ‘which’ to join the two
sentences. There are other relative pronouns, too. They are who, that,
whom, where and when. Each relative pronoun is used according to the
meaning of the combined sentence.
We will deal with the usage and rules of the relative pronouns later in this
unit.
22
We have also noticed that the verbs in the subordinate clauses of the
above sentences are formed differently.
In example 1, the verb is in the active voice, and
in example 2, the verb is in the passive voice.
Students must exercise great caution when forming the ideas in the
subordinate clause – which contains the characteristic part of the
definition. The verb could be either in the active or passive voice.
We will study the usage and rules of Active and Passive Voice after
dealing with Relative Clauses.
A.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
We have seen that when we write a formal definition, we need to
combine two or more related ideas into one sentence using relative
clauses. In other words, relative clauses are used to combine two or more
related pieces of information in a way to show what the relationship is
between them. Usually the writer puts in the main clause the idea he
considers more important and leaving the less important information for
the relative clause/s.
We have seen that a definition is really two sentences that have
been combined.
Look at the following sentences.
1.
A thermometer is an instrument.
2.
The instrument measures temperature.
When we combine these two sentences, we get a complex sentence, which
has two clauses – the Main Clause, which has the main idea, and the
Subordinate Clause, which has the subordinate idea. The differentiating
characteristic part of the definition is in the subordinate clause.
23
When we combine the two above sentences, we get a complex
sentence.
A thermometer is an instrument
which measures temperature.
Main Clause
Subordinate Clause
We use this combined form, which is called a defining relative clause,
because we want to avoid repeating the words ‘an instrument’. In the
subordinate clause, the subject of the sentence (the instrument) is replaced
by the relative pronoun ‘which’. We may also use ‘that’ instead of
‘which’.
Defining relative clauses are not only used in definitions. They are also
used in any sentence in which we want to give information about a noun.
Look at the following sentence.
Pictures
that showed the rings of Saturn
were presented.
Subordinate Clause
Therefore these relative clauses are also called Adjective clauses.
Points to remember about Adjective Clauses:
1. Every written English sentence must have a main clause. It may have one
or more relative clauses.
2. Relative clauses begin with the ‘wh -’ pronouns. The relative pronoun
‘which’ is by far the most common in scientific English. They can also
begin with ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘whose’, ‘that’ or a preposition + phrase
or clause.
3. Two ideas may be joined or combined ONLY if they are related.
4. Adjective clauses describe or give added information about a noun (or
pronoun) in the main clause. THEY IMMEDIATELY FOLLOW THE
THING THAT THEY DESCRIBE.
24
Exercise 8:
Directions: Combine the two sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective
clause.
1.
A magnet is a substance.
The substance attracts certain other substances.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Protons are positively charged particles.
The positively charged particles are contained in the nucleus of an atom.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
Oxidation is a chemical reaction.
The chemical reaction involves the loss of one or more electrons by an
atom or ion.
25
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
The stratosphere is a portion of the atmosphere. It is over seven miles
high.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5.*
Marine biologists are scientists. They study animals and plants that live in
the sea.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
The sentence (5*) above actually contains three ideas that are related. When we
separate the ideas in the above complex sentence, we get the following three
simple sentences.
1. Marine biologists are scientists.
2. The scientists study plants and animals.
3.
The plants and animals live in the sea.
26
Only when we combine the three ideas together, we get a meaningful definition.
Therefore a formal definition might contain more than two related ideas. In such
a case there will be a main clause and two subordinate clauses.
So the combined sentence would read as:
Marine biologists are scientists who study plants and animals that live in the sea.
MCl
SCl1
SCl2
When you separate the ideas and put them in simple sentences, we get the same
three sentences again.
Students need to bear in mind that in a complex sentence, there must be a main
clause, which contains the main idea of the sentence, and there can be one or
more subordinate clauses, which contain the subordinate ideas.
THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.
The passive form of a verb is used frequently in scientific writing. This is because
the emphasis in science is usually on the action, not on the person performing the
action. Again, this depends on the nature of the idea you are trying to present in
your writing. In this unit, we are only going to look at it from the
definition point of view.
We have learnt that definitions are written in the Simple Present
Tense.
Look at the following sentences which are related.
1. A vertebrate is an
animal.
(This sentence contains the main idea.)
2. The animal has a backbone. (This sentence contains the subordinate idea.)
We notice that in sentence 2, the verb is in the active form because the
sentence talks about the subject of the sentence, ‘the animal’.
27
So when we combine the above two sentences into one, it would read as
A vertebrate is an animal
Main Clause
which has a backbone.
Subordinate Clause
In this complex sentence, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the active form.
Now look at the following sentences.
1.
Aluminum is a metal.
(This sentence contains the main idea.)
2. It is produced from bauxite.
(This sentence contains the subordinate idea.)
We notice that in sentence 2, the verb is in the passive form and this is
preferred because it concentrates on how aluminum is produced rather
than who produce aluminum. And we know that people produce
aluminum.
So when we combine the above two sentences into one, it would read as
Aluminum is a metal
Main Clause
which is produced from bauxite.
Subordinate Clause
In this complex sentence, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the passive
form.
Forming the Passives
Since we are only looking at from a definition point of view, we notice that the
verbs in the above sentences are in the Simple Present Tense. We form the
subordinate clause part of the sentence with the verb ‘to be’ and the past
participle of the main verb.
( The passive formations in other tenses will be dealt with in other chapters.)
proper form
28
of verb
to be
The metal
is
+
past participle
produced
from bauxite.
Exercise 9: Verb Forms - Active or Passive
Directions: Write the correct form of the verb in the blank spaces.
1.
Water is a liquid which _______________________ ( consist ) of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
2.
Gold is a precious metal which _____________________ ( use ) for making
jewelry.
3.
The color white ______________ ( reflect ) light, whereas black __________
( absorb ) light. In other words, light _______________________ ( reflect )
by white, but it _____________________ ( absorb ) by black.
4.
A saline solution is one which _______________________ ( contain ) salt.
5.
Hydrocarbons are compounds which _____________________ ( contain ) only
hydrogen and carbon.
6.
Heat is a physical property which ________________________ ( measure ) by a
thermometer.
7.
A symmetrical figure is a figure which can ___________________________ (
divide ) into two equal halves.
8.
A rectifier is a device which ______________________ ( allow ) an electric
current to flow in only one direction.
29
9.
Tungsten is a heavy metal which ___________________( melt ) at over 30000 C.
10.
Mathematics _____________________ ( use ) for many different purposes.
Now let us look at the definitions that we have written from the reading
on ‘The Many Forms of Energy’.
1.
Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in
gasoline, food and oil.
2.
Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the
movement of objects.
3.
Energy is the ability to do work.
4.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
5.
Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of
molecules.
6.
Potential energy is stored energy.
Here we notice that the characteristic part of each of the above definitions is
written differently. Now let us look at the structure of the characteristic part in
detail.
The characteristic part of the definitions has seven common forms.
1.
Relative Clause /s
Frequently, the characteristics appear as a relative clause beginning with
appropriate relative pronouns, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘who’, or ‘where’.
30
e.g. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food,
and oil.
A vertebrate is an animal which has a backbone.
Gold is a metal that is used to make jewelry.
Aluminum is a metal which is produced from bauxite.
Note: The verbs are in the Present Simple Tense.
The verbs in the subordinate clause may be active or passive.
2.
Reduced Relative Clause /s
The characteristics sometimes appear as a relative clause in which the
relative pronouns ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘who’, or ‘where’ and the verb ‘to be’
have been deleted.
e.g. Mechanical energy is energy ( that is ) related to the movement of
objects.
Aluminum is a metal ( which is ) produced from bauxite.
*Although this reduction is common, it is not required in English since
there are many exceptions to this rule. Sometimes these reductions are
possible and necessary, but in certain situations these reductions are not
possible at all.
3.
Infinitive Phrase
Sometimes the characteristics take the form of an infinitive phrase.
e.g.
4.
Energy is the ability to do work.
Prepositional Phrase
Sometimes the characteristics take the form a prepositional phrase.
31
e.g.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
A vertebrate is animal with a backbone.
Ecology is the study of the environment.
5.
Use of Modal of Possibility
The use of the modal of possibility ‘may’ indicates that there is more than
one way to define something.
e.g.
6.
Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of molecules.
Term = Characteristic + Class word
Sometimes the characteristic precedes the class. This form of characteristic
is important when you want to add more information in a formal
definition of a term.
e.g.
Potential energy is stored energy.
(Potential energy is energy which is stored.)
Protozoa are one-celled organisms.
(Protozoa are organisms which are one-celled.)
Mercury is a liquid metal.
( Mercury is a metal which is liquid.)
Imp
7.*
Preposition + which + phrase
In scientific writing, we find many relative clauses with a preposition
before ‘which’. The preposition is part of the sentence which contains the
characteristic/s and it is followed by the term.
Look at the following sentences.
32
1.
Respiration is a process.
2.
Animals take in oxygen by respiration.
When we combine the two sentences, we get a complex sentence
Respiration is a process by which animals take in oxygen.
Look at the following sentences.
1.
Conduction is a process.
2.
Heat is transferred by conduction
Conduction is a process by which heat is transferred.
Now we will look in detail at some of the common forms of the
characteristic part of the definitions.
1.
Relative Clauses -
… which ( that ) + verb phrase …
Most characteristic begin with ‘which’ + verb phrase. The subject is
replaced by the relative pronoun ‘which’ or any other suitable relative
pronoun depending on the meaning of the sentence.
We will now consider definitions that contain this type of characteristic.
Exercise
-
Reading
( Scanning * )
Scanning
When you need to search technical material for the answers to specific
questions, you will want to locate the particular information without reading
every word. This can be accomplished by scanning the passage. To scan let your
33
eyes run rapidly down the page and look for the key or important words that
you are seeking.
Directions:
Read the following passage and underline all the definitions that
use ‘ which ’.
Basic Earth Chemistry
As rocks are composed of minerals, so minerals are composed of elements.
By definition, an element is a substance which cannot be changed by ordinary
means into any other substance. The smallest piece of an element which has all
the properties of that element is the atom. Although they are extremely small,
the atoms of an element have a definite mass and a definite weight, two
properties which distinguish a particular atom from the atoms of every other
element.
Elements exist under two conditions. They may be free, or they may be
united chemically in chemical compounds, that is, substances which are formed
by the combination of two or more different elements in a definite weight
relationship.
In earth science, some types of compound are particularly important.
Oxides, acids, bases and salts are four classes of compound which are often met
in the study of rocks and minerals.
Exercise: 10 Re-writing Definitions
Directions:
1
Write definitions of the following terms by using information from
the reading passage on the previous page. Remember to use a
relative clause beginning with ‘ which ’.
( element ) ________________________________________________________
34
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.
(atom ) __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3.
(definite mass and definite weight) _________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4.
( chemical compounds ) ___________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5.
( oxides ) _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
35
2.
Characteristics -
Prepositional Phrase
Sometimes the characteristics take the form a prepositional phrase.
e.g.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone.
Ecology is the study of the environment.
Exercise 11: Definitions with Prepositional Phrases
Directions:
1.
Write definitions by expanding the following notes. Add
appropriate articles, verbs and prepositions.
mathematics /
science
/
space and number
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
motor /
machine
/
changing power into movement
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
quadruped
/
animal
/
four feet
__________________________________________________________________
4.
thermometer /
instrument
/
measuring temperature
36
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5.
geology
/
study /
earth
_________________________________________________________________
3.*
Preposition + which + phrase
In scientific writing, we find many relative clauses with a preposition
before ‘which’. The preposition is part of the characteristic followed by the
term.
In some characteristics, we need to add a preposition ( with, by, in ,
from, through, etc., before ‘which’. The common types of definitions
which need a preposition are:
A.
Characteristics which express location / direction
Look at these examples
1.
A desert is a sandy area in which few plants grow.
The above sentence is a complex sentence which consists of two ideas. If we were
to separate this complex sentences into two simple sentences, it would read as:
A desert is a sandy area.
Few plants grow in a desert.
it
which
Here we notice that the two sentences are related and that the term is repeated
after the preposition ‘in’. We can replace the term with the pronoun ‘it’ without
affecting the meaning of the sentence. In order to combine the two sentences, we
replace the pronoun ‘it’ with the relative pronoun ‘which’. Here we see that the
preposition is part of the sentence.
Look at another example.
2.
A vacuum is a space from which all matter has been
removed.
37
Here also we notice that this is a complex sentence which has two ideas, and that
it can be broken down into two simple sentences.
A vacuum is a space.
All matter has been removed from
B.
it.
Characteristics which describe certain nouns such as ‘process’,
‘speed’, etc.,
Look at the example.
1.
Digestion is a process by which food is broken down into chemical
compounds.
Here also we can break this complex sentence into two simple sentences.
Digestion is a process.
Food is broken down into chemical compounds by digestion.
C.
Characteristics which contain a verb which usually takes the same
preposition, such as ‘ react with’, ‘differ from’, etc.,
Look at the example.
1.
A substrate is a substance with which an enzyme reacts.
Here also we can break this complex sentence into two simple
sentences.
Directions:
Write down the two simple sentences on the lines below.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
38
Here we notice that the preposition is part of the sentence and
that when this preposition is followed by the term, we replace
the term with the relative pronoun ‘which’. The preposition used
depends on the meaning of the sentence which contains the
characteristic.
Exercise 12 : Preposition +
Directions:
1.
which +
phrase
Expand the following notes into full definitions.
All the
characteristics need to begin with a preposition. Pay attention to
articles.
diffusion / process
/
substances move through tissues and cells by diffusion
Diffusion is a process by which substances move through tissues
and cells.
2.
filter /
device
/
gas or liquid is passed through a filter
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
axis
/
imaginary line /
a body rotates around an axis
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
condensation / process / vapor forms into liquid in condensation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
39
5.
lathe /
machine / a substance can be cut or shaped on a lathe
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 13: Formulating Formal Definitions
Directions:
Write formal definitions of the following terms by selecting the
correct class words and the characteristics given. Remember to
add the correct verbs and articles where necessary.
Class words:
blood vessel
process
1.
chemical reaction
form of arithmetic
positive electrode
temperature
process
Term: digestion
Characteristic:
food is broken down into chemical compounds in digestion
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Term: anode
Characteristic:
an electric current enters an electrolytic cell or a vacuum
tube through an anode
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
Term: vein
40
Characteristic:
blood is carried from the tissue to the heart by a vein
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
__________________________________________________________________
Term: algebra
Characteristic:
unknown numbers are replaced by letters or symbols in
algebra
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5.*
Term: boiling point of a liquid
Characteristic:
( the liquid) turns into vapor at boiling point
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6.
Term: combustion
Characteristic:
a substance combines with oxygen in combustion, giving
off heat and light
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7.
Term: evaporation
41
Characteristic:
a liquid turns into a vapor in evaporation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 14 : Reading
Writing: Locating a Definition in a Text
Directions:
Read the following passages and use the information given in each
to write a definition of the underlined word.
You can express the characteristics in any of the ways you have
learnt.
1.
A whole branch of science is devoted to the study of the cell. This branch is
known as cytology.
Cytology _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Diffusion or the act of spreading out, is a process of great importance in biology.
It is the process by which substances in their molecular state move through
tissues and cells.
Diffusion_____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
Many organisms obtain their energy at the expense of another living organism.
Such organisms are known as parasites.
42
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
One branch of chemistry is bio-chemistry. In many ways, bio-chemistry is no
different from any other kind of chemistry. However, bio-chemistry can be
defined as the chemistry of living things.
____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5.
A solution is a special kind of mixture. The common solutions consist of a solid
within a liquid. A saturated solution contains all the solute it is capable of
holding.
A saturated solution____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
**6.
A specific chemical reaction is one of the processes involved in digestion. This
reaction is known as hydrolysis. Hydrolysis brings about a chemical change. It
occurs when a molecule of water joins another compound.
____________________________________________________
43
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7.
Another form of symbiotic association is known as commensalism.
Commensalism is a one-sided relationship. One organism attaches itself to
another organism. Although the two organisms live together, only one of them
benefits from the association.
____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
8.
Chemical weathering, sometimes called decomposition, is a more complex process
than mechanical weathering. Mechanical weathering merely breaks rock material
down into smaller and smaller particles, without changing the composition of the
rock. Chemical weathering, however, actually transforms the original material
into something different.
Chemical weathering __________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
44
CHARACTERISTICS
The Information in Characteristics
The type of information we give in definitions depends on the term that is
classified. There are five important classes of information.
1.
Use or Function
A scalpel is a sharp cutting instrument which is used by surgeons in operations.
2.
Composition
Water is a liquid which consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen.
3.
Origin
Aluminum is a metal which is produced from bauxite.
4.
Physical Characteristics
A bird is a warm blooded vertebrate which has wings.
5.
Properties
45
Aluminum is a metal which is light, weak, and non-corrosive.
Note: (4) and (5) are closely connected. Be careful not to confuse them.
Exercise 15 : Recognizing Information Types
Directions:
Read the following definitions and say to which of the five classes
the characteristics of each belong. First underline the characteristic
part in each of the definitions.
1.
A generator is a machine which produces electricity. __________________
2.
An alkali is a substance which combines with acids to form salts.
____________________
3.
Gasoline is a fuel which is obtained from petroleum. __________________
4.
An orange is a citrus fruit which is round and orange in color. __________
5.
Coal is a substance which consists of carbon and various carbon
compounds.
________________________
6.
Sedimentary rock is a material which is formed from underwater beds of
sand and mud.
________________________
7.
Mercury is a liquid metal which has a high co-efficient of expansion.
________________________
8.
A snail is a mollusk which has a spiral shell and a large foot. ____________
9.
An airport is a place where aero planes arrive and depart.
____________
46
10.
Concrete is a material which contains cement, sand, small stones and
water.
________________________
Expanded (Extended) Definitions
An expanded definition is used in scientific writing when a simple, formal
definition is not sufficient.
We can often improve a formal definition by adding more than one
characteristic. There are many ways to expand a definition. We can include the
different types of characteristics we mentioned earlier. In addition, we may
also add concrete examples and instances, description of parts of components,
basic operating principles, purpose or method of use, cause and effect, location
and time, and comparison and contrast.
Look at the following paragraph.
A seismograph is an instrument
that amplifies and records small
movements of the ground. It consists of
a heavy mass suspended from an arm
on thin wire. During an earthquake, the
base, which is solidly attached to the
earth moves as does the arm, but the
mass, because of its inertia, is relatively
unaffected. As the earth moves, the
mass swings.
Its movements are
recorded on a piece of paper attached to
a rotating drum. Records made in this
way are called seismograms. They are
used to determine the size and location
of earthquakes, to hunt for oil, and to
study the earth’s crust.
Directions:
Answer the following questions concerning an expanded definition
of the seismograph.
47
1.
What is the formal definition of seismograph?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Which type of characteristic constitutes the formal definition?
_________________________________________________________________
3.
Why was this characteristic chosen for the formal definition?
__________________________________________________________________
4.
What other characteristics are described in the expanded definition of the
seismograph? Give their types.
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Now look at another sample paragraph.
An aneroid barometer is an
instrument that depends on the
changing volume of a container to
indicate atmospheric pressure.
It
consists of an airtight box of thin flexible
metal from which the air has been
partially evacuated. One side of the
evacuated box is attached to a spring.
When
the
atmospheric
pressure
increases, the box tends to collapse.
When atmospheric pressure decreases,
the sides of the box spring outward.
This slight movement is magnified by a
series of levers connected to an indicator
48
needle, which shows the atmospheric
pressure.
Directions:
1.
Answer the following questions concerning an expanded definition
of the aneroid barometer.
What is the formal definition of aneroid barometer?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Which type of characteristic constitutes the formal definition?
__________________________________________________________________
3.
What other characteristics are described in the expanded definition of the
aneroid barometer? Give their types.
___________________________
______________________________
___________________________
______________________________
Here we notice that all expanded definitions begin with a formal
definition. But the means of expanding will, of course, depend on the subject
being defined. The discussion of additional uses is a good way to end the
amplified definition.
Therefore, a definition which has more than one characteristic is called an
expanded or extended or amplified definition. It begins with a formal definition
which states its most important characteristic. This is followed by other
characteristics. It is not always necessary or even possible to include all the types
of characteristic in one definition. Sometimes it is possible to combine similar or
different characteristics into one sentence for the sake of making meaningful
complex sentence.
49
In this section, we will learn how to write an expanded definition from
short notes and later write expanded definition from long passages leaving
out unnecessary details.
First we will look at the short notes to write an expanded definition.
Directions:
Write an expanded definition of water with the information given
below. Remember to begin with the formal definition and then
write additional characteristics. Combine sentences whenever
possible using relative clauses.
Term:
water
Class word:
liquid
Characteristics:
A.
use
:
essential to support life, cleaning, cooking, etc.
B.
composition :
two atoms of hydrogen + one atom of oxygen
C.
physical
characteristics:
colorless
D.
origin
:
occurs in the atmosphere (water vapor) and
on land (seas, rivers, lakes etc.,)
E.
properties
:
odorless
tasteless
boils at 1000 C
freezes at 00 C
forms a solution with many substances
1.
First combine the term and class word to make a simple sentence.
__________________________________________________________________
2.
Now choose the most important characteristic that would distinguish the
term from the other members of the class and write another simple
sentence.
50
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.
Now combine the above two simple sentences into a complex sentence
using an appropriate relative pronoun. This sentence would be the formal
definition.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Now write your expanded definition of water on the lines below.
Your paragraph must be neat. Remember to follow the mechanics
of writing: capital letters and full stops. Your paragraph must have
a title.
Begin your paragraph with a formal definition.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
51
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Writing Expanded Definitions from a Reading Passage.
When writing expanded definitions from a passage, you must read the
passage completely and then locate all the characteristics stated in the
passage. It would be a good idea to highlight all the characteristics with a
highlighter or underline all the characteristics that you need to write in an
expanded definition. The passage might contain so many details that you
do not need to include in your expanded definition.
One way to write your expanded definition is to write down all the
characteristics that appear in the passage. Remember that you have to
write the expanded definition in about 8 – 10 sentences, and it may not be
possible to include all the characteristics in your expanded definition.
When you write your sentences to combine one or more ideas, all
sentences must be grammatically correct. Therefore, use the following
guideline on the next page when writing an expanded definition.
Remember that it may not always be possible to include all the
characteristics; however, you must choose the most important
characteristics. Your paragraph must have a title and that the paragraph
must begin with a formal definition.
52
Term: ____________________
Class word: _____________________________
Characteristics:
1. Use / Function:
A.
______________________________________________________
B.
______________________________________________________
C.
______________________________________________________
2. Origin:
A.
A.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Composition:
A.
B.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. Physical Characteristics:
A.
______________________________________________________
B.
______________________________________________________
C.
______________________________________________________
53
5. Properties:
A.
______________________________________________________
B.
______________________________________________________
C.
Exercise 1:
______________________________________________________
Writing Expanded Definition
Directions:
Read the following passage about uranium. Then write an
expanded definition of uranium in 6 - 8 sentences. Remember to
start with a formal definition in one sentence.
Uranium, symbol U, has existed in the earth for billions of years, but until man tried to
make an atomic bomb and use atomic energy, most people did not know it existed.
After the discovery of nuclear fission, uranium became a strategic metal, and its uses
were at first restricted mainly to the production of nuclear weapons. It is a chemically
reactive radioactive metallic element that is the main fuel used in nuclear reactors.
Uranium is a member of the actinide series in the periodic table. The atomic number of
uranium is 92. Uranium was discovered in 1789 in pitchblende by the German chemist
Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named it after the planet Uranus. It was first isolated
in the metallic state in 1841. The radioactive properties of uranium were first
demonstrated in 1896.
Uranium melts at about 1132° C, boils at about 3818° C, and has a relative density of
19.05 at 25° C; the atomic weight of the element is 238.029. Uranium has three
crystalline forms, of which the one that forms at about 770° C is malleable and ductile.
Uranium is soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, and it is insoluble in alkalis.
Uranium displaces hydrogen from mineral acids and from the salt solutions of such
metals as mercury, silver, copper, tin, platinum, and gold.
Uranium never occurs naturally in the free state but is found as an oxide or complex salt
in minerals such as pitchblende and carnotite. It has an average concentration in the
crust of the Earth of about 2 parts per million, and, among the elements, ranks about
54
48th in natural abundance in crustal rocks. In the classical procedure for extracting
uranium, pitchblende is broken up and mixed with sulfuric and nitric acids. Uranium
ores are widely distributed throughout the world. Deposits of pitchblende, the richest
uranium ore, are found chiefly in Canada, Congo (former Zaïre), and the United States.
In 1990, world production of pure uranium concentrate totaled about 29,100 tons.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
55
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
56
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2: Writing Expanded Definition
Directions: Read the following passage about platinum. Then write an
expanded definition of platinum in 6 - 8 sentences (one
paragraph). Remember to start with a formal definition in
one sentence.
Platinum is a metal -- but what an amazing metal it is! It is grayish white
in colour, and its name comes from the Spanish plata and means "little silver".
Platinum is harder than copper and almost as pliable as gold; that is, it is
both malleable and ductile. You could take a single ounce of platinum and
stretch it out into a fine wire that would reach across Western Europe from
Cologne in Germany to Moscow in Russia. A cube of platinum measuring 30
centimeters each would weigh more than half a ton. Platinum is almost twice as
heavy as lead.
Platinum is usually found in ores often mixed with the rare metals
palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, which are called "platinum metals".
Occasionally, it is found with metals such as gold, copper, silver, iron,
chromium, and nickel. It is found in the form of small grains, scales, or nuggets.
Large deposits of platinum were first discovered in South America in the
eighteenth century. For a great many years it was considered quite useless, and
so it was cheap. Then, people began to find how useful this metal could be, and
since it is quite rare, the price went up to the point where that cube of platinum
mentioned above would have been worth over a million dollars. Russia, South
Africa, Canada, the U.S. and Colombia are the leading producers of platinum.
What makes platinum useful is that it resists (withstands) oxidation, acids,
and heat. Platinum melts at about 17720 C, boils at about 38270 C, and has a
relative density of about 21.45. The atomic weight of platinum is 195.09. For
most purposes, platinum is mixed (alloyed) with one of the other "platinum
metals" or with silver, gold, copper, nickel, or tin.
57
While the chief use of platinum is for jewelry, it is also used for contact
points where electrical circuits are opened or closed, in laboratory weights, in
instruments for exact measurement of temperatures, and for fuses in delicate
electrical instruments.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
58
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
59
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 3:
Writing Expanded Definition
Directions:
Read the following passage about gold. Then write an expanded
definition of gold in 6 – 8 sentences (one paragraph). Remember to
start with a formal definition in one sentence.
Gold, symbol Au, is a soft, dense, bright yellow metallic element. It is one of the
transition elements of the periodic table and its atomic number is 79. It is mainly used in
making jewelry.
Pure gold is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals. It can easily be
beaten or hammered into a thickness of 0.000013 cm, and 29 g could be drawn into a
wire 100 km long. It is one of the softest metals, and is a good conductor of heat and
electricity. Gold is bright yellow and has a high luster. Gold is extremely inactive. It is
unaffected by air, heat, moisture, and most solvents. Gold melts at about 1064° C, boils
at about 5086° C, and has a specific gravity of 19.3; its atomic weight is 196.967.
Gold is found in nature in quartz veins and secondary alluvial deposits as a free
metal or in a combined state. It is widely distributed although it is rare, being 75th in
order of abundance of the elements in the crust of the earth.
The metal has been known and highly valued from earliest times, not only
because of its beauty and resistance to corrosion, but also because gold is easier to work
than all other metals. In addition, gold was easier to obtain in pure form than the other
metals. Because of its relative rarity, gold became used as currency and as a basis for
international monetary transactions.
Gold is also used in the form of gold leaf in the arts of gilding and lettering.
Purple of Cassius, a precipitate of finely divided gold and stannic hydroxide formed by
the interaction of auric chloride and stannous chloride, is used in coloring ruby glass.
Chlorauric acid is used in photography for toning silver images. Potassium gold cyanide
is used in electro-gilding. Gold is also used in dentistry. Radioisotopes of gold are used
in biological research and in the treatment of cancer.
Gold production dates from the Etruscan, Minoan, Assyrian, and Egyptian
civilizations, when placer gold was derived from alluvial sands and gravels by simple
processes of washing or panning. Gold was produced in this manner at an early period
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in India, central Asia, the southern Ural Mountains and in the regions bordering the
eastern Mediterranean.
By the middle of the 19th century the United States produced a considerable
percentage of the world gold production. South Africa is the world's leading supplier of
gold, producing about 600 metric tons annually. Some 70 other countries produce gold
in commercial quantities, but about 80 percent of the total worldwide production now
comes from South Africa, the United States, the former Soviet republics, Australia,
Canada, China, and Brazil.
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Now let us look at the reading on pages 75 - 78 of the textbook, English for
Science. Try to scan the reading passage in 3 minutes or less to write the answers
to questions on page 75. Number the paragraphs before you start reading. There
are seven paragraphs in this reading passage.
1.
A definition of work.
_________________________________________________________________.
2.
The name of the French chemist who studied chemical changes in 1785.
_________________________________________________________________.
3.
The meaning of the letter c in the equation E = mc2.
________________________________________________________.
Now that you have located and written down the answers to the above three questions,
let us begin reading the passage carefully and critically.
As you are reading the passage, ask yourself the following reading
comprehension questions.
1. What is the passage about?
or
What is the main idea?
a. What examples are used to explain a new concept?
2. What are the details?
3. What can be inferred?
4. What conclusions can be drawn?
5. What can this term or word mean?
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a. Does this term have a definition given in the passage?
6. What can be done to locate or guess the meaning of a new word?
7. What do the pronouns used in the passage refer to?
These are some of the things you should ask yourself as you are reading.
True or False
Exercise:
A.
Based on the information in paragraphs 3 and 4, decide whether each of
the following statements is true or false. Write True or False at the left of
each number.
_________ 1. Energy can be created but not destroyed.
_________ 2. Matter can be converted from one form to another.
_________ 3. Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
B.
Write definitions of the following.
In order to write a good formal definition, first locate the correct class word from
the passage and write a simple sentence combining the term with the class word.
Then write another meaningful sentence which contains the specific
characteristic about this term.
1.
What is fission?
A.
_______________________________________________________
B.
_______________________________________________________
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Now combine the two sentences into one complex sentence.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2.
____________________________________________________________
What is fusion?
A.
_______________________________________________________
B.
_______________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
Now combine the two sentences into a complex sentence.
____________________________________________________________
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Chapter: 6 - Exemplifying
English for Science
Now let us look at the reading on pages 90 - 92 of the textbook, English for
Science.
Try to scan the reading passage in 3 minutes or less and put brackets around
examples of the following terms. Write down the paragraph number on the lines
below. Number the paragraphs before you start reading. There are seven
paragraphs in this reading passage.
Keep in mind that examples usually come directly after definitions or general
statements.
1.
One example of conduction.
_________________________________________________________________.
2.
One example of convection.
_________________________________________________________________.
3.
One example of radiation.
________________________________________________________.
B.
Write definitions of the following.
In order to write a good formal definition, first locate the correct class word from
the passage and write a simple sentence combining the term with the class word.
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Then write another meaningful sentence
characteristic about this term.
1.
which contains
the specific
What is conduction?
A.
_______________________________________________________
B.
_______________________________________________________
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Now combine the two sentences into one complex sentence.
____________________________________________________________
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2.
What is convection?
A.
_______________________________________________________
B.
_______________________________________________________
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Now combine the two sentences into a complex sentence.
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____________________________________________________________
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3.
What is radiation?
A.
_______________________________________________________
B.
_______________________________________________________
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Now combine the two sentences into a complex sentence.
____________________________________________________________
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Exercise:
A.
Based on the information in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, decide whether
each of the following statements is true or false.
Write True or False at the left of each number.
Do not write T or F or checks or crosses
________ 1.
Conduction takes place only when there is a disparity in
temperature between two objects.
________ 2.
Heat always flows from a cooler object to a warmer one.
________ 3.
Metallic substances are poor insulators.
________ 4.
Gases and liquids are bad conductors of heat.
________ 5.
Fluids transfer heat by convection.
________ 6.
Conducted and convected heat can pass through a vacuum.
________ 7. All objects radiate energy.
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Chapter: 2 - Comparing
English for Science
Directions: Look at the Short Reading - The Wonder Metals - on page
20 and answer the following questions below.
Number the paragraphs. There are 7 paragraphs.
1.
The pronoun “They” in line 2, in paragraph 1, refers to __________.
A.
B.
2.
metals
the Greeks
D.
C.
alchemists
discoveries
Write and expanded definition of iron based on the information
given in paragraphs 2 and 3.
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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True or False:
Based on the information in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, decide whether each of
the following statements is true or false.
Write True or False at the left of each number.
Do not write T or F or checks or crosses
_______ 1.
Iron is the most widely used metal.
_______ 2.
Iron is more resistant to corrosion than aluminium.
_______ 3.
Both iron and aluminium are soft metals.
_______ 4.
Iron and steel are very light in weight.
_______ 5.
Aluminium is used for making airplanes, automobiles etc.
Now turn to page 27 in English for Science.
Skim the passage on pages 28 through 30 and answer the two questions on
page 28. Number the passage before reading it. There are10 paragraphs.
Now read the passage again and answer the following questions:
______1.
The pronouns ‘it’ in lines 2 and line 3, in paragraph 3 refer to
_____________.
A.
B.
wood
gasoline
E.
F.
paint
iron
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C.
D.
2.
fire
air
G.
H.
oxygen
water
What is oxidation? (Write a formal definition.)
__________________________________________________________________
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3.
What is spontaneous combustion? (Write a formal definition.)
__________________________________________________________________
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4.
Write an expanded definition of oxygen.
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__________________________________________________________________
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5.
What is nitrogen fixation? (Write a formal definition.)
__________________________________________________________________
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True or False
Based on the information in paragraphs 8, 9 and 10, decide whether each of the
following statements is true or false.
Write True or False at the left of each number.
Do not write T or F or checks or crosses.
_______ 1.
Oxygen is an inactive gas.
_______ 2.
Nitrogen compounds are highly unstable.
_______ 3.
The sun and stars are made up of hydrogen.
_______ 4.
Hydrogen is highly inflammable.
_______ 5.
Helium is non-flammable.
_______ 6.
There is more nitrogen than oxygen in the air.
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_______ 7.
Water is made up of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.
_______ 8.
Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are necessary for humans to
survive.
Directions: Based on the reading passage, write the letter of the correct
answer on the space provided at the left of each number.
______1.
The passage mainly discusses ______________________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
_____ 2.
the importance of the three life supporting elements
the properties of the most abundant element in the universe
how nitrogen is used to make explosives
how oxygen combines with other elements
The element responsible for corrosion is _______________.
A.
B.
_____ 3.
Oxygen
Nitrogen
C.
D.
Hydrogen
Helium
high temperatures
nitrogen compounds
C.
D.
explosives
catalysts
When a substance is said to be ‘nonflammable’, it __________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
_____ 6.
hydrogen
helium
The pronoun “they” in line 7, in paragraph 8, refers to ______.
A.
B.
_____ 5.
C.
D.
According to the passage, which of the following is responsible of
maintaining normal body temperature in humans?
A.
B.
_____ 4.
nitrogen
oxygen
catches fire easily
does not catch fire at all
does not combine with other elements
has the ability to convert from one element to another
According to the reading, which of the following is NOT true?
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A.
B.
C.
D.
Hydrogen is lighter than helium.
Oxygen is heavier than hydrogen.
Hydrogen is more abundant than oxygen.
Helium is heavier than oxygen.
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