Download doc ap us history notes

Exploration
Explorers in the late 15th, 16th, nad early 17th centuries began the European phase of
American history. Their "discoveries" in the New dispelled rumors of a northwest passage
and settled ancient questions of world geography. Contact between Europeans and Native
Americans would have a dramatic effect on Europe, but a devastating impact on those who
were wrongly called "Indians."
Christopher Columbus: Spanish explorer who, with the backing of Ferdinand V and
Isabella I, discovered the North American continent on October 12,1492. Though he was
originally seeking a westward route to India, his fleet of ships consisting of the Nina, Pinta
and Santa Maria reached the island of Hispanola, claiming it for Spain.
Giovanni Verrazano: Mariner who explored the East coast of the United States and Nova
Scotia under the commission of France in 1524. He was commissioned to claim new lands
in the New World and find a route to China. He was the first European to enter New York
Bay. His land claims were not colonized until the 17th century.
Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer who was the first person to sail across the
Pacific Ocean and to circumnavigate the globe. Sailing under a Spanish commission, he
attempted to reach the Spice Islands. After crossing the Pacific, Magellan was killed battling
natives in the Philippines but two of his ships returned to Spain.
Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer and military leader who conquered Peru. Pizarro was
part of many early explorations of the New World and was involved in the colonization of
Panama. When he found the Inca empire in Peru he organized a expedition of 180 men and
destroyed the empire in 1531.
John Cabot: Explorer sent by Henry VII in 1497 who explored and claimed Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia and the Grand Banks for England. Cabot was originally sent by Henry in
violation of the treaty of Tordesillas to find a direct route to Asia. Cabot, like Columbus
thought he had reached Asia, unaware he was exploring a new continent.
Pedro Alvares Cabral: Portuguese navigator and explorer who explored what is now
Brazil. While making a trip to India on April, 22, 1500 his fleet was forced off course by
weather and he reached what is now the state of Bahia, Brazil. He claimed this land for
Portugal.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa: Spanish explorer who is best known for being the first to reach the
Pacific Ocean in 1513. While attempting to escape debt he joined an expedition lead by
Martin Fernandez de Enciso where he took control of the party and led it across the Isthmus
of Panama to the Pacific Ocean, which he claimed for the Spanish monarchs.
Jacques Cartier: French explorer who explored the Saint Lawrence River. In 1534 Cartier
lead a two ship party to find the northwest passage to Asia. He explored Newfoundland and
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. While exploring, he claimed the lands for France which made up
most of its claim to Canada.
Juan Ponce de Leon: Spanish explorer who discovered the present day state of Florida on
March 27, 1512. Following reports of a fountain of youth, he sailed from his colony in
Puerto Rico to the eastern shore of Florida where, upon landing, his party was attacked by
natives and where he was mortally wounded before retreating to Cuba.
Hernando Cortez: Spanish conquistador who is best known for the destruction of the Aztec
Empire in present day Mexico. On February 19,1519 Cortez left Cuba with a force of 600
men. Upon landing, Cortez was greeted by the Aztecs who he began to subjugate. He
destroyed all resistance and destroyed the Aztec capital in present day Mexico City.
encomiendas: Grants that give a person the right to take labor in the form of slaves or any
type of homage form a designated group of Indians. Christopher Columbus who was sailing
for Spain and who was one of the first conquistadors also began this practice in Hispanolia.
Spanish Armada, 1588: Naval force launched by Phillip II of Spain to fight England. The
Fleet was the largest of its time in the 16th century. The Armada was severely damaged
when it was attacked off the coast of England on August 7,1588 and cut nearly in half by
storms upon return to Spain, making Britain the dominant sea power.
Colombian Exchange: The exchange of biological organisms between continents. The
diseases brought to the American continent that helped to nearly destroy the native
populations is one example of that exchange. Besides disease, many plants and animals have
been brought to new environments with varying consequences.
•Order of Colonization: (colony, date, prominent figure) Virginia in 1607, John Smith;
Plymouth in 1620, William Bradford; New York in 1626, Peter Minuit; Massachusetts Bay
in 1630, John Winthrop; Maryland in 1633, George Calvert; Rhode Island in 1636, Roger
Williams; Connecticut in 1636, Thomas Hooker; New Hampshire in 1638; Delaware in
1638; North Carolina in 1653; South Carolina in 1663; New Jersey in 1664; Pennsylvania in
1682, William Penn; Georgia in 1732, James Oglethorpe.
Virginia Settlement
One of the New England colonies and chartered by James I in 1606, Virginia was founded
to give the English territorial claims to America as well as to offer a colonial market for
trade. Jamestown, became a prosperous shipping and tobacco producing colony and the
colony developed the House of Burgesses, a bicameral legislature in 1619.
Joint Stock Company: A business owned by investors through control of stocks. Examples
operated in England and dealt with colonial markets in America. Such companies organized
and supported the colonies through charters from the British government and while they
worked with the government they made private profits.
•Jamestown: The first successful settlement in the Virginia colony founded in May, 1607.
Harsh conditions nearly destroyed the colony but in 1610 supplies arrived with a new wave
of settlers. The settlement became part of the Virginia Company of London in 1620. The
population remained low due to lack of supplies until agriculture was solidly established.
Jamestown grew to be a prosperous shipping port when John Rolfe introduced tobacco as a
major export and cash crop.
starving time: The period early in any settlements development when food and supplies are
scarce due to lack of preparation, unfamiliarity with the surroundings, weather, and inability
to successfully grow crops. The starving time usually cost a large percentage of the settlers
lives and lasted for the first few years.
John Smith: Colonial leader who brought structure and stability to Jamestown during its
starting years. As a member of the governing council of Virginia he was chosen to replace
the previous president in 1608. Smith is credited with organizing trade with the Powhatan
Confederacy and leading the colony through its roughest years.
John Rolfe: English colonist and farmer who greatly aided the colony. Rolfe is credited
with introducing tobacco as a crop for export, which ensured the colony of profits as well as
bringing eight years of peace between Indians and colonists through his marriage to
Pocahontas.
purpose of Virginia: Virginia was founded primarily for the purpose of profit by the jointstock owned Virginia Company of London. It was also important in giving England
territorial claims in America to match Spanish and French expansion, and to also give
England markets and resources in the New World.
indentured servants: People who promised their lives as servants in order to get to the
colonies. The servants, who were usually white, worked for a certain amount of time so to
pay off their debt. This practice led to social tensions with such eruptions as Bacon’s
Rebellion and eventually was replaced by race slavery.
problems and failures of Virginia: Included trouble with Indians and a "starving time" in
the winter of 1609 which the colony barely survived. Virginia also suffered from debt, a
high death rate, fraudulent local officials, and more Indian trouble. The problems eventually
made the Virginia Company go bankrupt.
headright system: System enacted first in Virginia then in Baltimore to attract people to the
sparsely populated colonies. The system worked by granting large amount of land to anyone
who brought over a certain amount of colonists. In Baltimore, anyone bringing five adults at
their own expense would receive two thousand acres.
House of Burgesses: A regular assembly of elected representatives that developed in the
Virginia colony in the 1630’s. The House of Burgesses was split into two chambers in 1650,
creating the House of Burgesses and the Governors Council. The House was a bicameral
legislature that was a model for our congress.
successes of Virginia: Virginia succeeded politically in terms of creating the House of
Burgesses as a semi-democratic assembly and forcing governors to cooperate with the
legislature. They did this through the power of the purse as governors did not control
money, and therefore depended on the legislature for they salaries.
Cavalier: The group of supporters of Charles I in the English Civil War which lasted from
1642-1648. The term Cavalier continued to be used to mean any supporter of the British
crown, especially Americans who were British sympathizers during the American
Revolution.
•Bacon’s Rebellion: Colonial rebellion against the governor of Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel
Bacon was the leader of the uprising protesting Governor Berkeley’s neglect of calls for a
stronger military presence in the frontier to end problems caused by Indian hostility. The
revolt succeeded in driving away the governor and it appeared it would achieve success
when Bacon died shortly after the initial success before any progress was made and the
rebellion dissipated.
Puritans
The Puritans first came to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. The Pilgrims, as they were
called, were separating from the Anglican church and escaping religious persecution in
England by escaping to America. Other Puritans soon flocked to America hoping to "purify"
the Anglican Church and develop a colony which would be a model to the world ("a city
upon a hill")
Calvinism: The teachings and doctrine of John Calvin, a leader in the Protestant
reformation. Calvinism is unique in its rejection of consubstantiation, the Eucharist and in
its doctrine of predestination, the belief that no actions taken during a persons life would
effect their salvation. The Puritan colonies were based on Calvinist doctrine.
Church of England: The established church in England that is also known as the Anglican
church. The Church of England was founded in 1534 by Henry VIII after a dispute with the
Roman Catholic church over the annulment of his marriage which culminated in the Act of
Supremacy, declaring the King to be the head of the church.
Mayflower Compact: Agreement made by the Pilgrims in 1620 when they landed at
Plymouth. The compact created the Plymouth colony and made a civil government under
James I based on the will of the colonists. The Compact was important in the early
organization and success of the colony.
William Bradford: The second governor of the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts, he was
elected over John Carver in 1621 and was reelected thirty times. He was important in the
organization and success of the colony and kept a history of the development of the
Plymouth colony that was published in 1856.
Pilgrims: The original group of puritan separatists that fled religious persecution in England
and found refuge in what is now Massachusetts. The Pilgrims sailed across the Atlantic and
reached America in 1620 where they founded the Plymouth colony and organized a
government based on the Mayflower compact.
Puritans: Reform movement in the Anglican church in the 16th and 17th centuries and
came to America in 1629. The movement aimed at purifying the church of corruption split
into separatists, who wanted to end ties with the established church and non-separatists.
Seeking religious freedom was a strong motivation for colonies in America.
•PILGRIMS VS. PURITANS: Pilgrims and Puritans were extremely similar in most
practices and beliefs, but Pilgrims were a distinct group of puritans who were not only
against the Anglican church but called for total separation from the church, a dangerous
belief in religiously tense England. For this reason they fled the town of Scrooby, England,
where they originally had assembled and ended up in Plymouth with intentions of creating a
community free of English control.
Separatists vs. Non-Separatists: Separatists were a group of Puritans who advocated total
withdrawal from the Church of England and wanted the freedom to worship independently
from English authority. They included the Pilgrims who migrated to America. NonSeparatists sought to reform the Church from within.
Massachusetts Bay Colony: Colony created by the Massachusetts Bay Company. Under
the leadership of John Winthrop, the colony was created to provide the world with a model
Christian society. The colony was created in 1630 and it was governed through a General
Court selected by church members.
•City Upon a Hill: Name given to the Puritan society that was to be created in the New
World. The leader of the Puritan migration, John Winthrop planned to create a utopian
society based on Puritanism that would have no class distinction and would stress the
importance of community and church. The society was to be an example to all the world of
what could be achieved. It was anticipated that once the world saw this great city it would
follow it example.
Cambridge agreement: Plan used in 1629 to colonize America by allowing immigration of
puritan settlers who would control the government and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay
company. The agreement was based on the creation of a market for trade but instead
developed a religiously based government.
Puritan Migration: The term given to the migration of Puritans to America in the early
17th century. Following the restoration of James I to the throne Puritans in England became
persecuted and with the accession of Charles I to the throne the situation became worse. The
puritans fled England and came to America to have freedom of religion.
John Winthrop: The first governor and one of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay
Colony and a member of the Massachusetts Bay Company. He played a key role in the
puritan migration and intended to create a utopian society in America. He was elected
governor twelve times and pursued a conservative religious and governmental policy.
saints: High standing members of the church who gained recognition and were put on a
council that governed the congregation. Under Puritan doctrine, to become a saint the person
had to be a member of the congregation and have been chosen by the church council.
New England Way: The Puritan dominance of New England and their desire to create a
utopian society based on their doctrine created a distinct society in New England. Unlike
other colonies, Puritans were guided by their religion and created a government and society
tied to the church.
Covenant Theology: Christian Theology that stressed that a agreement was made by God
with humans with the death of Jesus for the salvation of mankind. The theology differs from
sect to sect, some assert that salvation is granted to all, some that its is earned and others that
it can be achieved by faith alone.
conversion relation: Part of the Massachusetts Puritans practice, it was a requirement of
new members. The Relation required that any member of the congregation must go through
an examination before the congregation. Because of its unpleasantness, later generations did
not go accept it and the half-way covenant was adopted.
Congregationalism: Protestant organizational system based on the freedom of each church
to control its affairs. An offshoot of the separatist, it was continued by the pilgrims in
America where it was adopted by the new churches as a way to maintain local
independence. Congregationalism was part of the strong independence of the colonies.
Cambridge Platform: Agreement and plan formed by Puritans before they landed in 1629.
The platform was the source for the Puritans of the government and organization for their
colony, and it established a government under the authority of the King of England.
Contrast Puritan Colonies with others: Because most colonies were created with financial
or political gains in mind, puritan colonies had a special distinction from them. The puritans
came to American seeking religious freedom and had a strong work ethic enabling them to
achieve a success not seen in other colonies.
dissenters: People objected to the accepted doctrine of the established church. The puritans
who migrated to America were dissenters from the Church of England who created a new
church in the colonies. Religious outcasts from the puritan church such as Ann Hutchinson
and Roger Williams were also dissenters.
Anne Hutchinson, antinomianism: Early New England religious leader who founded the
doctrine of antinomianism, the belief that the Gospel frees Christians from required
obedience to laws. She was banished to Rhode Island in 1637 for her belief in
antinomianism and her insistence on salvation by faith and not works.
Roger Williams, Rhode Island: Early colonial clergyman who founded the religiously
tolerant colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Williams was banished from Massachusetts for his
belief in religious freedom, he established a colony at Providence in 1636 that tolerated all
dissenters and was in good relations with the Natives.
Massachusetts School Law: Law also Known as the Old Deluder Act of 1647, that
replaced home education by creating a system in which small towns would have a person
capable of teaching the children and every town of over one hundred homes would have a
school. The law was a step towards creating a universal education system.
town meetings: The center of Colonial America political life especially in New England.
Town Meetings were gatherings where all the voters in the town or nearby countryside
would all congregate and go over issues that most interested them, such as town officers,
and taxes for the following season.
Voting Granted to Church Members: The New England puritans developed a more
democratic system of government than in England that gave the power to elect the governor
to all male saints. The idea was furthered in 1644 when it adopted a bicameral court with
elected delegates.
Half Way Covenant: A modification in the Cambridge Platform in 1662 that enabled
people who had not experienced the conversion relation to become part of the congregation.
With the later generations of Protestant settlers unwilling to undergo the conversion relation,
church membership was threatened and the compromise was made.
Brattle Street Church: Church located in Boston, Mass. Completed in 1699. Thomas
Brattle, a wealthy merchant and official of Harvard College organized the church against the
will of Cotton Mather because of its closeness to the Church of England. The Church was
strongly opposed to the Salem Witchcraft trials in 1692.
•SALEM WITCH TRIALS: The fear of witchcraft that came to a head in the 1691-1963,
especially boiling over in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. This fear ended with the death of
many innocent women. Most of the women were middle aged wives or widows. Many
implicated others for fear of their lives. The Salem Witch Trials pinpointed the underlying
tension that was coming to head in many colonies due to religion and social standings.
Puritan Ethic: Term that characterizes the strong sense of purpose and discipline that
Puritans had. Part of the work ethic also resulted from a belief that wealth and success were
a sign of saintliness and that idleness was a sin. This work ethic also helped the Puritans find
success in the colonies and translated to an American colonial work ethic.
Regionalism
As life in the colonies progressed, certain regions of America developed distinct
characteristics and each had its own unique niche. The contrasts between the different
regions were involving crops, religion, and control. The distinct regions were New England
,the Chesapeake Bay area, the southern colonies, the middle colonies, and the frontier.
•NEW ENGLAND: Region of the colonies lying on the northeast Atlantic Coast. It started
as a highly religious, Puritan society, but eventually became a commercialized "Yankee"
society. Of all the colonies, the New Englanders prospered the least, had the most
overpopulated towns, and had the poorest soil. To make up for the lack of farming, New
Englanders turned to fishing and the merchant marine, and by 1700, this was one of the
largest industries in the colonies.
New England Confederation, 1643: A concord among the New England colonies of
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven in the years from 1643-1684. The
union was for the purpose of ensuring safety and peace between the colonies. The
confederation was used most effectively advising during King Phillips War.
•The Dominion of New England: Centralized government imposed upon the New England
colonies by England in 1686 as a result of the Restoration monarchy’s need for control and
renewed colonial interest. The Dominion was governed by New York governor Sir Edmund
Andros. The consolidation was strongly opposed by the colonists because of the elimination
of all colonial legislatures, and was ended by colonial insurrection.
Massachusetts Bay Company: Company in 1628 to govern the Massachusetts Bay Colony
on granted by the Council of New England in America. Puritan settlers who founded their
settlement at Boston first colonized the land, starting a trend of religiously independent
settlements. The Company was dissolved in 1684.
Sir Edmund Andros: Political leader appointment as governor of the Dominion of New
England in 1686. Andros was extremely unpopular because of his suppression of colonial
legislatures, town meetings and enforcement of the Navigation Acts. Boston colonists
forcefully removed Andros from office in 1689.
Thomas Hooker: Religious leader in colonial America and founder of Hartford, Conn. As a
clergyman in Massachusetts, Hooker grew dissatisfied with the rigid practices and
government of the Puritan church. In 1635 he lead a group of followers to start a more
liberal colony in Hartford.
Saybrook Platform: A modified version of the Cambridge platform that was used by
Connecticut Congregationalists and contained a more centralized church government. The
government was for the colony at Saybrook of which John Winthrop’s son was governor.
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The constitution of the Connecticut colony that was
established in 1639. Written by Thomas Hooker and similar to the government of
Massachusetts Bay, it contained a preamble and 11 orders. Following the puritan ideal, it put
the welfare of the community above that of individuals.
Poor Richard’s Almanack: Publication written by Benjamin Franklin in 1732 that gained an
immense following with its home remedies and practical wisdom. It can be said that Poor
Richard’s Almanack helped define the American culture by giving them traditions and
wisdom’s all their own, separate from Britain.
Phillis Wheatly: African American poet who was brought to America by slave traders at the
age of eight and was bought by the Wheatly family. In 1767, at the age of 8, Phillis found
her first fame while escorting one of the Wheatly’s in England. One of her works is "To the
University of Cambridge in New England."
Ann Bradstreet: The first woman to write poems in colonial America and receive acclaim
for them. She was born in 1612 as the daughter of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay
Colony. Her poems, which were published as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in
America, asserted that women had the right to gain knowledge.
•SOUTHERN COLONIES: Region consisting mainly of the Carolinas and Georgia. The
Southern Colonies were distinct from other colonies mostly on their dependence for slave
labor and for farming. The main crop in the South was rice, leading to an absence of large
cities in the south. But although most southern cities were tiny, Charleston became the
fourth largest city in the colonies. The Southern Colonies were also the only colonies with a
large population of blacks and an ethnically stratified society.
Culpeper’s Rebellion: Rebellion against the colonial government in Carolina in 1677. The
rebellion was lead by John Culpeper and was directed against the government’s acceptance
of English trade laws. The rebellion succeeded in disposing the governor and placing
Culpeper in his position, but he was removed in 1679.
Georgia: Colony founded in 1733 by a charter granted to James Oglethorpe. The colony
started with a settlement in Savanna created by Oglethorpe as a debtor’s colony. The high
ideals of Oglethorpe, such as bans on slavery and rum, slowed growth as large settlement
did not occur until after slavery was brought to Georgia.
James Oglethorpe: English soldier and founder of the colony of Georgia in 1733.
Oglethorpe founded Georgia after a grant from King George II and settled with a small
group on the Savanna River. Oglethorpe’s ideals in creating a debtors colony free of vice
were a distinction from other colonies.
Tidewater vs. Piedmont: Two regions of contrasting economic opportunity. The Tidewater
was along the coast, where most of the opportunity was in shipping and fishing. the
Piedmont, on the other hand, was where farming took place. This contrast represented an
East-West dichotomy to accompany the North-South one.
Maryland: Proprietary colony originally intended to be a refuge for English Catholics.
Maryland was created in 1632 when Lord Baltimore (Cecilius Calvert) was given a land
grant and created a manor based state with a headright system. However, Protestants formed
a majority and the manors evolved into plantations.
sugar colonies: Colonies that produced sugar for England, like New Netherlands, New
England, Virginia, Maryland, and the Caribbean. Sugar was produced because it could make
people rich quickly because it was sold at very high prices. Sugar plantation owners liked to
use black slaves because they were able to work harder and longer.
•CHESAPEAKE SOCIETY: Society characterized by few neighbors and isolated families
whose lives depended on tobacco. Chesapeake society also revolved around fertile soil near
navigable water because tobacco needed such an environment to be grown profitably.
Because of this, most farms were located along Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake society also
had a powerful merchant class who controlled both export and import commerce. Slow
urbanization also characterized society around the Chesapeake.
Lord Baltimore: Founder of Maryland who, in 1632, received a charter from King Charles
I for a tract of land to the northeast of the colony of Virginia. It comprised the present-day
states of Maryland and Delaware. He wrote the charter for the colony but died before he got
it.
Maryland Act of Toleration: Act that resulted when the Catholics began feeling threatened
by the overwhelming Protestant population. The Maryland Act of Toleration was passed in
1649 so all types of Christians could have equal political rights. Along with this equality
Lord Calvert allowed a representative assembly for the Catholics.
Maryland’s Protestant Association: Group of Protestants in Maryland during late 1600s
who controlled the lower house but not the upper, which the Catholics ruled. Eventually,
after the Act of Religious Toleration was passed, the Protestant majority barred Catholics
from voting and threw out the governor and repealed the act.
Huguenots: French Protestants. The enlightened and religiously skeptical spirit of the 18th
century, however, was opposed to religious persecution, and during this time the French
Protestants gradually regained many of their rights. The Huguenots slowed the colonization
process for the French, because of the religious wars with French Catholics.
Carolinas: Colonies created when Charles II rewarded eight of the noblemen who had
helped him regain the throne from the Puritan rule in 1663 by giving them land. North
Carolina originated as an extension of Virginia and South Carolina came from planters from
Barbados, who founded Charleston in 1670.
John Locke, Fundamental Constitution: Intricate constitution written by Cooper and John
Locke in 1670, meant to stabilize the government of Carolina by basing the social rank on
one’s "landed wealth." It formed the three orders of nobility with the proprietors at the top,
the caciques in the middle, and the landgraves at the bottom.
Charleston: City that became the fourth largest city in North America. It was a place where
the upper class could pass their time so they could stay away from the heat of their
plantations. Many whites were lured to Charleston in hopes of reducing the black majority.
These job seekers usually ended up competing for jobs with the black slaves.
staple crops of the South: The major staple crop of the south was rice, which was picked
by African-American planters who were imported by the Dutch in 1616. Other crops were
tobacco, indigo, various grains, wood, and skins. All of these products were exported to
Europe and the west Indies. Most of the colonists’ profit came from farming.
•Middle Colonies: The middle colonies were Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey, all
of which produced iron, grain, flour, wood, and tobacco which were exported to Britain,
Europe and the West Indies. Pennsylvania was built on the basis of being a religious haven
for Quakers. New York was built upon the rule of James Duke of York who sent out John
Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret to be the first two proprietors of New Jersey.
Restoration Colonies: Colonies created following the Stuart restoration in 1660 when
England again took interest in America. The colonies enabled England to control the East
Coast, Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These colonies had governments
that made a social hierarchy geared toward a dominant wealthy class.
Primogeniture, entail: The practice of passing on land to a son, usually the eldest, when no
will was left for the land. This practice became came over with the colonists and was
introduced into common law, but it did not take long for the practice to die out in the
colonies.
quitrents: Federal payments that the freeholders had to pay the people who were getting the
land from proprietors. With the Restoration and the creation of Restoration Colonies, the
dues were still enforced, with the money no longer going to the proprietors but instead to the
king or queen as royal revenue.
SPG, Society for the Propagation of the Gospel: An organization founded in 1701 to
serve the spiritual welfare of the colonists. After a visit to Maryland, Thomas Bray received
a royal charter from King William for overseas missionary work. It was seen as a
conspiracy, thus showing a fear of tyranny of the church and state.
Pennsylvania, William Penn: Pennsylvania was founded as a refuge for Quakers by
William Penn in 1681. The Quakers believed that an "inner-light" allowed them to be on a
personal level with God. Penn and his people did not experience a starving time which was
very common for starting colonies. They started with a strong government.
Quakers: Religious movement founded in 1600 by a religious belief that divine revelation
is immediate and individual and that all persons may perceive the word of God in their soul.
They rejected a formal creed and regarded every participant as a potential vessel for the
word of God. They were based in Pennsylvania.
George Fox: Preacher of the "inner-light" doctrine who spoke against formalized religion,
mainly Presbyterianism, and advocated divine communion as he practiced it. He objected to
political and religious authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human
actions must be directed by inner contemplation.
George Keith: Member of the Quaker church who told the Quakers that they needed a
formal doctrine. His ideas were not accepted among the Quaker majority, so in 1692 he
joined the Church of England. With his heresy conviction the Quaker population in
Pennsylvania dropped, and the Anglican population and political power rose.
liberal land laws in PA: Laws that were set up by William Penn which were very liberal
because that was his nature. The 1701 Frame of Government stated that the proprietors had
no power to do mischief. Penn himself carefully oversaw land sales in the colonies to avoid
improper disputes. This liberal planning ensured no starving time.
Holy Experiment: The main part of this theology that George Fox taught was that people
had an inner light that could spiritually inspire their souls. He objected to political and
religious authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human actions should be
directed by inner contemplation and a social conscience inspired by God.
1701 Frame of Government: The first set of laws set up in Pennsylvania which were
written by William Penn. In his constitutional type document Penn preached "that the will of
one man may not hinder the good of the whole company." The document was revised seven
times and held a strong executive, and a limited lower legislative chamber.
New York: Dutch, 1664 English: Charles II gave his brother James title to all the Dutch
lands in America in 1664. James became King in 1685 and appointed Lord Berkeley and Sir
George Carteret as the first proprietors of New Jersey. For years to come there were
conflicting claims to the territory and finally in 1702 it became a royal colony.
East/ West Jersey: They were colonies that resulted from the sale of the Jersey territory to
Quakers. English settlers resisted the original proprietors’ authority, so in 1674 Berkeley
sold his half to a union of Quakers. East Jersey then became dominated by Scottish Quakers
whereas West Jersey became the home to many English Quakers.
patroon system: The system of feudal estates created by large New York landowners in the
early 1700s. The estates were created in order to raise revenue by collecting tenant rents.
Later, by about 1750, the patroon owners emerged as a class of landed elite, almost like the
British landed aristocracy.
Peter Struyvesant: Dutch governor who was attacked by Charles II in 1664 so that the
British could control North America. Struyvesant, whose army was already hurt from Indian
attacks, peacefully surrendered and gave New Netherlands to Charles II, forming the New
York and Jersey colonies with a large remaining Dutch population.
the middle colonies as a religious haven: William Penn founded Pennsylvania originally as
a religious haven for Quakers who were not accepted elsewhere in 1681. Similarly,
Maryland was founded by George Calvert in 1632 and served as a refuge for English
Catholics. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams in 1644 for dissenting Puritans.
crops in the middle colonies: The middle colonies rich level lands produced lengthy
growing seasons and gave good bumper crops. The middle colonies were major exporting
colonies because of their accessible sea ports. Their exports were rice, iron, grain, flour,
wood, and tobacco which were shipped to Europe and the West Indies.
New York City and Philadelphia as urban centers: Both cities were the two biggest
exporting cities in America thus making them rapidly growing urban centers. High
population and bad sanitation allowed many of the people to catch viruses and diseases.
Recessions hit frequently and the job force was very unstable.
Leisler’s Rebellion: Anti-Stuart rebellion in which Captain Jacob Leisler took command
over New York in hopes of protecting it from Andros and other supporters of James II. In
1691, Leisler denied the passing of English troops to important forts, leading to his arrest
and death when his enemies gained control of the government.
Benjamin Franklin: A notable American printer, author, diplomat, philosopher, and
scientist, his contributions epitomized the Enlightenment. In 1731 he founded what was
probably the first public library in America. He first published Poor Richard’s Almanack in
1732 and played a crucial role in the American Revolution and community.
John Bartram: Botanist who was known as the father of American Botany. Bartram
traveled extensively through the colonies, observing wildlife, writing, collecting plants, and
making maps. He performed important experiments involving plant hybridization and in
1728 he founded the first botanical garden in America near Philadelphia.
•FRONTIER: Area of land important in the development of a distinctly American culture
and political life, as explained by Fredrick Turner’s Frontier Thesis. The frontier also
offered limitless land, which democratized America by elimating the significance of voting
property requirements. Finally, the frontier represented a raw environment that helped mold
American civilization by giving it coarseness, strength, acuteness, pragmatism, and
inventiveness.
North-South economic differences: The North was much more concerned with shipping,
fishing, and industry whereas the South was based on an agricultural society. Also, the
North had more towns, cities, and ports. In contrast, the South was characterized by cash
crops, an aristocracy, and plantations.
Red, White, and Black
With the colonization of certain regions in America came conflicts with the Native
Americans and the earliest traces of slavery in America. Originally using AfricanAmericans only as indentured servants, the growers and farmers eventually began to rely on
African-Americans and Native Americans as a free source of labor.
Iroquois Confederacy: The joining of six sects of the Iroquoian family and of the Eastern
Woodlands area. By the 1700s, the tribes in the confederacy were the Onondaga, Cayuga,
Oneida, Mohawk, Seneca, and Tuscarors. By combining they were a stronger force against
the colonists.
Native American Relations in the first settlements: Relations characterized by resistance
to the expansion of English settlement, submission into "praying towns," and devastation
through war and disease. Many of the Massachusetts Indians sought protection from
Winthrop by selling their land and surrendering their independence.
Pequot War: So-called war consisting of clumsy plundering by Massachusetts troops and
raids by Pequots in 1637. The colonists eventually won the alliance of rival tribes and waged
a ruthless campaign. The war tipped the balance of military power to the English, opening
the way to New England’s settlement.
King Phillips War: War between the Native American tribes of New England and British
colonists that took place from 1675-1676. The war was the result of tension caused by
encroaching white settlers. The chief of the Wampanoags, King Philip lead the natives. The
war ended Indian resistance in New England and left a hatred of whites.
Tuscaroras and Yamasees: Two opposing Indians tribes whose disunity lead both to
destruction. The Tuscaroran people were defeated by the colonists with the help of the
Yamasees in 1713, and the Yamasees were themselves defeated around 1715. Both tribes
were scattered and soon disappeared.
praying towns: Towns set up by puritan missionaries for Indian converts to spread puritan
Christianity, the first of which, Natick, was founded in 1651. As the Indian population in the
east waned, assimilation as "Praying Indians" became the only option besides retreating
farther west.
Beaver Wars: Wars that resulted from furious trading and hunting of Beaver pelts by the
Dutch, the French, and the New Netherlands. The Overhunting of Beavers sent prices so
high in 1742 that the Dutch armed the Iroquois and what resulted was bloody battles against
Pro-French tribes.
•SLAVERY BEGINS: Followed the exploration of the African coast and the establishment
of a slave trade Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The slave trade then moved in to
America as the development of a plantation system in Virginia offered a market for slavery
and the first slaves arrived there in 1619. Slavery remained small among the colonies,
however because it was not yet profitable for slavery under the conditions. As trade and
agriculture grew and a plantation system grew so did slavery.
Barbados Code: Code adopted by Carolina in 1696 to control slaves at the will of their
masters. It was often noted as an inhumane code but the society revolved around slaves, so
laws like this were created in order to keep control in the society. White owners relied on
force and fear to control the growing black majority in the Carolinas.
Maryland Slave Code, 1661: The first actual definition by the colonies of slavery as a
"lifelong, inheritable, racial status." It was issued by Maryland in 1661 in order to set up a
distinct place for the slaves in the society. Out of the Maryland Slave Code of 1661 came the
establishing of other slave codes that set up strict legal codes.
Stono Rebellion: Slave uprising in South Carolina in 1739, in which twenty slaves robbed
guns and ammunition from the Stono River Bridge along with killing civilians. Officials
suppressed the rebellion and stopped any more chaos and damage. It was a significant
encounter because it caused white apprehension and led to a new slave code.
Salutary Neglect
Britain’s absence in colonial America due to pressing issues in England left the colonies
alone for the most part to govern themselves. During this time they flourished and developed
a British origin, yet with a distinctly American flavor. It was because of this absence that the
colonies became more self sufficient and eventually it led them to a feeling of individuality
that they feared losing, thus bringing forth the Declaration of Independence after a series of
events.
mercantilism: features, rationale, impact on Great Britain, impact on the different colonies:
Economic policy prevailing in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries under which
governmental control was exercised over industry and trade in accordance with the theory
that national strength is increased by a majority of exports over imports. The colonies
adopted mercantilism as business in which the mother country could benefit.
triangular trade: Trade that takes place between three places is called triangular trade.
Colonial trade was not very triangular because the Navigation Acts forced American
merchants to trade only with Britain. However, the Americans still managed to smuggle
goods with the French Caribbean and India.
consignment systems: A system of drafting sailors into the British navy. The British could
freely use the soldiers at their convenience by the rules of this draft. The draft caused many
problems in the life of young American men. Many teenagers tried to avoid the draft by
giving false information about themselves.
Molasses Act, 1733: Legislation by the British Parliament for taxing and imposing shipment
restrictions on sugar and molasses imported into the profitable colonies from the West
Indies. It was meant to create profitable trade as a protective tariff, but it was never meant to
raise revenue.
Woolens Act, 1699; Hat Act, 1732: Iron Act, 1750: Act specifying certain enumerated
goods—principally tobacco, rice, and indigo—that the colonists could export only to
another English colony or to England. These were attempts to prevent manufacturing in the
British colonies that might threaten the economy of England.
Currency Act, 1751: Act passed by British Parliament that affected the colonies by
adjusting the currency. The point of this attack was to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was
a clear example of how Salutary Neglect was coming to an end with the French and Indian
War.
Currency Act, 1764: Another Act passed by the British Parliament that affected the
colonies and was meant to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was very similar to the other
previous Currency Act but this act was targeted towards the people and raising the taxes so
that the Parliament could make more money.
Magna Carta, 1215: A charter granted by King John, that exactly established the
relationship between the kings and barons and guaranteed ideas of free commerce, the right
to a fair trial, and the right to a trial by your peers. Many of the base rights in the United
States Constitution are included in it.
Petition of Right, 1628: Petition given to Charles I by parliament, asking him to stop
sending soldiers to live in private citizens homes, stop taxing without its consent and stop
declaring martial law in a time of peace. This occurred partially because Charles was trying
to pay off his war debt.
Habeas Corpus Act: Act saying that a person can not be held in prison without being
charged and tried. They put this into effect to help stop innocent people from being thrown
into jail with no specific reason why. This idea was adopted into our Constitution in Article
1, Section 9. It can only be revoked in time of rebellion.
Navigation Act, 1651: Parliament passed this legislation in 1651 in order to protect English
trade from foreign competition. It was only temporary and it stated that goods imported or
exported by the colonies in Africa and Asia must be shipped out or imported only by
English vessels and the crews must be 75% British. It also helped U.S. capitalism.
Navigation Act, 1660: This Parliamentary act renewed the 1651 act and specified certain
innumerable articles which could be exported only to the English or to another English
colony in 1660. Among these goods were tobacco, rice, and indigo. American shipbuilding
thus prospered and there was a stable protected market for producers.
Navigation Act, 1663: This Parliamentary act disallowed colonial merchants from
exporting products like sugar and tobacco anywhere except to England and from importing
goods in ships not made and produced by the English. Along with the 1660 act, it was
passed to help English commercial interests in 1663 but helped the U.S.
Navigation Act, 1696: This was the fifth and final Parliamentary Navigation Act. It allowed
for methods of enforcing the acts, provided more penalties for evasion, and introduced use
of vice-admiralty courts. It was passed in 1696 in an effort to strengthen its effect on
colonists. It was felt much more harshly by the colonists and led to hostility
admiralty courts: These were courts that were created to bring sailors to trial for going
against the navigation acts. They were often held away from the colonies, a fact that the
colonies viewed as being unconstitutional. Also, the courts awarded judges money for every
conviction, thus judges became more apt to find people guilty.
merchants/markets: People and places involved in the trading system of the colonies were
merchants and the markets with which they traded. The Navigation Acts opened up British
markets to American merchants, and the number of merchants increased during the 1750’s
as well.
•BOARD OF TRADE, (of the Privy Council): This board was part of the Privy Council
which was one of the committees formed by the British Parliament In 1793 Britain’s Privy
Council sent out orders that any foreign ships caught trading with the French Islands located
in the Caribbean to be automatically captured and taken away. They deliberately waited to
publish these instructions so that American ships would be seized, causing over 250 ships
were captured.
Robert Walpole: Statesman who is considered Britain’s first prime minister. He entered the
English Parliament in 1701 and became a well known speaker for the Whig Party. In 1708
he was named Secretary of War. In 1739 he declared war on Spain, which caused division in
his party (Whigs) for support for him in elections.
the Enlightenment: A period in the 1700s when a new method of thought was employed. It
was a time when great minds awoke and started thinking, affecting the colonies as well as
Europe. Some beliefs brought to the forefront were the laws of nature, optimism, confidence
in human reason, and deism. Its ideas lead to revolutionary ideas.
John Locke’s Ideas: John Locke was a philosopher that supported Colonial America. He
criticized the "divine right" kings had and believed that the people should have a say and
that the supreme power should be state power, but only if they were governed by "natural"
law. His ideas can be seen in the Constitution.
John Peter Zenger Trial: Trial involving the founder of the New York Weekly Journal ,
who received money from influential town members. So when Zenger published articles by
his contributors that criticized Colonial government he was arrested and put on trial. He was
announced not guilty, his success paving the way for freedom of the press.
•COLONIAL GOVERNMENT: Characterized by regular assemblies and appointed
militia, law, and local administration. Often, these were dominated by the colonial elite
despite liberal qualifications for male voters. Because of low voter participation and
indifference toward politics, colonial government only truly flourished in the major seaports.
The most significant development of colonial government was the rise of the assembly and
the limiting of the power of governors.
Rise of the lower house: In Colonial America the lower house had increasingly equal if not
more power than the upper house. The house had the power of the purse which led them to
being the more dominant house. More common people could get into government than
before and make a difference which helped build the foundations of America.
•PROPRIETARY, CHARTER, ROYAL COLONIES: These are three ways one could
come upon owning land in Colonial America. One such way was for a company to give out
land so an area would become populated. Kings and Queens could also give away land as
well as people having property passed on to them, therefore having an influence on
decisions the new powers would make. All of these ideas helped shape America’s way of
government life.
colonial agents: Representatives sent by Great Britain to the colonies during the 17th and
18th centuries. They would observe the colonies and then send the information back to
England. The problem is by the time it got back to England the information that had once
been true was now old and wrong.
Glorious Revolution: When Mary and William over run James II in England in 1688,
British citizens saw this as a win in liberty for parliament would have more control than
ever. Moderate uprising that came out of the Colonial America during this time ended with
William and Mary taking apart the Dominion of New England.
Bill of Rights, 1689: Bill that said no Roman Catholics could hold a position of king or
queen in England. It also made it illegal for a monarch to postpone laws, have a standing
army, or levy taxes without the okay of the British Parliament. The colonies then interpreted
the law and used it against the British (levy tax).
Great Awakening
A series of religious revivals swept through the colonies in the 1730s. Key players were
Theodore Frelinghuysen, William and Gilbert Tenant, Jonathan Edwards, and George
Whitefield. Through the awakening emerged the decline of Quakers, founding of colleges,
an increase of Presbyterians, denomenationalism, and religious toleration.
Jonathan Edwards - Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, A Careful and Strict Enquiry
into. . . That freedom of Will: Sermon about how one must have a personal faith and
relationship with Jesus Christ to gain salvation instead of an afterlife in hell. The sermon
also used the fury of the divine wrath to arouse religious fervor.
George Whitefield: English clergyman who was known for his ability to convince many
people through his sermons. He involved himself in the Great Awakening in 1739 preaching
his belief in gaining salvation. Coming from Connecticut, most of his speeches were based
there. His presence helped raise the population by about 3000 people.
William Tennent: Presbyterian minister who played a chief role in the Great Awakening in
Central New Jersey by calling prayer meetings known as the Refreshings around the 1730’s.
Another one of his significant projects was the founding of his influential Log College
which had teachers educated in all areas of study.
Gilbert Tennent: American Presbyterian minister, in 1740 delivered a harsh sermon, "The
Dangers of Unconverted Ministry," in which he criticized conservative ministers who
opposed the fervor of the Great Awakening. The result was a schism (1741) in the
Presbyterian church between the "Old Lights" and the "New Lights," led by Tennent.
Old Lights, New lights: Two groups of ministries who frequently had heated debates on the
issue of God during the Great Awakening. The Old Lights rejected the Great Awakening
and the New Lights, who accepted it and sometimes suffered persecution because of their
religious fervor.
Harvard University: University located in Cambridge, Mass. that was founded in 1636 on
a grant from the Mass. Bay Colony. The school was originally organized to educate
ministers because of the scarcity of clergy and lack of an educational institution in the new
colony. The university eventually developed a more secular format
effects of the Great Awakening on religion in America: Long term effects of the Great
Awakening were the decline of Quakers, Anglicans, and Congregationalists as the
Presbyterians and Baptists increased. It also caused an emergence in black Protestantism,
religious toleration, an emphasis on inner experience, and denominationalism.
Great Britain Versus France
With America as a new prospect for both France and Great Britain, tensions grew
between the two countries. The result was a series of wars like King William’s War,
Queen Anne’s War, the War of Jenkin’s Ear, King George’s War, and the French and
Indian War.
Changes in land Claims of 1689, 1713, 1763: Before 1689 almost all of the land
belonged to Spain, and France with Britain only starting. Then by 1713 France was
dominating the North America and Britain was spreading up and down the coast. In 1763
with the Treaty of Paris, Britain became the overwhelming power.
Differences between French and British colonization: The French mostly had fur
traders and posts in North America so they could get goods, they were more inland and
made friends with the Indians. While the English were settling for good on the shore,
making homes and government- they were all there to start a new life.
Why Great Britain eventually won: When William Pitt joined the British leaders he
turned things around. He began to treat the Americans like equals or allies instead of
subordinates. This lead Americans to feel a sense of pride and a renewed sense of spirit
that sent them into several victories that made France eventually concede.
King William’s War: In Europe a war fought between the Grand Alliance and France
which also embroiled the colonies. The entire war was battled over who would reign in
England. In the colonies the Indians were fighting for the French. In 1697 fighting ceased
due to the Peace of Ryswick which restored Port Royal to the French.
Queen Anne’s War: The second of the four imperial wars that were fought between
Britain, France and Spain. It took place from 1702-1713. Though many Spanish colonial
towns were captured and burned by English forces, American colonists met with military
failure creating a feeling of dependence on Britain. The war ended with Peace of Utrecht.
Peace of Utrecht: Treaty that ended Queen Anne's War in 1713. Due to this treaty
France had to give up Acadia, Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory to England
but got to keep Cape Breton Island. The treaty also introduced a period of peace in which
the American colonists experienced growth economically and politically.
War of Jenkin’s Ear: This war was British versus Spain. It was fought in Georgia and
North Carolina. Lieutenant Governor William Gooch led Virginia’s 400 men into the
whole 3000 men colonial army and after their Colonel died Gooch succeeded him. When
they attacked Cartagena it proved disastrous, though Gooch wouldn’t report it that way.
King George’s War: War fought between Britain and France and Spain. It took place
not only in Europe but also in North America with American colonists supporting the
British with thousands of troops. In the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Britain gained lands in
India but lost Louisburg, which embittered Anglo-American relations.
•FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR: The French and Indian war was fought between
Britain and France. It lasted from 1754-1760, with the colonies supporting Britain and the
Indians supporting France. This war spanned three different continents and it was the
main factor in the ending of "salutary neglect." This war planted the seeds of
misunderstanding between Britain and the colonies and indirectly was one of the causes
of the Revolutionary War. Britain came out victoriously with the Treaty of Paris.
Coureurs de Bois- Unlicensed trader who traded illegally with Indians. Many young
men seeing only the prospective wealth left their families and traded illegally with
Indians, some even married into the tribes. They also enlisted Indians in the French
Army. These Coureurs de Bois were important in setting up fur trade in Canada.
Francis Parkman: Francis Parkman was one of the prominent historians of his time
(1823-1893). Most of his work concerned the conflict that arose between France and
Britain for land in Colonial America. Later on in his career he went west and traveled
with tribes, such as the Sioux, which ended with the book, The Oregon Trail.
Albany Plan of Union, Benjamin Franklin: Colonial confederation based on the ideas
of Franklin calling for each town to have independence in a large whole, known as a
Grand Council. It was used for military defense and Indian policies and set a precedent
for later American unity.
Edward Braddock: Braddock was the General of all the British Troops (French and
Indian War), he led an attack against Fort Duquesne, never reaching his destination for
they were attacked by the Monongahela River where 900 of his 1200 men were wounded
or killed. Braddock was wounded at this battle and died soon afterwards.
William Pitt: Prime minister for Britain, who helped Britain bounce back after the
Revolutionary War and who lead the war effort against France. Pitt had two terms, 1783
to 1801 and 1804 to 1806. He was considered a moderate, with the backing of the king
and the parliament. Pitt’s time in office became a foundation for future prime ministers.
Fort Duquesne: This was the fort that General Braddock tried to take during the French
and Indian War but him and his troops were slaughtered in an ambush at the
Monongahela, where 900 of the 1200 troops were wounded or killed. Later General
Amherst captured the fort.
Wolfe, Montecalm, Quebec- the Plains of Abraham: The battle of the French and
Indian War, between General Wolfe and General Montecalm in which both were killed .
It ended with the capturing of Quebec and was one of the final steps that lead Montreal to
surrender, thus making Canada no longer a threat.
Land squabbles in North America, where, why and what over: Any of the imperial
wars that were fought in North America, for if when Britain won they would usually gain
territory they had wanted before. Also various battles with Indians over pieces of land
because colonists pushed their way onto Indian land, not caring if it belonged to them.
Treaty of Paris (1763): Treaty that ended the French and Indian War was ended by the
Treaty of Paris. This treaty ended French reign in Canada. The treaty also called for
Spain to give Florida to Britain, and for France to give all lands east of the Mississippi
River to Britain. It also was a precursor, for colonial politics would follow Britain.
Proclamation of 1763: This proclamation stated that no white settlers could go past the
crest of the Appalachians. While this upset many colonists who had claims that far west,
Britain explained it was only temporary, for it was meant to calm the Indians, sure
enough five years later the boundary was moved further west.
Pontiac’s Rebellion, 1763: After France had to give up the territory they had near and
around the Appalachian Mountains the Indians were afraid that the British would come in
and start to settle down permanently, to make sure this didn’t happen Chief Pontiac
launched an offensive at Bushy Run and Pontiac’s forces won for the time being.
Proclamation of 1763: The British issued this in 1763 in hopes of conciliating the
Indians and to lessen white expansion. It banned colonists from settling west if the
Appalachian mountains. Though it was supposedly a temporary measure, colonists were
angered and the line was moved further west five years later for speculators.
New British Policy and Colonial Resistance
In order to tighten control over the colonies, Great Britain instated many acts and taxes
which enraged colonists who argued that it was unfair to tax them when they had no
direct representation in Parliament. This resistance was the beginning of America’s
revolt against its mother country.
writs of assistance: The royal governor of Massachusetts allowed British revenue
officers to use this in 1760 in order to capture goods imported illegally in: It was a search
warrant allowing officials to enter buildings in which smuggled goods may be. It required
no cause for suspicion and homes were often ransacked. It also contributed to the
Revolution.
James Otis: He was a colonial leader who was also advocate general of the Boston Vice
Admiralty Court in 1756. His opposition to the writs of assistance and Townshend Acts
led him to declare that Parliament did not have the right to violate natural rights of
colonists. He thus published The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proven.
Pontiac’s Rebellion: Ottawa chief Pontiac attacked and besieged ten British forts in
May, 1763, in order to keep British out of the Appalachians. An uneasy truce was
negotiated by 1764, and as a result, the Proclamation of 1763 was put forth in order for
Britain to maintain 10,000 soldiers in the U.S. to occupy French ceded territories.
Paxton Boys: This group of Rangers from Pennsylvania Paxton in Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania, killed some Sasquehannock Indians in 1764. The conflict arose as a result
of the desire to expand westward. Governor John Penn in 1764 attempted to punish them,
but the people of the area were so upset that a revolt ensued; Benjamin Franklin solved it.
Grenville’s Program: British Prime Minister George Grenville was the principal
architect of the Sugar Act; his method of taxation and crackdown on colonial smuggling
were widely disliked by Americans. He passed the Stamp Act arguing that colonists
received virtual representation in Parliament, even though Americans didn’t elect
members.
•SUGAR ACT, 1764: George Grenville introduced this act which amended the Molasses
Act that had taxed all foreign molasses entering the U.S. at sixpence a gallon in 1764.
The new act ended the previous British policy of keeping Americans out of all revenueraising measures. It stated that colonists exported certain items to foreign countries only
if they passed through Britain first. Parliament hoped that Americans would buy more
British items and it increased British sale of European wine.
Currency Act, 1764: extended currency Act, 1751: A Parliamentary act, which was
originally applicable only in Massachusetts in 1751, but in 1764, it was applied to all the
colonies as a means of raising revenue. It increased colonial resentment toward Britain
because it disallowed the issuance of colonial money.
vice-admiralty courts: Parliament was responsible for this new form of juryless court in
Nova Scotia. From 1763 to 1765, when Americans were caught smuggling in violation of
the Acts of Trade, they were tried by corrupt judges who received a percentage of the
confiscated goods if they found the defendants guilty.
A Democracy or not?: Colonial America was a place with more liberal voting
qualification, no aristocracy and rise of the assembly. But the ruling class was still the
wealthy, they had the power, also voters turn out wasn’t large. One had a better chance in
becoming part of the "system" but it wasn’t democratic.
Deism: most of the religious thinkers during the Enlightenment were deist. The deists
believed that God was a clockmaker who created the world but now just watches it work.
They believed that we lived in a perfect universe and that we are laws that we created
were natural.
Non-consumption: The Sons of Liberty began the idea of non-consumption in 1774 with
their vow of non-importation of British goods. When the Boston Port Bill was passed,
colonists once again agreed to ban all British goods in order to boycott the British until
demands were met. Because of this, state or individual opposition was despised.
virtual, actual representation: Parliament felt colonists had virtual representation
because every member of Parliament considered the rights of all subjects; the House of
Commons was responsible for protecting the rights of all British and colonists. Because
the British elected members, they enjoyed actual representation, but colonists had none.
no taxation without representation: John Adams, in his Circular Letter, in 1768, openly
criticized Parliament’s practice of taxation without proper colonial representation. It was
said that no tax that was issued in order to produce revenue for Great Britain was
constitutional because American representatives had not voted to allow the tax.
colonial view of the constitution: Colonial views toward the Constitution varied greatly
in 1781, due mostly to regional and bipartisan differences. Federalists were those who
advocated a strong central government, at state’s expense. Antifederalists demanded
more state power. Depending on size, states wanted different types of representation.
Compact theory: First expressed by Jefferson and Madison in the Virginia and
Kentucky Resolves of 1798, it declared that each state comprised the national
government through a compact whose provisions were established in the Constitution.
Hence, the states could decide when the compact was broken. It further led to the
doctrine of States Rights.
•STAMP ACT: British prime minister George Grenville’s most detested act, the Stamp
Act was introduced in 1765 as a means of raising revenue in the colonies, and was passed
by Parliament. It stated that all legal documents, contracts, licenses, pamphlets, and
newspapers must carry a stamp that is taxed. It was intended to raise money for keeping
up defense in colonies. It infuriated colonists because it was an internal tax that few could
escape. Opposition to the Stamp Act led to formation of the Stamp Act Congress.
stamp distributors: These were the men who had the job of accepting money from the
special water-marked paper put into circulation with the passage of the Stamp Act in
1765. They were a target for such associations as the Loyal Nine and Sons of Liberty
who attempted, through violence, to force the distributors to resign before taxes were due.
Patrick Henry: He was an orator and statesman who played a key role in igniting
patriotism and leading the colonists toward the American Revolution. In 1763 he became
a member of the House of Burgesses where he introduced seven resolutions against the
Stamp Act. He is famous for his comment "Give me liberty or give me death."
Virginia Resolves: American leader Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia House of
Burgesses to state their opposition to taxation in 1765. They adopted several resolutions
which refuted the power of Parliament to tax the colonies. Henry’s fiery orations caused,
by the end of the year, eight other colonies to also denounce taxation and declare rights.
Stamp Act Congress, 1765: This was an assembly of delegates from nine of the original
thirteen colonies in 1765 which was intended to protest the Stamp Act. They met in New
York City and presented the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, but the group’s
demand for no taxation without representation was refused by the House of Commons.
Non-importation: There existed, between many of the colonial merchants, an agreement
to not import any British goods until the Townshend acts were repealed. When the tea tax
was kept, they were unsure whether or not to keep the boycott going. When nonimportation collapsed, the Sons of Liberty agreed not to consume British tea in protest.
•SONS OF LIBERTY: Members included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere; it was a
secret society of patriots which was organized in 1765 in the colonies. They formed a
Committee of Correspondence to defend themselves against British actions. One of the
actions they took was to adopt a policy of non-importation in which merchants refused to
import goods sent from Great Britain. They also participated in terrorizing the stamp
distributors through house-wrecking and tar-and-feathering in order to achieve respect.
Daughters of Liberty: Upper class female patriots who formed a union in 1765 in order
to give aid to the cause of defeating the reviled Stamp Act. They proved their value to the
cause both by attending political rallies and protests and also by refusing association with
men who were Loyalists, however, they ultimately played a small role.
internal/external taxes: Introduced by the British Parliament in 1765, the Stamp Act
was an internal tax which few colonists could escape, all of the colonists were drastically
affected by this tax. An example of an external tax is the Sugar Act passed in 1764 which
raised costs only for a select group of people; public opposition to the tax was minute.
Revenue Act: Parliament passed the Revenue taxes in 1767. The Act taxed glass, paint,
lead, paper, paint, and tea. In colonial opinion, it was just like the Stamp Act in that,
though it was said to be an external tax, it was still put into effect solely to raise revenue
for the British treasury. It further angered colonial resentment to Charles Townshend.
Right of revolution: In John Lock’s Two Treatises of Government, written in 1690, it is
stated that "It is a state of perfect freedom [for man] to do as they wish and dispose of
themselves and their possessions." He claims that any person has the right to revolt if the
government does not fulfill its duties. His ideas led to the Declaration of Independence.
The Loyal Nine: A group of middle class workers joined this association in the summer
of 1765 in order to resist the Stamp Act. They realized that if they could intimidate stamp
distributors with house-wrecking and tar-and-feathers, they could bully them into
resigning before the act could be put into effect, making it impracticable.
Guy Fawkes Day: Thousands of ardent Bostonians gathered to celebrate this day on
November 5, 1765. The day was named for the anniversary of the day Catholic Guy
Fawkes attempted to blow up Parliament and King James I. In celebration of his failure,
mobs gathered in the streets of Boston to protest and to set fire to figures of the Pope.
Declaratory Act. 1766: This was a Parliamentary act which was issued in 1766 in order
to confirm the British government’s right to pass acts which were legally binding to the
colonists. Because the Stamp Act was so opposed by the colonists as well as the British
business community, it was repealed, but only with the passage of this confirmation.
Quartering Act (called the Mutiny Act by the British): Passed by Congress, this was
one of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. It effectively served to further punish the colonists.
Basically, it allowed for much-hated British officers to be permitted to requisition empty,
private buildings. All resistance was repressed by this blatant attempt to force troops in.
•TOWNSHEND ACTS, REACTION: Under the control of British Prime Minister
Charles Townshend, Parliament passed these measures in 1767. The first called for
suspension of the New York Assembly because it would not abide by the Quartering Act.
The Revenue Act called for customs duties on imports of glass, lead, paint, paper, and
tea. As a result of unrest over these acts, the Massachusetts legislature was dissolved.
Colonial reaction was that of further discontent toward their motherland.
John Dickinson, "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania": He was a lawyer in
Philadelphia and a leader in the movement against taxation on the colonies in the 1760s.
Formulating a declaration of rights at the Stamp Act Congress, he argued against the
duties of the Townshend acts in this publication. He sought appeasement of the British.
Massachusetts Circular Letter: The Massachusetts legislature sent the other 12
colonies a letter in 1767 in response to the Townshend Acts and asked for a united
response from the colonies. The British threatened to dissolve the Massachusetts court
unless it was withdrawn. They refused and were dismissed. The other assemblies
defiantly signed.
•SAM ADAMS: He was an outspoken advocate of the Sugar Act, and served on the
General Court of Massachusetts in 1765. Moreover, he was a main proponent of
opposition to the Townshend Acts and a key figure in the formation of the Sons of
Liberty. Starting a movement for an uprising against the Boston Massacre, he led several
other angry colonists in the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Due to his literary agitation,
Adams contributed to the movement for revolution.
The Association: The First Continental Congress agreed to this "association," which was
a simple sort of agreement in 1774. It was formed in response to anger over the recently
passed Tea Act. Members pledged not to import, export, or consume products of Britain
unless their demands were met. This led to increased hostility toward the colonists.
repeal of the Townshend Acts exept tax on tea: Lord North, in a Parliamentary act in
1770, wanted to eliminate the Townshend duties due to increased hostility against the
British and to keep the boycott from gaining momentum. However, he still recommended
they maintain the tea tax, because it was profitable for the Royal Treasury in Great
Britain.
•AMERICAN BOARD OF CUSTOMS COMMISSIONERS: Townshend introduced
legislation in 1767, serving to create an American Board of Customs Commissioners
whose sole job would be to enforce the Navigation Acts . They were created because
Townshend wanted to crack down on colonial smuggling. The corrupt members of the
Board practiced customs racketeering, which was a legalized form of piracy. This led to a
major movement between colonists of anger and violence toward the Board members.
John Hancock’s Liberty: Customs commissioners in Boston requested an armed force
for protection and the government dispatched the Romney to Boston in June, 1768. When
told that a customs official had been locked up, while John Hancock unloaded without
paying the duty, the Liberty was seized. This led to further discontent towards Britain.
Boston Massacre, 1770: British troops, (which were resumed in the city in 1770 in order
to discourage opposition to the Townshend Acts), when hit by hecklers within the crowd,
opened fire upon the innocent; five men were killed. Eight soldiers were tried for murder;
their attorney was John Adams. Many were acquitted and anti-British feelings rose.
Crispus Attucks: He was the leader of a group of colonists who were killed in the 1770
Boston Massacre. Though he was the first man to be shot, he was only one of five
colonists. He was either African-American or Native American and he may have been a
runaway slave. In 1888 a monument of him was erected in his honor in Boston.
John Adams: He was the lawyer for the soldiers who were tried for murder in the Boston
Massacre in 1770. He successfully defended his clients in defense that they were trying to
protect their own lives. He additionally denounced the Stamp Act, analyzed the demands
facing the colonists, and was a member of both Continental Congresses.
Carolina Regulators: This name applies to several groups of insurgents who, in 1764,
wanted to protect the rights of their community. The North Carolina Regulators
threatened to rebel and not pay taxes. The South Carolina Regulators, in 1767, opposed
corrupt government and cleared their homeland of outlaw bands of terrorists.
Battle of the Alamance: The North Carolina Regulators found their movement peak in
this battle on May 16, 1771. With an army of 2500, these Regulators fought a band of
eastern militia started up by the governor of North Carolina, and 300 casualties were
inflicted. The Regulator uprising fell apart and colonies found it harder to resist British.
Gaspee Incident: A customs schooner was beached in Providence, RI, on June 9, 1772.
This upset Americans because it was one of the last of the customs racketeering ships.
Stuck in the mud, it was burned down by local inhabitants. When investigators were sent
to find the initiators, they failed; the suspects would have faced trial without jury.
Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Mass.: A colonial governor, he opposed taxes that
harmed U.S. trade, but still supported Britain’s right to impose taxes. When the Stamp
Act controversy was in effect, his home was ransacked in 1765. In 1773, he refused to
allow British ships to be returned without unloading and the Boston Tea party resulted.
committees of correspondence: They were colonial groups in 1772 which were
organized to form resistance to British tyranny. The Boston town meeting made up a 21
member committee "To state the Rights of Colonists and of this Province in Particular."
This committee became a major political force responsible for the Boston Tea Party.
Lord North: He was a British member of the House of Commons during the 1770s.
Under the orders of King George III, he taxed Americans, though he found it morally
wrong to do so. By 1776, he demanded an early peace with the Americans hoping to put
an end to the Revolutionary War. By 1779, he realized the war was a lost cause.
Tea Act: The Parliamentary Tea Act eliminated import duties entering England, lowering
the selling price to consumers, also allowing selling directly to consumers, hurting
middlemen. Colonial smuggling was very harmful to the East India Company which had
held a monopoly on tea. The act provided savings for Britain.
•BOSTON TEA PARTY: A group of Boston citizens organized a protest on December
16, 1773, which was against the British tax on tea imported to the colonies The citizens
were angry and disallowed three British ships to unload their cargo in Boston. Led by
Samuel Adams and members of the Sons of Liberty, the group, disguised as Indians
boarded the ships and dumped all the tea into Boston Harbor in protest. The American
government later refused to pay for the tea and was punished through closure of the port.
•COERCIVE ACTS: Passed by the British Parliament, several laws were composed in
1774 in response to colonial rebellion. The Boston Tea Party was the last straw leading to
the passage of these harsh acts as measures against the colony of Massachusetts. The four
measures passed were to serve as warnings to the rest of the colonies. They included the
Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Quartering Act, and the
Administration of Justice Act. Americans united in sympathy for Massachusetts.
Boston Port Act: Parliament passed this act on April 1, 1774, as one of the Intolerable
Acts; it ordered the U.S. navy to close Boston Harbor. Unless they paid for the ruined tea,
the port would be subject to permanent closure. They imposed a deliberately short
deadline to ensure that the harbor would close, which would lead to economic
difficulties.
Massachusetts Government Act: Parliament passed this act in 1774 as the second of the
Townshend Acts which revoked the Massachusetts charter and restructured the
government. The Governor gained control over naming sheriffs, who, in turn, gained
control over jurymen. The number of Massachusetts town meetings were also reduced.
Quebec Act: Parliament passed this greatly detested law which established RomanCatholicism as the official religion in Quebec, making Protestants angry. Also, Canada’s
government was awarded an abundance of powers, but was in turn, given no legislature.
The law also extended Quebec’s 1774 land claims, further angering colonists.
•FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, 1774: The First Continental Congress
convened in Philidelphia in September, 1774, to consider the situation resulting from the
Intolerable Acts. They issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances to George III, and
called for the Continental Association, and agreement to boycott trade with Britain.
committees of Safety were in charge of enforcing the Continental Association. Before it
was adjourned, the delegates agreed to meet in May, 1775 if the situation still hadn’t been
resolved.
Suffolk Resolves: The first Continental Congress passed this in 1774 in response to the
Intolerable Acts. They called for non-importation and preparation of local soldiers in the
event that the British should have restorted to military force. The passage of these
resolves marked the willingness of the colonies to defend their rights militarily.
Galloway Plan: Joseph Galloway called for a union of the colonies and a rearrangement
of relations with Parliament, but it was refected by Congress by a narrow margin. Most
delegates felt that such a mild measure would not help, since matters had already gone
too far.
"country ideology": The plain farmer had this mind set in the 1770s due to the
corruption of rulers and "court" hangers-on. It warned against the natural tendency of all
governments to enfringe on the natural rights to liberty for all its people. This honest
wisdom further led to the Quid’s mind set during the time of Jeffersonian Democracy.
Continental Association: Issued by the First Continental Congress, it was an agreement
to boycott trade with Britain, or non-importation, designed to pressure Britain’s economy.
Any colony that did not follow those provisions was to be boycotted. By taking these
drastic measures, the colonies moved away from reconciliation towards war.
Revolt to Revolution
With such events as Lexington and Concord as well as the actions of the Second
Continental Congress and America’s faith held in the Declaration of Independence and
Thomas Paine’s "Common Sense," America’s revolt against Great Britain became a
revolution.
•LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, APRIL 19, 1775: American Captain John Parker
and seventy Minutemen waited for the British at Lexington, on April 19. A British officer
ordered the Minutemen to lay down their arms, but a shot from an unknown source was
fired. The British then opened fire and charged. Afterwards, the British continued on the
Concord only to find that almost all of the weapons and supplies had been moved. While
retreating to Boston, they were fired on by Minutemen from local cities.
Paul Revere, William Dawes: Seven hundred British troops, on the night of April 18,
1775, were sent to find and destroy a cache of colonial weapons and supplies at Concord.
However, they were detected by Americans, and news was dispatched throughout the
countryside by Paul Revere and William Dawes.
•SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: The Second Continental Congress
convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. They drew up the Olive Branch Petition,
which begged George III to restore peace, and adopted a Declaration of the Causes and
Necessity for Taking up Arms. Congress was divided into two main factions: the
delegates that were ready to go to war and declare independence, and those that weren’t
ready to go that far. The Second Continental Congress later evolved into the
revolutionary government.
Olive Branch Petition: The Second Continental Congress issued this petition to King
George III on July 5, pleading with him to intercede with Parliament to restore peace.
After he ignored it, he issued a Prohibitory act, which declared all colonies in a state of
rebellion no longer under his protection. Thus, Americans prepared for an all out war
with Britain.
Thomas Paine, Common Sense: Thomas Paine published this in January 1776, which
called for immediate independence. Although its arguments were extreme, it had much
influence in favor of independence. Combined with the Prohibitory Act, it convinced
many Americans that the British had every intention to carry out a full scale war.
natural rights philosophy: Thomas Jefferson was influenced by the natural rights
philosophy. He emphasized the equality of all people and their natural right to justice,
liberty, and self-fulfillment. In the writing of the Declaration of Independence, he draw
upon some of the ideas of natural rights.
John Locke, Second Treatise of Government: John Locke stressed that governments
were legitimate only if they rested on the consent of the governed and protected basic
rights of their people. If the government and laws lacked the consent, then they were not
legitimate, and had to be dissolved and replaced with legitimate government or just laws.
•"FIRST AMERICAN REVOLUTION" (POSSITER THESIS): This thesis is the
idea that the real American Revolution could not have been made possible had not a First
American Revolution paved the way. The First Revolution consists of the first sparks of
discontent. Previously, there had been a great deal of affection between the U.S. and its
mother country, due to the protection colonists enjoyed. However, with colonial
governments, colonists were enjoying democracy, leading to opposition against taxation.
George III: After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the people of Britain wanted retaliation, and
King George III, on August 23, proclaimed New England in a state of rebellion. In
December Parliament declared all colonies in a state of rebellion, and made their ships
liable to seizure.
Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution: Colonial leader Richard Henry Lee presented several
formal resolutions to Congress on June 7, 1776. These resolutions called for
independence and a national government. As a result, the Committee on Independence
was formed to further accommodate his proposal.
Committee on Independence: After Richard Henry Lee’s resolution on June 7, 1776,
the Committee on Independence was formed. Members included Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. Its purpose was
to draft a statement of reasons for independence which led to the Declaration of
Independence.
•JULY 4, 1776 AND THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: Written by the
Committee on Independence, he Declaration of Independence contained a list of
grievances placing the blame on George III. Additionally, it asserted certain natural
rights: "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" and the "Consent of the governed" to
revolt against tyrannical governments. The English Revolution of 1688 and
Enlightenment writers inspired some of the ideas in the Declaration of independence.
Preamble of the Declaration of Independence: Written by the Committee on
Independence in 1776, the Preamble to the Declaration of Independence states that "all
men are created equal," and are furthermore allotted unalienable rights by God.
Moreover, it is believed that this is a statement of faith displays wisdom; it’s not a fact
revealing truth.
slavery clause in the Declaration of Independence: Two passages in Jefferson’s
original draft were rejected by the Second Continental Congress in 1775. The first
passage was an exorbitant reference to the English people, and the second passage was an
attack on the slave trade.
Somerset Case (in Great Britain): Despite the Enlightenment’s condemnation of black
slavery, sugar produced by black slaves was considered of utmost importance. Granville
Sharp defended several blacks in the case Somerset v. Stewart. The decision reached was
regarded as the end of slavery in England.
Quock Walker case- Mass: Nathaniel Jennison was accused of assaulting Quock
Walker, a negro. Jennison defended himself on the grounds that Walker was his slave.
Although slavery wasn’t forbidden by the constitution of Massachusetts, the Superior
Court rejected his defense because it was unconstitutional in the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
War for Independence
With the Declaration of Independence as its fuel, America entered a war for
independence with Great Britain: the Revolutionary War. Throughout the war, America
developed its first real feelings of nationalism and ended up being victorious in its fight
for freedom.
Advantages/Disadvantages for Britain: The British were well equipped, well trained,
and well disciplined. They had a strong navy to land troops, transport troops, guard
communication and supply lines. Also, they had a large sum of money which could be
used to hire foreign mercenaries. However, they were outnumbered by the U.S.
Advantages/Disadvantages for U.S.: Many colonists knew how to use firearms. They
had a superior rifle range and accuracy over the smoothbore British muskets. Washington
was a highly respected, experienced commander-in-chief, and they were fighting in their
own territory. However, their naval power was less than that of Britain.
•LOYALISTS, TORIES: They were Anglican clergymen, ethnic and religious
minorities, government officials, and some wealthy merchants comprised the Loyalists.
About one-fifth to one-third of the population remained loyal to Britain. They felt that
war was unnecessary to preserve the rights of the colonists, and maintained a respect for
the monarchy. The majority of ethnic and religious minorities, however, were supporters
of the revolution. Eighty thousand Loyalists left, leaving their positions for others.
John Adams: He was one of the first men to propose American independence when the
Revolution began. Moreover, he served on the Committee on Independence, and also
helped persuade the Second Continental Congress to adopt the Declaration of
Independence. In Congress and in diplomatic missions abroad, he served the patriot
cause.
Abigail Adams: Even though she had a scarce formal education, she was among the
most influential women of her day, particularly as a leader of fashion and social mediator.
She was the wife of John Adams, and mother of John Quincy Adams. Also, she
challenged the lack of equality for women and was a strong advocate of the
Revolutionary War.
Mercy Otis Warren: Before the imperial crisis, she was known for her nonpolitical
poetry, but soon began writing political satires in the early 1770s. In doing so, she
challenged the assumption that women were naturally dependent on men. The
subordination of women, which was taken for granted, later became the subject of debate.
•GEORGE WASHINGTON AND THE REVOLUTION: George Washington created
the Continental Army that had fought against the British. He was a strong influence in
persuading the states to partake in the Constitutional Convention, and he used his prestige
to help gain ratification of the Constitution. He earned a good reputation from the French
and Indian War in 1763. His early military experience taught him the dangers of
overconfidence and the necessity of determination when faced with defeat.
Edmund Burke: In 1766 he was elected to Parliament. Almost immediately Burke
sought repeal of the Stamp Act. He urged justice and conciliation towards the American
colonies in a pamphlet, Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents, and in two
speeches, "On American Taxation" and "Conciliation with America".
Benjamin Franklin and the Revolution: From, Pennsylvania, he served on the
Committee for Independence in 1776. Moreover, as a prime minister to Britain, he along
with John Adams and John Jay, signed a peace treaty between the U.S. and England,
which concerned new American borders, on November 30, 1782.
Lafayette: The Marquis de Lafayette’s close connections with the French court in 1778
indicated that Louis XVI might recognize U.S. independence and declare war on Britain.
After France and the United States entered into an alliance against Great Britain,
Lafayette returned to France to further the granting of financial and military aid to the
Americans.
George Rogers Clark: George Rogers Clark led 175 militia and French volunteers down
the Ohio River and took several British forts along the northwestern Ohio Valley in the
spring of 1778. He was a surveyor and a frontiersmen who also led successful military
operations against Indians allied to the British on the western frontier.
Benedict Arnold: He led one of the Continental Armies into Canada but was defeated. A
fervent patriot, he later turned into a traitor. With 400 men, he attacked Fort Ticonderoga
in April of 1775, along with Ethan Allen, who raised an army for the same purpose, but
without command.
Robert Morris: When the United States, under the Articles of Confederation, was unable
to prevent national bankruptcy, Congress turned to him. Hoping to panic the country into
creating a regular source of national revenue, he engineered the Newburgh conspiracy
along with Alexander Hamilton.
John Paul Jones: United States Captain John Paul Jones attacked the British territory,
which raised American morale and prestige. He also led the famous ship, Bonhomme
Richard, against Britain’s ship, the Serapis, in which the war was brought to England’s
shores, boosting American morale and credibility.
The War at Sea: American captains such as John Paul Jones fought in this War at Sea
during the War for Independence against Britain. Despite Britain’s naval advantage, on
September 23, 1779, Jones engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This
was the most famous naval battle in the war.
Continental Army: Composed of colonial men, the Continental Army consisted of less
than 10,000 men prepared for duty at one time. Out of the potential 250,000 men living in
the colonies, the Continental Army was quite diminutive at the dawn of the war. Led by
George Washington, this army fought in various battles such as Valley Forge.
Native Americans in the Revolutionary War: The colonists’ expansion into the Ohio
Valley drove the western Indians into allying with the British. In the East, the Iroquois in
New York were neutral until 1777, when the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy
split, leaving all but the Tuscaroras and most Oneidas on the side of the British.
Black Americans in the Revolutionary War: About 5,000 blacks served in the army
and navy, mostly New England freemen, and fought in every major battle of the war.
However, the South feared possible slave revolts, which inhibited use of blacks in the
South. Governor Dunmore offered freedom to slaves who joined the British army.
Invasion of Canada: U.S. General Richard Montgomery forced the British to evacuate
Montreal in 1775 and invade Canada. A second force led by Benedict Arnold invaded the
land by combining an attack on Quebec; however, it was a failure in that Montgomery
was killed, Benedict was shot, and one-third of the colonial troops were killed or
captured.
Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill): Three British generals arrived in Boston in May,
1775 to assist General Gage. After two failed British attacks on Breed’s Hill, the
colonists ran out of ammunition, and the British succeeded. The colonists now had two
choices: to commit to a full-scale revolution, or to accept the rule of the British.
"Bonhomme Richard" and the "Serapis": John Paul Jones took command of a rebuilt
French merchant ship and renamed it the U.S.S. Bonhomme Richard. On September 23,
1779, he engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This was the most
famous naval battle in the American Revolution.
Conway Cabal: United States Major General Thomas Conway wrote a letter to General
Horatio Gates that revealed a military side of the Conway Cabal, which aimed at the
removal of Washington as the leader of the Continental Army. Conway later resigned
after subsequent public revelations, and was replaced by Friedrich von Steuben.
•FRENCH ALLIANCE OF 1778, REASONS FOR IT: France entered into two
treaties with America, in February, 1778. The first was a treaty of goodwill and
commerce, and granted most favored nation status to one another. The second treaty was
the French Alliance of 1778, to be effective if war broke out between Britain and France.
Saratoga: British General John Burgoyne felt overwhelmed by a force three times larger
than his own, and surrendered on October 17, 1777. This forced the British to consider
whether or not to continue the war. The U.S. victory at the Battle of Saratoga convinced
the French that the U.S. deserved diplomatic recognition.
Valley Forge: American survivors from the Battle at Brandywine Creek marched
through Valley Forge in early December, 1777. The Continental Army marched through
Valley Forge while the British army rested miles away in Philadelphia. After the arrival
of Baron Friedrich von Steuben, the Continental army emerged from Valley Forge.
Hessians: They were German mercenaries who were comprised of approximately 30,000
soldiers in the British army during the Revolutionary War. They fought among 162,000
other Britons and loyalists but were outnumbered by the 220,000 troops of the
Continental Army.
the "black" regiment: They were a group of dignified clergymen who preached against
British tyranny and resistance to British authority in 1765. Because sermons were such a
common form of communication, nearly every colonist saw public fasting and
communication and were infected with the idea that it was a sin not to reject Britain.
General Thomas Gage: He was the commander in chief of Britain’s military forces in
America from 1763 to 1775. In April 1775, he issued the order for British troops to
march on to concord and seize American weapons stored up there. During his career as
commander in chief, he was appointed as the new governor of Massachussetts.
British Generals: Henry Clinton, William Howe, John Burgoyne: General Howe
planned to set up headquarters in New York in 1776 but was delayed by Washington’s
escape to Long Island. General Burgoyne was trapped at Saratoga in 1777 and was forced
to surrender. General Clinton succeeded Howe as commander in chief in 1778.
Yorktown, Lord Cornwallis: Washington, along with Admiral de Grasse’s French fleet,
trapped British General Cornwallis on the Yorktown peninsula. The Siege of Yorktown
began in September of 1781, and ended when Cornwallis realized that he lost three key
points around Yorktown and surrendered.
League of Armed Neutrality: The empress of Russia, Catherine II, made a declaration
in 1780, restricting the category of contrabands to munitions and essential instruments of
war. She also secured the freedom of the navigation of neutral nations, even to ports of
belligerents. The U.S. could not join because it was fighting in the Revolutionary war.
Treaty of Paris, 1783: Great Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris,
which brought an end to the American Revolution, on September 3. Great Britain
recognized the former 13 colonies as the free and self-governing United States of
America.
French and British intrigue over U.S. boundaries (in Treaty of Paris): France and
Britain shared much interest in American territory following the War for Independence.
The French wanted to further continue their residence in Virginia, which led to further
dispute between them and the colonists.
social impact of the war: Women did not receive the status implied by the American
Revolution’s ideals. Though the Revolution was fought in the name of liberty, slavery
still existed, creating a paradox between the slavery and the freedom. However, slavery
virtually ended in the North during the Revolutionary era.
•HOW REVOLUTIONARY? : Even though the former colonies were joined under a
central government provided by the Articles of Confederation, they still acted
independently in various areas. Some state constitutions were identical to the English
charters that had governed them. On the other hand, the idea of the separation of church
and state grew stronger, toleration of religious minorities became more prevalent,
inflation became widespread, industry was stimulated, and trade with foreign nations
increased.
Disestablishment, Virginia Statue of Religious Freedom: Thomas Jefferson worked on
the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom after independence was declared. It became a
law in 1786, and was the model for the clause in the First Amendment guaranteeing
freedom of religion. Separation of church and state became more popular.
•NEW STATE CONSTITUTIONS: It was necessary for the former colonies to
assemble new state governments after the fall of British authority in 1775. Massachusetts
voters insisted that a constitution were made by a convention rather than the legislature,
in hopes of implicitly making it superior to the legislatures. Most state constitutions
included a bill of rights, although the constitutions ranged from extremely democratic
models to unicameral legislatures.
Newburgh conspiracy: The new nation under the Articles of Confederation was in a
financial crisis. Through the Newburgh Conspiracy, which was engineered by Alexander
Hamilton and Robert Morris, the army, whose pay was overdue, threatened to force the
states into surrendering more power to the national government.
Articles of Confederation
Drafted in 1796 by John Dickinson, the Articles of Confederation established a singlechamber national Congress elected by state legislatures, in which each state held only one
vote. These Articles notably left out both and executive and judicial branch, and provided
Congress no power to tax or regulate commerce. However, the Articles established states’
rights and also provided for American independence, uniting all the colonies during the
war.
Maryland, cession of western land claims: Maryland waited to agree to the new
government until lands north of the Ohio River were turned over to the United States in
1779. Maryland did not want big states (NY, VA) to grow and dominate the new nation,
instead equalizing the power of the states and opening the union up for expansion.
•STRENGTHS OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: The thirteen states
established a permanent government in 1781 in the form of a confederation which included
a congress that represented the states and had the power to conduct Indian and foreign
affairs, mediate disputes between states, and establish a standard for weights and measures.
The Articles protected against an oppressive central government, such as a monarchy or
oligarchy, by placing power within the fragmented states.
•WEAKNESSES OF THE ARTCILES OF CONFEDERATION: The government
established in 1781, was a confederation; each state was its own powerful entity and had its
own tariffs and currencies, making it harder for interstate commerce to occur. The federal
government lacked the power to tax and form a militia without the approval of all the states.
Amending the Articles was a difficult and tedious process, because the amendment would
have to be accepted by each state in order to be passed.
Pennsylvania militia routs Congress, 1783: Eighty soldiers marched from Lancaster to
Philadelphia to obtain justice from the state government and Congress on June 17, 1783.
Protesting in front of Independence Hall, which housed Congress and the state government,
the rebels were successful in moving the government away from Philadelphia.
Northwest Posts: After the Revolutionary war, the British did not leave their posts in an
effort to preserve both the flourishing fur trade and the improving relations with the Native
Americans. This showed Britain’s unwillingness to give up and the weakness of the
American government, problems which culminated in the War of 1812.
Land Ordinance of 1785: Congress enacted this law to set a uniform procedure for
surveying land in 1785. It established that the settlement of a town would be six square
miles and would contain land set aside for schools, setting a precedent for the public
education system in the United States.
Northwest Ordinance, 1787: Congress passed this law to define the steps for the formation
and admission of states into the Union in 1787. It applied to the lands north of the Ohio
River which had been established as the Northwest Territory. The existence of slavery could
be determined by popular sovereignty in these territories.
Proposed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty, 1785: John Jay tried to negotiate with Spain for trading
rights in New Orleans in 1785, but returned with a treaty that renounced Spanish claims to
southwestern lands and opened Spanish markets to eastern merchants. In exchange, the U.S.
gave up Mississippi trading rights, thus fueling the North-South conflict.
Shays’ Rebellion: A group of Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays protested after
taxes were raised to pay for Revolutionary debts in 1786. The high taxes, combined with the
depression that hit after British markets were lost, forced the farmers to revolt. The result
was an increase in tension between the North and South.
Annapolis Convention, 1786: A group of delegates from five states met in Annapolis,
Maryland in 1786, in an effort to solve the problems of interstate commerce. Because there
was little representation, the delegates decided that a convention of all states should be held
the year after in order to amend the Articles of Confederation.
1780’s depression: The first major depression of the American states occurred after the
Revolutionary War in New England. The causes included high taxes imposed to finance the
war debt, the tightening of credit, and a short growing season that kept crop yields low.
Shays’ rebellion occurred ultimately because of this depression
The Constitution
After the Revolutionary War, the problems with the Articles of Confederation became
increasingly obvious, resulting in the Philadelphia Convention, whose purpose was to
rewrite the Articles. However, instead of submitting the Articles for revision, the delegates
decided to begin again, resulting in the drafting of a new frame of government outlined in
the Constitution, a document that compromised conflicting interests, unifying all the states
under a powerful federal government.
•PHILADELPHIA CONVENTION: A congressional convention met in Philadelphia to
amend the Articles of Confederation in 1788. The delegates, which included Madison,
Hamilton, and Franklin, believed that there should be checks and balances in the
government to give each branch equal amounts of power. The convention ultimately
scrapped the Articles and came up with the much more effective Constitution, in which
various compromises were made to pacify sectional differences.
Delegates: Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin: At the
Philadelphia Convention in 1788, George Washington presided over the convention while
he and Franklin helped in mediating heated debates. Hamilton wrote the "Federalist Papers,"
along with John Jay, in defense of the Constitution.
Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws: Montesquieu was a French writer whose writings helped
bring about the French Revolution. His book "The Spirit of the Laws," written in 1748,
examines types of government and how each evolves through factors such as location and
climate. He believed in separate and balanced branches of government.
Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan in 1651, as a commentary on his doctrine of
sovereignty. His philosophies represented a reaction against the chaotic Reformation of the
seventeenth century. These ideas generally stated that all men should submit to absolute
supremacy, influencing the idea of sovereignty in the United States.
James Madison, "Father of the Constitution": Madison drafted the Virginia Plan of
national government that became the basis for its bicameral structure in 1788. He also
assisted in the writing of the "Federalist Papers" in order to persuade delegates who were
fearful of centralized power.
•GREAT COMPROMISE: Also called the Connecticut compromise, this compromise was
introduced by the Connecticut delegation in 1788, and contained both the Virginia Plan and
the New Jersey Plan. It provided for a presidency, a senate with states represented with two
senators each, and a House of Representatives with representation according to population.
The plan resolved the dilemma of using only one of the two self serving documents in the
Constitution.
VA Plan, NJ Plan: The Virginia Plan called for an executive branch with two houses of
Congress which were both based on population. The New Jersey Plan, introduced by
William Patterson, called for a legislature with equal representation and increased powers
for the national government.
Checks and balances—examples: Examples of checks and balances in the Constitution are
the congressional power to impeach the president and the presidential power to appoint his
cabinet. This system helps to keep all three branches of the government in check and
maintain equal amounts of power.
North-South Compromises: There are two main North-South compromises in the
Constitution. One dealt with the structure of Congress, the Great Compromise; the other
dealt with slavery and the three-fifths clause. Both aided in easing the problems that arose
because of the imbalance of power between states in the Articles of Confederation.
•Slavery and the constitution: slave trade, three-fifths clause, Fugitive Slave law:
Although the word "slavery" was not used in the Constitution, the idea surfaces in three
places in the Constitution: the three-fifths clause, which lessened the power of the voting
south by making the votes of three slaves equal that of five white votes; the Fugitive Slave
Law, which captured and returned runaway slaves who fled into free territories, and lastly
Congress’ option to ban the slave trade in Washington D. C. after 1808.
procedures for amendments: To amend the Constitution, a bill must first be proposed by
either two-thirds of both houses or each state conventions. For the amendment to be ratified,
three-fourths have to approve the bill. In order to protect the United States and its citizens,
this process made it difficult to alter the Constitution without valid reason.
Beard thesis, his critics: Beard criticized the Constitution in his "Economic Interpretation
of the Constitution" in 1913. Unlike his opponents, who believed in the Constitution’s
democratic purpose, Beard argues that it was written to give them economic advantages that
would stem from the stability of the economy.
Fiske, The Critical Period of American History: John Fiske, an American historian and
philosopher, wrote The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789 in 1788. In the
book, Fiske argues that the Constitution had saved the nation from imminent interstate
conflict.
Antifederalists: Antifederalists were opponents of the Constitution who thought that it
failed to balance power between the national and state governments. Believing that a
balance was impossible to reach, the opponents thought that the new government would
ultimately ruin the states.
supporters of the Constitution: The supporters of the Constitution, including Hamilton,
Jay, and Madison, who called themselves the Federalists. These men became important in
the ratification process of the Constitution; they persuaded many of its opponents to ratify it
through their speeches, the Federalist Papers, and other propaganda.
opponents of the Constitution: The opponents of the Constitution were called the
Antifederalists; they opposed it because it failed to balance power between the national and
state governments. They thought that a balance would be impossible to reach and that the
new government would ultimately ruin the states.
George Mason, Bill of Rights: Mason was a delegate at the Constitutional Convention and
helped draft the Constitution. Troubled by its power and its failure to limit slavery or contain
a bill of rights, he would not sign it. Some states refused to ratify the Constitution until
1791, when a bill of rights was added to the Constitution.
The ratification fights: Critics, such as Sam Adams, were successfully won over by the
Federalists in Massachusetts. The fight in Virginia ended after the addition of the Bill of
Rights, defeating Mason and Henry, and affected the decision in New York, where Hamilton
won the fight using the "Federalist Papers."
•The Federalist Papers, Jay, Hamilton, Madison: The Federalist papers were written by
Jay, Hamilton, and Madison in 1788, during the Philadelphia Convention as a response to
Antifederalist objections to the Constitution. The eighty-five newspaper essays offered a
glimpse of the framers’ intentions in designing the Constitution, and shaped the American
philosophy of the government. They explained that the Constitution would protect the
minority’s rights but would not make them too powerful.
The Federalist, number 10: Madison, in the Federalist number ten, rejected the
Antifederalist argument that establishing a republic in United States would lead to a struggle
for power. He also argued that the Constitution would prevent the formation of national
factions and parties.
implied powers, elastic clause, necessary and proper clause: An implied power is one not
granted in a job description, yet is meant to be taken. The elastic clause was included into
the Constitution to allow flexibility. Congress was granted the right to make all laws which
they deemed necessary and proper thus expanding their power.
loose, strict interpretation of the Constitution: The strict interpretation of the constitution
meant that it was to be followed exactly to the word, a philosophy adopted by Jefferson.
Hamilton believed in a loose interpretation, or that powers implied within the Constitution
should be included in the new government to fit changes over time.
•RESERVED AND DELEGATED POWERS: Delegated powers were specifically
enumerated rights granted to Congress and the President. The delegated powers of Congress
included the ability to tax, issue currency, borrow money, declare war and sustain an army.
All powers not stated specifically in the Constitution were reserved to the states as stated in
the Tenth Amendment. These reserved powers were the result of flexibility in the
Constitution to adapt over time.
Undemocratic Elements in the Constitution: According to Charles Beard, the
Constitution was written to the advantage of the elite in the United States. The founding
fathers did not believe in total democracy, or mob rule, and so used state legislatures and the
electoral college to elect senators and the president, respectively.
Flexibility in the Constitution: The flexibility in the Constitution enabled it to adapt over
time; there have only been sixteen amendments since 1791. Our founding fathers used vague
language, and so Supreme Court interpretations of the Constitution changed over time; the
Elastic clause and the reserved powers are examples of this ambiguity.
Upper and Lower House: The senate was seen as the upper house because there were less
delegates, the age requirement was higher, and the term limits were six years as opposed to
two for the House of Representatives. As a result the Senate was seen as more of an elitist
institution while the House was viewed as reflective of the common people.
Electoral College: In order to protect the interests of the elite, land owning class, the
framers of the Constitution added the electoral college as a safeguard against the majority
opinion. As a result, electors could elect a presidential candidate without considering the
popular vote and elections could be won without a majority in the popular vote.
Washington and Hamilton
As the first president of the newly formed United States, George Washington played a
largely passive role, suggesting few laws to Congress, attempting to reassure the public he
was above favoritism and sectional interests. Alexander Hamilton, on the other hand, took
advantage of Washington’s reluctance to be involved with domestic issues, and, as secretary
of the treasury, attempted to restore American credit by advocating a perpetual debt.
Post Revolutionary America—West: In the late eighteenth century, masses of people had
moved into the trans-Appalachian frontier to escape post-revolutionary depression, despite
the risk of violence presented by Indians and the British in their Northwest posts. Congress
aided the expansion with the Land and Northwest Ordinances
Post Revolutionary America—South: Many of the southern citizens had bought land in
the west and watched the price of land eagerly. Aside from the unstable land speculation, the
south had recovered from the war. It had diversified its crops and exported them at prewar
levels.
Post Revolutionary America—North: Plagued by high taxes, overpopulation, and
rebellion, the North’s efforts at postwar recovery was impeded by the depression of the
1780s. Manufacturing and merchant marine industries were also, negatively affected by
independence; the British imposed new embargoes and tariffs on the United States.
•President George Washington: George Washington was elected president in 1788 and
again in 1792. Washington’s two terms set the precedent for being President of the United
States. He tended to shy away from the affairs of Congress and also formed the first
Presidential cabinet, appointing two of the ablest men into high positions of responsibility
into his cabinet. His farewell address cautioned the American people to stay out of
international affairs, remain isolationist, and to beware of impending bipartisanship.
Washington’s Definition of the Presidency: George Washington set the precedent for
being the President of the United States. He humbly served two terms and appointed the first
cabinet. Washington stayed out of Congress’ way and supported the United States’
isolationist stance in world affairs.
Vice President John Adams: Because he ran second to George Washington in the elections
of 1788 and 1792, he became the nation’s first Vice President, limiting himself to presiding
over the senate. Prior to his term as Vice President, he was a diplomat to European nations
such as France, Britain, and the Dutch Republic.
Judiciary Act, 1789: The Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789, in an effort to create a
federal-court system and replace the old system, in which the courts varied from state to
state. They were burdened with filling in the holes of the judiciary system left by the
Constitution.
Secretary of Treasury Hamilton: Hamilton was appointed in 1789, when the nation’s
economy was in shambles. In 1790, he submitted to Congress a Report of the Public Credit
that provided for the payments of all debts assumed during the war. He wanted a national
bank and encouraged manufacturing through financial government protection.
Secretary of State Jefferson: As Secretary of State for Washington’s first term, Thomas
Jefferson wanted to establish reciprocal trade agreements with European nations and deny it
to the British. This plan, in 1783, died in Congress, along with his other plans to try to
manipulate the European countries. He resigned after the Citizen Genet scandal.
Secretary of War Knox: Henry Knox was the Secretary of War from 1789-1794, the first
one under the United States Constitution. Prior to this, he fought in major Revolutionary
battles, was in command of the West Point fortress in New York, and was the Secretary of
War under the Articles of Confederation.
Attorney General Randolph: Edmund Jennings Randolph was the Attorney General under
the Washington Administration from 1789-1794; before which he was the head of the
Virginia delegation at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and submitted the
Virginia Plan.
•Hamilton’s program: ideas, proposals, reasons for it: Alexander Hamilton wrote to
Congress a Report on Public Credit which proposed a way in which the national and foreign
debts could be funded and how the federal government would take charge of the debts left
by states from the resolution in 1790. The plans attempted to end wartime debt problems.
Hamilton believed that constant deficit was necessary to stimulate the nation’s economy,
and also believed that the U.S. should immediately repay its foreign debt.
Hamilton’s Legacy: Hamilton’s devices for restoring the credit of the nation led to great
monetary gains for merchants, speculators, and others working in the port cities. The
government’s takeover of state debts freed those of New England, New Jersey, and South
Carolina from harsh taxes.
Tariff of 1789: A revenue raising tariff enacted by Congress, it encouraged the people of
the U.S. to manufacture earthenware, glass, and other products in their home in order to
avoid importation. With a duty of 8.5%, the tariff succeeded in raising much needed funds
for Congress
Bank of the U.S.: Chartered by the newly formed federal government, the bank was
established in Philadelphia in 1791, and was permitted by the government to issue legal
tender bank notes that could be exchanged for gold. The bank successfully established a
national currency, but the charter ended in 1811, for economic and political reasons.
national debt, state debt, foreign debt: National debt accumulated by the US during the
Revolutionary war continued to plague Americans. The states were also in debt after
borrowing heavily from the government. Hamilton, in his Report on Public Credit, wanted
to pay off foreign debt immediately and then through tariffs repay the national debt.
excise taxes: A fixed charge on items of consumption, usually used for revenue raising. The
first excise tax placed upon the United States in 1791, by Parliament was one which taxed
all domestic distilled spirits. Anger towards this excise tax led directly to the Whiskey
Rebellion.
Report on Manufacturers: Presented to Congress in 1791, by Alexander Hamilton, the
report suggested that protective tariffs on imports from foreign lands would lead Americans
to produce more in their homelands, thus building national wealth and attracting foreigners.
Report on Public Credit: Hamilton submitted his report to Congress in 1790, hoping to
seize it as an opportunity to rebuild the country’s credit base. He reported that the US was
54 million dollars in debt: 12 million to foreigners, and the rest to Americans. On top of that,
he estimated that the states held debts of over 25 million dollars.
location of the capital: logrolling, D.C.: The nation’s capital was originally located in New
York, but later was transferred to Washington D.C.. Originally planned by Charles
L’Enfant, the city consisted of beautiful walkways, tree lined streets, and masterfully
architecture buildings.
Indian Decline: The frontier warfare during the post-revolutionary era combined with the
continuing penetration of western ways into Indian culture caused severe reductions in
Indian population and territory. An increasing amount of hatred towards the "redskins"
further encouraged the violence towards Indians.
Residence Act: Determined that a ten mile square area for the capital of the United States
would be chosen along the Potomac River along the Virginia-Maryland boarder. The area
was to be named the District of Columbia, after Christopher Columbus, and was selected by
George Washington.
Major L’Enfant, Benjamin Banneker: Pierre Charles L’Enfant was the French architect
who, in 1791, drew the plans for the nations capital in Washington D.C., on which the city is
now based. Benjamin Banneker was appointed in 1791, by President Washington to assist
L’Enfant in surveying the land where the capital city was to be built.
Whiskey Rebellion: An organized resistance in 1794, to the excise tax on whiskey in which
federal revenue officials were tarred and feathered, riots were conducted, and mobs burned
homes of excise inspectors. The federal militia captured many of the protesters, but most
were released.
French Alliance of 1778: Alliance made between France and the United Sates during
America’s civil war in 1778. The alliance was used to convince French citizens living in
United States territory to become citizens of American, and therefore to bear arms or
participate in the war.
French Revolution: The revolution was a period consisting of social and political upheaval
from 1789-1799. Caused by the inability of the ruling class and clergy to solve the states
problems, the hunger of the workers, the taxation of the poor, and the American Revolution,
it led to the establishment of the First Republic and the end of the monarchy.
Citizen Genet: Sent to the United States by the French in 1793 to find soldiers to attack
British ships and conquer the territories held by the Spanish, Edmund Genet founded the
American Foreign Legion despite Washington’s April 22 proclamation of American
neutrality.
Neutrality Proclamation: Issued by President George Washington on April 22, 1793, the
Neutrality Proclamation stated that the United States would remain a neutral faction in the
war with France against Britain and Spain despite heavy French pressures to join their
forces. Many Americans felt the war to be a violation of their neutrality.
XYZ Affair, Talleyrand: When a commission was sent to France in 1797 in order to
negotiate problems between the two countries, they were told by the French foreign minister
Talleyrand that the agents X, Y, Z, three officials who did not take the process seriously,
would only negotiate for a lend of $10 million to the French government.
undeclared naval war with France: Otherwise known as the Quasi-War, the undeclared
conflict between the two nations lasted from 1798 to 1800. In the conflict, the United States
managed to capture ninety-three French ships while France captured just one U.S. ship.
British seizure of American ships: The Privy Council issued a secret order on November
6, 1793, to confiscate any foreign ships trading with French Caribbean islands. In this
decision, they seized over 250 American ships which were conducting trade with the
islands.
Royal Navy: They navy of the British empire, the Royal Navy began to inspect American
ships in 1793 for suspected defects of the British Navy, who they then forcibly placed back
into their own navy. These bold actions commonly referred to as impressment, further
strengthened hostilities between the two countries.
"Rule of 1756": The French opened colonial trade to the Dutch, who were a neutral party.
British prize courts, in response, stated that neutrals could not engage in wartime trade with
a country if they were not permitted to trade with that country at times of peace.
Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated between the United States and France in 1794, the treaty
evacuated British posts in the West, appointed a committee to set up the U.S.-French
boundary, and named a commission to determine how much the British should pay for
illegally seizing American ships. It did not resolve the British West Indies trade dispute.
Pinckney’s Treaty, right of deposit at New Orleans: Ratified in 1796, the treaty gave
westerners the right to access the world markets duty-free through the Mississippi River.
Spain promised to recognize the thirty-first parallel, to end U.S. camps, and to discourage
Indian attacks on western settlers.
Spanish intrigue in the Southwest: Spain attempted, in many cases, to detach the West
from the United States, hoping to further expand their territory into the vast land.
Washington’s attempts at a failed alliance with the Creek Indians to expand into their lands
only led to further conflicts between America and Spain.
James Wilkinson: An American soldier who participated in the American Revolution and
the War of 1812. Wilkinson was the man who reported Burr’s conspiracy to access
Louisiana to President Jefferson. He served as Secretary to the Board of War and was a
brigadier general under Anthony Wayne.
"Mad" Anthony Wayne: Known as Mad Anthony due to his quick temper and his bravery,
Wayne was a General during the American Revolution. He began his service with the
Pennsylvania militia. He participated in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown and
distinguished himself in the Battle of Monmouth.
Battle of Fallen Timbers: At the Battle of Fallen Timbers, in 1794, Anthony Wayne
defeated a coalition of Native American tribes as the major general and commander in chief
of the troops. The battle took place around present day Toledo and led to the Treaty of
Greenville which opened up the Northwest to American settlers.
Treaty of Greenville, 1795: This treaty, which was drafted in 1795, opened the Northwest
Territory to settlement by white United States citizens. The territory had formerly only been
inhabited by Indians, so therefore the treaty between the two races was an important one.
The treaty served to end white-Indian hostilities for sixteen years.
Barbary Pirates: Following the American Revolution, the Barbary pirates began to raid the
ships of the United States. The United States therefore formed treaties with Morocco,
Tripoli, and Tunis, as European nations already had, that gave them immunity from these
attacks.
Tripolitan War: From 1801-1805, the war was a battle between the North African state
Tripoli and the United States. The Tripolitans had seized U.S. ships in the U.S. refusal to
pay in increase in the tribute paid to the pasha of Tripoli. In the end, the demand for
payment was ended and the U.S. paid $60,000 to free Americans caught captive.
Washington’s Farewell Address: In his realization of the important role that he had take in
developing the role of the president of the United States, Washington’s farewell address
asked the citizens of the United States to avoid involvement in political problems between
foreign nations.
Federalists and Republicans
By the election of 1796, the United States political system had become bipartisan, largely a
result of the disagreements over Hamilton’s programs and foreign policies. The split in the
Federalist party became official with Jefferson’s resignation from Washington’s cabinet in
1793, upon which he formed the Republicans, whose ideology claimed that the Federalists
had become a party geared toward enriching the wealthy at the expense of the poor.
election of 1796: President Adams, Vice-president Jefferson: Jefferson was supported by
the Republicans, while Adams was supported by the Federalists. Adams was victorious in
the election, Jefferson was made Vice-president, as a constitutional law stated that the
candidate with the second highest number of electoral votes got that position.
new states: Vt, Ky, Tenn: Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were all admitted into the
United States between 1791 and 1796 by the federal government. Their admission was
spurred by the hope that they would then become completely loyal to the Union, as they had
not been before.
•Federalists: The Federalist party was the starting point of the movement to draft and later
ratify the new Constitution. It urged for a stronger national government to take shape after
1781. Its leaders included Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, James Madison, and George
Washington rose to power between 1789-1801. Under Hamilton, the Federalists solved the
problem of revolutionary debt, created Jay’s Treaty and also the Alien and Sedition Acts.
•Democratic-Republicans: The first political party in the United States, the DemocraticRepublican party was created by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in opposition to the
views of Alexander Hamilton. It arose to power in the 1790s and opposed the Federalist
party, while advocating states rights and an agricultural society. The party expressed
sympathy towards the French Revolution but opposed close ties with the British.
Society of the Cincinnati: A post-war organization of veteran officers from the Continental
Army, the Society of the Cincinnati was feared by many because its charter had the
possibility of becoming a hereditary aristocracy, as it gave membership to descendants.
Democratic Societies: An organization in which the wealthy are on a level of equality with
the poor. This is best exemplified by the Philadelphia Democratic Society, in which
Republicans were united by wealth rather then by status, as well as believed that those with
talent and ambition should not forget their dreams.
•Alien and Sedition Acts: In 1798, the Neutralization Act said residence must remain in the
United States for five years before becoming naturalized while the Alien Act allowed the
exportation of any alien believed to be a threat to national security. The Alien Enemies Act
allowed the President to export aliens during times of war and the Sedition Act made it a
criminal offense to plot against government. These acts were criticized because they
oppressed the people’s First Amendment rights.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Written by Jefferson and Madison in protest to the
Alien and Sedition Acts, the Virginia Resolution stated that states possessed the right to
intervene in unconstitutional acts in government, and the Kentucky Resolution stated that
federal government could not extend powers outside of constitutionally granted powers.
Fries Rebellion: Pennsylvanian German farmers, in 1799, rebelled against the government
after it released debtors and citizens who did not pay taxes. This action infuriated the
farmers because the money was needed to fund the expansion of the nation’s army. This
rebellion alerted those in power to the general disgruntlement of much of the nation.
doctrine of nullification: A group of Kentucky Resolutions adopted in 1799, the Doctrine
of Nullification stated that any federal laws considered by the people to be "objectionable"
may be nullified by the states. The passage of these resolutions proved the probability of
upcoming violent disagreements of how the law should be interpreted.
Convention of 1800: The Federalist party split into two factions during the Convention of
1800, as the party was undecided as to who their presidential candidate should be. The
Federalists wanted to nominate Adams, while the "High Federalists," led by Alexander
Hamilton, denounced his candidacy.
•Second Great Awakening: Occurring mainly in the frontier states, the Second Great
Awakening began in the 1790s and was characterized by "camp meetings," or open air
revivals which lasted for weeks at a time where revivalists spoke of the second coming of
Jesus. Charles Finney, an especially prominent preacher of the time, preached not only the
second coming of Jesus, but also the gospel of free will, which lead to a greater democratic
power commonly seen in the ideals of Jacksonian democracy.
Fugitive Slave Law: Enacted by congress in 1793, the law required judges to give a slave
back to its owner or his representative if caught after running away. This law indicated
tightening racial tensions, as well as stripped slaves of the right to trial by jury or
presentation of evidence of freedom.
Gabriel’s Rebellion: Led by Gabriel Prosser in August 1800, the rebellion broke out near
Richmond, Virginia when 1,000 slaves marched to the capital. Thirty five slaves were
executed by a swift state militia, but whites still feared what many occur in the future with
slave uprisings. The rebellion increased tensions between the North and the South.
Logan Act: Enacted in 1795 by the legislative assembly, the Logan Act allowed city
councils the power to establish, as well as to support and to regulate, a system consisting
schools for the general public. This act led to the establishment of school systems
throughout the U.S.
Legal equality for free blacks: These measures first appeared in the 1780s and 1790s,
when states dropped restrictions on freedom of movement, protected the property of blacks,
and allowed them to enroll in the state militia. By 1796, all but three states allowed blacks
voting rights.
Alexander McGillivray: The leader of the Creek Indians, who in 1790 signed a peace
treaty with the United States that allowed whites to occupy lands in the Georgia piedmont,
but spared the rest of the Creek lands from white settlement. He received a large bribe for
signing the treaty.
Gilbert Stuart: An American painter who is particularly well known for his many portraits
of wartime hero and President George Washington. His three styles of portrait painting: the
"Vaughan" half-length, the "Lansdowne" full-length, and the "Athenaeum" head have often
been mimicked.
Charles Wilson Peale: As a portrait painter of the Federalist period, Peale is best known for
his fourteen portraits of George Washington. In 1786, Peale began a museum of parts of
nature in Independence Hall, Philadelphia of portraits and helped to found the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts in 1805.
Jeffersonian Democracy
Jefersonian Democracy refers to the term of office of Thomas Jefferson which marks the
end of Federalist control of American politics. A milder agrarian aristocracy replaced a
commercial aristocracy, thereby setting an example of democratic simplicity.
Jeffersonian placed more emphasis in the common man and brought moreidealism into
the government.
•Election of 1800: Jefferson and fellow Republican Aaron Burr, who ran for Vicepresidency in the same year, received an equal number of electoral votes, thus creating a
tie and throwing the presidential election into the House of Representatives, in agreement
to Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution. With Hamilton’s coercion, Jefferson was
elected as president, with Burr as Vice-president. (The Constitution was amended to
require separate votes for each position.)
Revolution of 1800: Described by Jefferson in the his election of 1800, in which he
sought to restore the country to the liberty and tranquillity it had known before Alexander
Hamilton’s economic program and John Adams’s Alien and Sedition Acts. The national
debt, most internal taxes, and the navy, where some of the problems needed to be fixed.
•JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY: Jefferson’s administration severely cut naval and
military operations. 70 percent of the national revenue was applied to reducing the
national debt as well. Most importantly, Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory from
the French, though a Constitutional violation. Gallatin was the genius behind the public
debt cut and creating a large surplus of funds. He opposed war, seeing it as detrimental to
the national economy.
Midnight judges: Federalists dominated the government, but with the election of 1800,
Jefferson drove them out, resulting in Adams’s last day in office (December 12, 1800).
On this date he appointed last-minute judges to keep the judiciary in the Federalists
hands, by using the Judiciary Act of 1801.
Justice Samuel Chase: Associate justice of the Supreme Court and signer of the
Declaration of Independence, he was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1791 by
Washington, and was impeached for his criticism of President Jefferson. Chase was
defended strongly, and was later acquitted by the Senate.
Tripolitan War: (1802-5) War between the United States and the North African state of
Tripoli, to which the US had been paying tribute, since 1784, for shipping access. The US
refused to pay in 1801, which resulted in US ships being captured, but the US captured
the town of Derna, led by Lieut. Stephen Decatur in 1805, to end the war.
Treaty of San Ildefonso: Treaty on October 1, 1800, in which Spain ceded the Louisiana
territory to France, which was becoming a foremost military power. Threat of French
expansion was the result of Jefferson’s goal to obtain the territory, not for expansionism,
but the opportunities of trade by New Orleans as a sea port.
•LOUISIANA PURCHASE: When France obtained the territory from Spain,
Jefferson’s goal to purchase the territory was the great port of New Orleans, land West of
the Mississippi, as well as the threat of French invasion. Jefferson obtained the territory
for $15 million, and was ratified as a treaty by the Senate, though purchasing the territory
was Constitutionally illegal and going beyond his presidential rights. From this territory
became 14 new state governments.
Toussaint L’Ouverture: Haitian general on the island of Santo-Domingo, who
succeeded in liberating the island from France in 1801, and becoming president for life of
the country. 1802, Napoleon sent troops to crush the Haitians, and Toussaint was
defeated, and accused of conspiracy; where he was imprisoned and died in France.
•LOUISIANA PURCHASE: Most Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase on the
grounds that it would decrease the relative importance of their strongholds on the eastern
seaboard. Jefferson, a Republican, saw no reason to hand the Federalists an issue by
dallying over ratification of the treaty made to obtain the territory.
Hamilton-Burr duel: Election of 1800 Between Jefferson and Burr, had turned to the
House of Representatives for the decision of the next president Burr’s election in 1804,
for the governor of NY State, where Hamilton opposed him, again. Dueled Hamilton on
July 11, 1804, where Hamilton was killed.
Burr treason trial: Burr purchased land in the newly acquired Louisiana territory, and
intended to invade the Spanish territory and establish a separate republic in the
Southwest, or seize land in Spanish America. He was arrested and indicted for treason,
and was acquitted on Sept. 1, 1807, after a six-month trial in Richmond, Virginia.
Lewis and Clark: They explored the vast territory west of the Mississippi River by the
US, when they where commissioned by Jefferson. They cataloged plants and animals,
and established relations with Indian inhabitants. They reached the Rockies, over the
Continental Divide, and reached the Pacific in November 1805.
Berlin Decree, 1806: Was created in response to the Orders in Council by the British, in
which the French proclaimed a blockade of the British isles, and any ship attempting to
enter or leave a British port would be seized by France. The Decree was answered with
another Orders in Council, in which all ships must come to England for licenses of trade.
Milan Decree, 1807: Napoleon replied to the continuous British opposition, with the
Milan Decree, which was to tighten his so-called Continental System. The decree
proclaimed that any vessel that submitted to British regulations or allowed itself to be
searched by the Royal Navy, was subject to seizure by France.
Orders in Council: In May 1806, the British followed the Essex decision with the first
of several trade regulations, known as the Orders in Council, which established a
blockade of part of the continent of Europe and prohibited trade with France, unless
American vessels went to British ports for licenses for trade.
impressment: Arbitrary seizure of goods or individuals by a government or its agents for
public services. Used by British to regain deserters from the Royal Navy to American
vessels during 1790 to 1812. This was one of the reasons for the War of 1812, when
British vessels boarded and obtained their crew from the high paying American ships.
Chesapeake-Leopard affair: In 1807 the US Chesapeake was stopped in the midAtlantic by the British Leopard. The British demanded the return and surrender of four
deserters from the royal navy, in which the Chesapeake’s commanding officer, James
Barron, refused, resulting in British attack. Barron relented and the men were seized.
•EMBARGO OF 1807: This law was passed in December 1807 over Federalist
opposition, and prohibited United States vessels from trading with European nations
during the Napoleonic War. The Embargo Act was in response to the restrictive measure
imposed on American neutrality by France and Britain, who where at war with each
other. To pressure the nations to respect the neutral rights of the US and to demonstrate
the value of trade with the US, Jefferson imposed the embargo instead of open warfare.
Non-Intercourse Act: The Non-Intercourse Act of March 1, 1809, repealed the Embargo
Act, and reactivated American commerce with all countries except the warring French
and the British. The US also agreed to resume trade with the first nation of the two, who
would cease violating neutral rights, pressuring the needs for American goods.
Macon’s Bill No. 2: Nathaniel Macon created the Macon’s Bill No. 2, in May 1810,
which was designed to discourage the British and the French from interfering with US
commerce, by bribing either the England or France in repealing their restrictions on
neutral shipping; who ever obliged, the US would halt all commerce with the other
nation.
Tecumseh: A Shawnee leader, who fought against the United States expansion into the
Midwest. He opposed any surrender of Native American land to whites, and tried with his
brother, Tenskwatawa the "Prophet," in uniting the tribes from American customs,
especially liquor. He was defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
War of 1812
The war of 1812 was one which the Americans were not prepared to fight. The young
congressman known as War Hawks pushed Madison into a struggle for which the country
was not prepared and which ended without victory.
War Hawks: A group of militants in Madison’s Democratic-Republican party, who
wanted more aggressive policies toward the hostile British and French. Thus creating a
war spirit by several young congressman elected in 1810. This group in the House of
Representatives, led by Henry Clay preferred war to the "ignominious peace."
War against Great Britain: For the most part, the Napoleon Wars were played out in
Europe, and the French accepted the United States merchant marine neutrality by the
Berlin and Milan Decrees. Hatred of the British persisted, with the constant violations of
neutrality on the seas and in the Great Lakes.
•FEDERALIST OPPOSITION TO THE WAR OF 1812: The Federalist party were
deeply opposed to the war, for their lack of support for commercial and diplomatic
policies of Jefferson and Madison. Even more so, was their opposition to Jefferson and
Madison’s trade programs of neutrality and trade, for example the Non-intercourse act.
Naval Battles in the War of 1812: The beginning of the War of 1812, encounters were
with single-ship battles. The frigate Constitution defeated the Guerriere in August 1812,
and in the same year, the Untied States seized the British frigate Macedonian. However,
the Chesapeake lost to the Shannon, continuing British blockade.
•Results of the War of 1812: After the treaty of Ghent, the British wanted neutral Indian
buffer states in the American Northwest and wanted to revise both the AmericanCanadian boundary. The Treaty of Ghent secured US maritime rights and peace around
Europe and the Americas. Rising Indian opposition to American expansion in the
Northwest and Southwest was broken, and there was an increased sense of national
purpose and awareness.
Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key: During the War of 1812 on September 13-14, Fort
McHenry withstood a 25-hour bombardment by the British Vice-Admiral Alexander
Cochane and his fleet, which prompted the famous "Star-spangled Banner," by Francis
Scott Key when he saw the flag still standing.
Jackson’s victory at New Orleans: Jackson, during the War of 1812, captured New
Orleans with a small army against the British army, which was composed mainly of
veterans. This victory on January 8, 1815 occurred after the peace treaty that ended the
war.
Essex Junto: The Essex Junto was a name given to the extreme nationalist wing, led by
Timothy Pickering, Senator George Cabot, Theophilus Parsons, and several of the Lowell
family of merchants and industrialists in New England. It opposed the Embargo act and
the War of 1812.
•HARTFORD CONVENTION: The Hartford Convention of 1814 damaged the
Federalists with its resolutions to the idea o secession, leaving an idea of disloyalty to use
against them. The convention on December 14, 1814 was to oppose the war, which was
hurting American industries and commerce. The recommendation of the convention was
to have an amendment to the Constitution that would grant taxation and representation in
each state, and prohibit congress from the embargo.
Henry Clay, Gallatin, and treaty negotiations: Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine
and arranged for the Treaty of Ghent that ended the War of 1812. Gallatin also was a part
in the negotiations of the Treaty of Ghent, as well as Clay, with hope of ending the war of
1812.
Treaty of Ghent: This was an agreement between the United States and Great Britain, in
Belgium, on December 24, 1814. This treaty ended the War of 1812, and provided that
all territory captured would be returned to the rightful owner. Great controversy occurred
over fishing rights and the Northwest Boundary, between England and America.
Economic Growth
Industrialization and the transportation revolution were a considerable force in
American history, changing the character of life in America by facilitation westward
expansion, and urbanization. This period was distinguished by the establishment of
factories and the creation of many new inventions to save time, improve transportation
and communication, and increase productivity.
transportation revolution: The transportation revolution was the period in which steam
power, railroads, canals, roads, bridges, and clipper ships emerged as new forms of
transportation, beginning in the 1830s. This allowed Americans to travel across the
country and transport goods into new markets that weren’t previously available.
Erie Canal: The Erie Canal, the first major canal project America, was built by New
York beginning 1817. Stretching 363 miles from Albany to Buffalo, it was longest canal
in western world at the time. It was a symbol of progress when it was opened in 1825,
and it later sparked artistic interest in the Hudson River when its use peaked in the 1880s.
National Road(
Cumberland Road
): The National Road was a highway across America. Construction began in 1811; the
road progressed west during early 1800s, advancing father west with each year. Its
crushed-stone surface helped and encouraged many settlers to travel into the frontier
west.
Commonwealth v. Hunt: In the case of Commonwealth v. Hunt, the Massachusetts
Supreme Court in 1842 ruled that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies in restraint of
trade. Although this decision made strikes legal, it did not bring significant changes in the
rights of laborers because many Massachusetts judges still considered unions illegal.
Robert Fulton, steamships: Fulton was an artist turned inventor. In 1807, he and his
partner, Robert Livingston, introduced a steamship, the Clermont, on the Hudson River
and obtained a monopoly on ferry service there until 1824. Steamships created an
efficient means of transporting goods upstream, and this led to an increase in the building
of canals.
clipper ships: Clipper ships were sailing ships built for great speed. The first true clipper
ship, the Rainbow, was designed by John W. Griffiths, launched in 1845, but this was
modeled after earlier ships developed on the Chesapeake Bay. During the Gold Rush,
from 1849 to 1857, clipper ships were a popular means to travel to California quickly.
Samuel Slater: Slater was the supervisor of machinery in a textile factory in England. He
left England illegally in 1790 to come to Rhode Island, where, in 1793, he founded the
first permanent mill in America for spinning cotton into yarn. In doing this, Slater
founded the cotton textile industry in America.
Boston Associates: The Boston Associates were a group of merchants in Boston who
created Boston Manufacturing Company in 1813. Capitalizing on new technology, they
built textile factories in the towns of Waltham and Lowell which produced finished
products, challenging cottage industries. Also, they hired young, unmarried women,
rather than entire families.
Lowell factory: The Lowell factory was a factory established in 1813 by the Boston
Manufacturing Company on the Merrimack River in Massachusetts. It was a cotton
textile mill that produced finished clothing, eliminating the need for cottage industries.
Also, the Lowell factory hired mainly young girls, separating these girls from their
families.
factory girls (Lowell factory): "Factory girls" were young, unmarried women, usually
between 15 and 30 years old, working in textile factories such as the Lowell factory.
Most of these girls left their families’ farms in order to gain independence or to help their
families financially. In the factories, they found poor working conditions and strict
discipline.
ten-hour movement: The ten-hour movement was the attempt by workers to obtain
restrictions on the number of hours they worked per day. They wanted to limit the day to
10 hours, from the 12 or 14 hour days that were not uncommon. The movement was
supported by Lowell Female Reform Association and other reform associations.
Elias Howe: Howe invented the sewing machine in 1845 and patented it in 1846. After a
difficult battle defending his patent, he made a fortune on his invention. The sewing
machine allowed clothing to be stitched in factories very quickly, contributing to the
transition from handmade garments to inexpensive, mass-produced clothing.
Eli Whitney, interchangeable parts: Whitney was an inventor who introduced the
concept of interchangeable parts in 1798. The tools and machines he invented allowed
unskilled workers to build absolutely uniform parts for guns, so that the whole gun no
longer had to be replaced if a single part malfunctioned or broke. This was the beginning
of mass production.
Cyrus McCormick, mechanical reaper: McCormick was an inventor who improved
upon previous designs for the mechanical reaper. He patented his reaper in 1834 and built
a factory to mass produce it in 1847. This invention lessened the work of western farmers
by mechanizing the process of harvesting wheat.
Samuel F.B. Morse, telegraph: Morse invented the telegraph in 1844. This invention
was enthusiastically accepted by the American people; telegraph companies were formed
and lines erected quickly. The telegraph allowed rapid communication across great
distances, usually transmitting political and commercial messages.
Cyrus Field: Field was a financier who promoted the first transatlantic telegraph cable.
In 1841, Field founded a company, Cyrus W. Field and Co. After four failed attempts,
Field laid a cable between Irealand and Newfoundland in 1866. This cable was 2,000
miles long and laid from the Great Eastern, a ship. This allowed for rapid transatlantic
communication.
Nationalism
The nationalistic movement was one which brought the nation together. The economy of
the nation was a large force in the merging of the nation, and the government took
considerable actions to piece it together.
Economic Independence after War of 1812: The War of 1812 was in part responsible
for creating a great sense of national purpose and awareness. There was a large
dependency on trade, evident to merchants when the Embargo of 1807 and the War of
1812 suspended trade to Europe. This was an economic blow that had repercussions.
Second Bank of the US: Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter bill of the Second Bank of
the United States on July 10, 1832, which was a blow against monopoly, aristocratic
parasites, and foreign domination, as well as great victory for labor. Instead, Jackson
created pet banks and destabilized the national currency and aid.
Tariff of 1816 (protective): This was a protective tariff that was principally intended to
hold the production of textiles and goods. This tariff was made in order to defend the
industries that were established during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,
promoting new industries. A revision was made in 1824 to clear problems that aroused.
Bonus Bill Veto: In 1817, the development of America was creating a need for a well
made transportation facilities to link the outlying agricultural regions with the trade eaters
in the Eastern sea ports. This was Madison’s last act, which he vetoed the bill on
constitutional ground.
Rush-Bagot Treaty: Rush-Bagot was an agreement between the US and Great Britain
concerning the Canadian border in 1817. The decision was that there would be a
disarmament of the US-Canadian frontier, and that there would be a precedent for the
amicable settlement of peace between the US and Canada.
Convention of 1818: Signed at London, by Richard Rush, Great Britain’s Prime
minister, and the French prime minister, Albert Gallatin. This treaty fixed the 49th
parallel to divide the US and Canadian boundary, and also established fishing privileges
for the United States off the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Panic of 1819 : Occurred when the Second Bank of the United States tightened its loan
policy, triggering a depression, that caused distress throughout the country, especially
western farmers. Even more so, British exports unloaded textiles, causing a great
depression for farmers.
Sectionalism and Slavery
In the early 1800s, slavery was becoming an increasingly sectional issue, meaning that it
was increasingly dividing the nation along regional lines. Northerners were becoming
more opposed to slavery, whether for moral or economic reasons, and Southerners were
becoming more united in their defense of slavery as an institution.
sectionalism: Sectionalism is loyalty or support of a particular region or section of the
nation, rather than the United States as a whole. Slavery was particularly sectional issue,
dividing the country into North and South to the extent that it led to the Civil War; for the
most part, southerners supported slavery and northerners opposed it.
"necessary evil": In the South, slavery was considered necessary in order to maintain the
agricultural economy of the entire region. Before George Fitzhugh in 1854, southerners
did not assert that slavery was a boon to society; they merely protested that it could not
be eliminated without destroying the South.
Slave Power: The term Slave Power refers to the belief that pro-slavery southerners were
united an attempt to spread slavery throughout the United States. Most Northerners were
suspicious of the influence of southern slaveholders in Congress, especially because of
the Fugitive Slave Act, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise.
•"KING COTTON": In the 1800s, cotton became the principal cash crop in the South.
The British textile industry created a huge demand for cotton, and the invention of the
cotton gin made it practical to grow cotton throughout the South. It was so profitable that
the vast majority of southern farms and plantations grew cotton, and the "Cotton
Kingdom" spread west into Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, Arkansas, and
Texas. Essentially, the entire Southern economy became dependent on the success of
cotton as a crop.
George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society: In 1854,
Fitzhugh wrote Sociology for the South, defending slavery. He argued that slavery
benefited the slave by providing him with food and shelter, and that free laborers in the
North were not treated any better than slaves. This was the first description of slavery as
a "positive the farmer groups good."
positive good: In the South, George Fizhugh established the philosophy that slavery was
"positive good." It was believed that slavery benefited slaves by providing them with
food, shelter, and often Christian religion. Also, Fitzhugh argued that free laborers in
northern factories were not treated any better than slaves.
Hinton Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: In 1857, Helper wrote The
Impending Crisis of the South in an attempt to persuade non-slaveholders that slavery
harmed the Southern economy, using the poor whites of the pine-barrens as an illustration
of how the institution of slavery degrades non-slaveowning southerners.
mountain whites in the South, pine barrens: The poorest class of whites in the Lower
South tended to cluster in the mountains and pine-barrens, where they survived by
grazing hogs and cattle on land that the usually didn’t own. They were considered lazy
and shiftless, and were often cited by northerners as proof that slavery degraded nonslaveholding whites.
West Florida, 1810: Annexed when southern expansionists went into the Spanish
Dominion, captured the fort at Baton Rouge, and proclaimed on September 26, the
independent State of republic of West Florida. It was adopted as a resolution on January
15, 1811 and authorized as an extenuation of US rule over East Florida.
Purchase of Florida: Spain surrendered Florida to the United States in 1819 by the
Adams-Onis Treaty, with a sum of five million dollars. This however began a rebellion
by the Indians, starting the Seminole War (1835-42), and becoming another reason for
Indian hatred of the white man.
Adams-Onis Treaty: It was the treaty in 1819 that purchased eastern Florida to establish
the boundary between Mexico and the Louisiana territory. It provided for the cession of
Florida to the United States in return for American settlement of claims of her citzens
against Spain.
Quadruple Alliance: Formed in 1815, the Quadruple Alliance consisted of England,
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and it regulated European politics after the fall of Napoleon.
The Holy Alliance was an organization of European states that advanced the principles of
the Christian faith.
George Canning: The British foreign minister, he supported nationalist movements
throughout Latin America and dissuaded foreign intervention in American affairs. He
proposed that the US and Britain issue a joint statement opposing European interference
in South America and guaranteed that neither would annex Spain’s old empire.
•MONROE DOCTRINE: origins, provisions, impact: President Monroe’s message to
Congress on Dec. 2, 1823, it consisted of 3 principles: U.S. policy was to abstain from
European wars unless U.S. interests were involved, European powers could not colonize
the American continents and shouldn’t attempt to colonize newly independent Spanish
American republics. Ridiculed in Europe, it was used to justify U.S. expansion by
presidents John Tyler and James Polk. In 1904, the Roosevelt Corollary was introduced.
Era of good feelings: This phrase exemplifies both of Monroe’s presidencies, from
1816-1824. The War of 1812 eliminated some divisive issues, and Republicans embraced
the Federalist’s issues. Monroe made an effort to avoid political controversies, but soon
sectionalism divided the nation.
Chief Justice John Marshall: decisions: Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) The
question was whether New Hampshire could change a private corporation, Dartmouth
College into a state university. It was unconstitutional to change it. After a state charters a
college or business, it can no longer alter the charter nor regulate the beneficiary.
Tallmadge Amendment: The Tallmadge Amendment (1819) restricted further
importation of slaves into Missouri and freed slave descendants born after Missouri’s
admission as a state, at age 25. It passed in the House but not the Senate due to
sectionalism.
•MISSOURI COMPROMISE: Congress admitted Maine as a free state in 1820 so that
Missouri would become a slave state and prohibited slavery in the rest of the Louisiana
Purchase territory north of 36 30, the southern boundary of Missouri. Henry Clay
proposed the second Missouri Compromise in 1821, which forbade discrimination
against citizens from other states in Missouri but did not resolve whether free blacks were
citizens. Congress had a right to prohibit slavery in some territories.
Clay’s American System: In his tariff speech to Congress on March 30- 31, 1824, Clay
proposed a protective tariff in support of home manufactures, internal improvements such
as federal aid to local road and canal projects, a strong national bank, and distribution of
the profits of federal land sales to the states.
Daniel Webster: Supporting the tariff of 1828, he was a protector of northern industrial
interests. In the debate over the renewal of the charter of the US Bank, Webster
advocated renewal and opposed the financial policy of Jackson. Many of the principles of
finance he spoke about were later incorporated in the Federal Reserve System.
federal land policy: The federal land law passed in 1796 established a minimum
purchase of 640 acres at a minimum price of $2 an acre and a year for full payment. In
the federal land law passed in 1804, the minimum purchase was decreased to 160 acres.
In 1820, the minimum purchase was reduced to 80 acres. In 1820, it was reduced to
$1.25.
John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State: Fla: With Monroe’s support, Adams forced
Spain to cede Florida and make an agreeable settlement of the Louisiana boundary, in the
Transcontinental (Adams-Onis) Treaty, drafted in 1819. Spain consented to a southern
border of the US that ran from the Miss. River to the Rocky Mountains.
•ELECTION OF 1824: popular vote, electoral vote, House vote: Jackson, Adams,
Crawford, Clay: All five candidates, including Calhoun were Republicans, showing that
the Republican party was splintering, due to rival sectional components. Calhoun
withdrew and ran for the vice presidency. Jackson won more popular and electoral votes
than the other candidates but didn’t manage to gain the majority needed Because Clay
supported Adams, Adams became president.
"corrupt bargain": After Adams won the presidency, he appointed Clay as secretary of
state. Jackson’s supporters called the action a "corrupt bargain" because they thought that
Jackson was cheated of the presidency. Although there is no evidence to link Clay’s
support to his appointment of the secretary of state, the allegation was widely believed.
Panama Conference: President Adams angered southerners by proposing to send
American delegates to a conference of newly independent Latin American nations in
Panama in 1826. Southerners worried that U.S. participation would insinuate recognition
of Haiti, which gained independence through a slave revolution.
Tariff of Abominations: Named by southerners, this bill favored western agricultural
interests by raising tariffs or import taxes on imported hemp, wool, fur, flax, and liquor in
1828. New England manufacturing interests were favored because it raised the tariff on
imported textiles. In the South, these tariffs raised the cost of manufactured goods.
•VICE-PRESIDENT CALHOUN: South Carolina Exposition and Protest, nullification:
He anonymously wrote the widely read South Carolina Exposition and Protest, in which
he made his argument that the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional. Adversely affected
states had the right to nullify, or override, the law, within their borders. He acknowledged
that he wrote the SC Exposition and Protest in 1831. In 1832, he convinced the South
Carolina legislature to nullify the federal tariff acts of 1828 and 1832.
internal improvements: President Adams proposed a program of federal support for
internal improvements in Dec. 1825; strict Jeffersonians claimed it to be unconstitutional.
The South had few plans to build canals and roads. Jackson, with a political base in the
South, felt that federal support meant a possibly corrupt giveaway program for the North.
Jacksonian Democracy
Jackson personified the desireable and undesireable qualities of Westerners. He stood for
the right of the common people to have a greater voice in government. Distinct changes
in laws, practices, and popular attitudes gave rise to Jacksonian Democracy and were in
turn accelerated by the new equilitarian spirit.
Jacksonian Revolution of 1828: Jackson won more than twice the electoral vote of John
Quincy Adams. However the popular vote was much closer. Adams had strong support in
New England while Jackson swept the South and Southwest. In the middle states and the
Northwest, the popular vote was close.
age of the common man: All white males had access to the polls. Jackson was portrayed
by the opposition as a common man, an illiterate backwoodsman, during the election of
1828. He was depicted as being uncorrupt, natural, and plain. His supporters described
his simple and true morals and fierce and resolute will.
spoils system: Jackson defended the principle of "rotation in office," the removal of
officeholders of the rival party on democratic grounds. He wanted to give as many
individuals as possible a chance to work for the government and to prevent the
development of an elite bureaucracy.
National Republicans: They became the Whig party during Jackson’s second term. John
Quincy Adams and Henry Clay guided this party in the 1830s. They were the
Jeffersonian Republicans, along with numerous former Federalists who believed that the
national government should advocate economic development.
Trail of Tears: A pro-removal chief signed the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 which
ceded all Cherokee land to the United States for $5.6 million. Most Cherokees
condemned the treaty. Between 1835 and 1838, 16,000 Cherokees migrated west to the
Mississippi along the Trail of Tears. 2,000 to 4,000 Cherokees died.
kitchen cabinets: During his first term, Jackson repeatedly relied on an informal group
of partisan supporters for advice while ignoring his appointed cabinet officers.
Supposedly, they met in the White House kitchen. Martin Van Buren and John H. Eaton
belonged to this group, but were also members of the official cabinet.
Worcester v. Georgia, 1832: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees were
not a state nor a foreign nation and therefore lacked standing to bring suit. Cherokee
Nation v. Georgia, 1831: Marshall ruled that the Cherokees were a "domestic dependent
nation" entitled to federal protection from mistreatment by Georgia.
Whigs: The National Republican party altered its name to the Whig party during
Jackson’s second term. They were united by their opposition of Jackson’s policies,
committed to Clay’s American System and believed in active intervention by the
government to change society. They became a national party with appeal by 1836.
Maysville Road veto: President Jackson vetoed a bill to grant federal aid for a road in
Kentucky between Maysville and Lexington in 1830. He believed that internal
improvements violated the principle that Congress could appropriate money for
objectives only shared by all Americans. It increased Jackson’s popularity in the South.
election of 1832: Jackson, a strong defender of states’ rights and Unionism won the
presidency. The National Republicans ran Henry Clay whose platform consisted of his
American System. The Anti-Masonic Party ran William Wirt who received 7 electoral
votes.
•BANK WAR: Nicholas Biddle operated the Bank of the United States since 1823.
Many opposed the Bank because it was big and powerful. Some disputed its
constitutionality. Jackson tried to destroy the Bank by vetoing a bill to recharter the Bank.
He removed the federal government’s deposits from the Bank and put them into various
state and local banks or "pet banks." Biddle tightened up on credit and called in loans,
hoping for a retraction by Jackson, which never occurred. A financial recession resulted.
Roger B. Taney: Jackson’s policy was to remove federal deposits form the Bank of US
and put them in state banks. Secretary of treasury Roger B. Taney implemented the
policy. Critics called the state-bank depositories pet banks because they were chosen for
their loyalty to the Democratic party.
Webster-Hayne Debate: Senator Robert Hayne of South Carolina made a speech in
favor of cheap land in 1830. He used Calhoun’s anti-tariff arguments to support his
position and referred to the plausibility of nullification. Webster contended that the Union
was indissoluble and sovereign over the individual states.
Peggy Eaton affair: Jackson’s secretary of war, John H. Eaton, married Peggy Eaton in
1829. They were socially disregarded by Calhoun’s wife and Calhoun’s friends in the
cabinet. Jackson believed that the Eaton affair was Calhoun’s plot to discredit him and
advance Calhoun’s presidential ambitions.
Calhoun resigns: When Jackson favored the higher rates for the Tariff of 1832, Calhoun
resigned in the same year. He went back to South Carolina and composed an Ordinance
of Nullification which was approved by a special convention, and the customs officials
were ordered to stop collecting the duties at Charleston.
•NULLIFICATION CRISIS: Calhoun introduced the idea in his SC Exposition and
Protest. States that suffered from the tariff of 1828 had the right to nullify or override the
law within their borders. Jackson proclaimed that nullification was unconstitutional and
that the Constitution established "a single nation," not a league of states. A final
resolution of the question of nullification was postponed until 1861, when South
Carolina, accompanied by other southern states, seceded from the Union and started the
Civil War.
Clay Compromise: He devised the Compromise Tariff which provided for a gradual
lowering of duties between 1833-1842. The Force Bill authorized the president to use
arms to collect customs duties in South Carolina. Without the compromise, he believed
that the Force Bill would produce a civil war.
Martin Van Buren: The accepted name for a group of Democratic party politicians, their
activities were centered in Albany, NY. They took a leading role in national and NY
State politics between 1820 and 1850. One of the earliest, competent political machines
in the US, prominent members included Van Buren.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney: The Charles River Bridge Company sued to prevent
Mass. from permitting the construction of a new bridge across the Charles River. Taney
ruled that no charter given to a private corporation forever vested rights that might hurt
the public interest.
panic of 1837: Prices began to fall in May 1837 and bank after bank refused specie
payments. The Bank of the United States also failed. The origins of the depression
included Jackson’s Specie Circular. Also, Britain controlled the flow of specie from its
shores to the US in an attempt to hinder the outflow of British investments in 1836.
Dorr’s Rebellion: As a popular movement emerged in Rhode Island to abolish the
limitations set forth by the charter granted by Charles II in 1663, so did much violence
and serious disturbances. The protesters sought to do away with the state constitution
which restricted suffrage to freeholders led the reform to grant suffrage to non-property
owners.
Independent Treasury Plan: Instead of depositing its revenue in state banks, Van Buren
persuaded Congress to establish an Independent Treasury in which the federal
government would keep the revenue itself and thereby withhold public money from the
grasp of business cooperation.
election of 1840: Van Buren was nominated but no vice president was put up. His
opponent, William Henry Harrison was ridiculed as "Old Granny" by the Democrats, and
was given the most successful campaign slogans in history. "Tippecanoe and Tyler too"
Harrison won 80% of the electoral vote but died a moth later.
rise of the second party system: Because of the gradual hardening of the line between
the two parties, interests in politic erupted among the people. New things such as rousing
campaign techniques, strong contrasts, and simple choices began to appeal to the ordinary
people.
Tariff of 1842: In August of 1842, due to the need of revenue to run the government,
Tyler signed a bill which maintained some tariffs above 20%, but abandoned distribution
to the states. This satisfied northern manufacturers, but by abandoning distribution, it
infuriated many southerners and westerners
Reform: Social & Intellectual
European Romanticism branched into American mainstream society. The basic goals
emphasised were to transced the bounds of intellect and to strive for emotional
understranding. It agreed on the scaredness, uniqueness, and the authority of the
individual apprehension experience.
Transcendentalists-Transcendalists included many brilliant philosophers, writers, poets
lecturers and essayists. These included such intellectuals as Ralph Waldo Emerson Henry
David Thoreau, and Walt Whitman. They believed in emphasis of the spontaneous and
vivid expression of personal feeling over learned analysis.
Ralph Waldo Emerson: Serving briefly as a Unitarian minister, he was a popular
essayist and lecturer. The topics of his essays were broad and general. He wrote on
subjects such as "Beauty," "Nature," and "Power." He was a Transcendalist who believed
that knowledge reflected the voice of God, and that truth was inborn and universal.
Henry David Thoreau, On Civil Disobedience: He was considered to be a "doer." He
wrote OCD to defend the right to disobey unjust laws. He was also a Transcendalist who
believed that one could satisfy their material purposes with only a few weeks work each
year and have more time to ponder life’s purpose.
Orestes Brownson- A member of the Transcendentalist movement, Brownson was a
flexible theologian and writer. He was particularly active with the founding of the
Workingman’s and Loco-Focos parties in New York. These Locos-Focos called for free
public education, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, and a ten-hour workday.
Margaret Fuller, The Dial: A feminist, critic, philosopher, and journalist, she edited
The Dial, which was a Transcendalist journal with Ralph Waldo Emerson and George
Ripley. After writing Summer on the Lakes, she was offered a job and wrote significant
literature as a critic of the Tribune from 1844 to 1846.
James Fenimore Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans, The Spy, The Pioneers: He wrote
historical novels under Sir Walter Scott’s influence. To fiction, he introduced characters
like frontiersmen, and developed a distinctly American theme with conflict of between
the customs of primitive life on the frontier and the advance of civilization.
Herman Melville, Moby Dick: Drawing ideas and theme from his own experiences in
life, Melville wrote with much pessimism. His book, which contains much pessimism,
focuses on the human mind instead of the social relationships. He, along with Poe and
Hawthorne, were concerned with analyzing the mental states of their characters.
Nathanial Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter- Hawthorne turned to his Puritan past in order
to examine the psychological and moral effects of the adultery. He, along with Poe and
Melville, wrote with concern for the human mind because of their pessimism about the
human condition.
Edgar Allen Poe: Poe, with Melville and Hawthorne saw man as a group of conflicting
forces that might not ever be balanced. He changed literature by freeing it from its
determination to preach a moral and established the idea that literature should be judged
by the positive effect they had on the reader.
Washington Irving: Residing in New York and serving in the war of 1812, he left the
US and lived in Europe until 1832. He wrote Sketch Book, which contained "The Legend
of Sleepy Hollow," and "Rip Van Winkle," which continued to give the him the support
of Americans who were proud of their best known writer.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Coming from New England, the area from which
literature was most prominent, Longfellow, a poet, wrote Evalgeline which was widely
read by schoolchildren in America. His poems of Evalgeline and Hiawatha preached of
the value of tradition and the impact of the past on the present.
Walt Whitman: By writing Leaves of Grass, Whitman broke the conventions of rhyme
and meter to bring new vitality to poetry. Not only did he write in free verse. but his
poems took on a different style, being energetic and candid at a time when humility were
accepted in the literary world.
Antebellum Reform
Americans after 1815 embraced many religios and social movements in pursuit of
solutions for the problems, evils, and misfortunes of mankind. These movements were
generally more active in the Northern states.
Hudson River school of art-Americans painters also sought to achieve a sense of
nationality in art. Flourishing between the 1829s and 1870s, the painter realized that the
American landscape lacked the "poetry of decay" of Europe. Realizing this, they began to
paint the awesomeness of nature in America.
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America: A French Civil servant, he traveled to
this country in the early 1930s to study the prison system. DiA was a result of his
observations. It reflected the broad interest in the entire spectrum of the American
democratic process and the society which it had developed.
millenialism: In the 1830s, William Miller claimed the Second coming of Christ would
occur in 1843. Following him were the Millerites. After the failure of his prophecies, his
disciples divided into smaller Adventist groups of which the two largest are the Advent
Christian Church and the Seventh-Day Adventists
Charles G. Finney: Known as the "father of modern revivalism," he was a pioneer of
cooperation among Protestant denominations. He believed that conversions were human
creations instead of the divine works of God, and that people’s destinies were in their
own hands. His "Social Gospel" offered salvation to all.
Mormons, Brigham Young: Joseph Smith organized the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter Day Saints after receiving "Sacred writings" in New York Unpopular because of
their polygamy, they moved to Missouri, then to Nauvoo, Illinois. They were then led to
the Great Salt Lake by Brigham young after Smith was killed.
Brook Farm, New Harmony, Onieda, Amana Community: Attempting to improve
man’s life during industrialism, these cooperative communities, known as Utopian
communities, were formed. These communities often condemned social isolation,
religion, marriage, the institution of private property.
lyceum movement: Began by Josiah Holbrok in the 1820, lyceums were local
organizations that sponsored public lectures. Lectures were held on such topics as
astronomy, biology, physiology, geology, conversation. The spread of these lecture
revealed the widespread hunger for knowledge and refinement.
Dorothea Dix: In 1843, after discovering the maltreatment of the insane in 1841,
presented a memorial to the state legislature which described the abhor conditions in
which the insane were kept. She, along with help from Horace Mann and Samuel G.
Howe, led the fight for asylums and more humane treatment for the insane.
National Trade Union: Organized in 1834, this association was created after the New
York Trades Union called a convention of delegates from numerous city centrals. Headed
by Ely Moore, who was elected to Congress on the Tammany ticket, this union
disintegrated along with a number of other national conventions with the Panic of 1837.
Commonwealth vs. Hunt: This decision deemed that the trade union and their strike
techniques were legal, contradicting the traditional idea of unions being illegal under the
conspiracy laws of the English common law. Although this was a milestone, it in fact did
not open a new era for labor unions. Most judges still believed unions were illegal.
criminal conspiracy laws: Initially, trade unions were persecuted for their strikes
because they were construed as illegal conspiracies under the common law.. The early
unions strove for higher wages, shorter hours, union control of apprenticeship and a
closed shop.
Oberlin, 1833; Mt. Holyoke, 1836- After it was established in 1833, Oberlin College
was converted into the center of western abolition by Theodore Dwight Weld. Founded
by Mary Lyon in 1836, Mt Holyoke College in Massachusetts is the oldest U.S. college
devoted to women’s education.
public education, Horace Mann- The most influential of reformers, Man became the
secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. For the next ten years, Mann
promoted a wholistic change in public education. Mann wanted to put the burden of cost
on the state, grade the schools, standardize textbooks, and compel attendance.
American Temperance Union- The first national temperance organization, it was
created by evangelical Protestants. Created in 1826, they followed Lyman Beecher in
demanding total abstinence from alcohol. They denounced the evil of drinking and
promoted the expulsion of drinkers from church.
Irish, German immigration- 1845-1854: In this single decade, the largest immigration
proportionate to the American population occurred. The Irish was the largest source of
immigration with the German immigrants ranking second in number. This spurred new
sentiment for nativism and a new anti-Catholic fervor.
Nativism: The Irish immigration surge during the second quarter of the nineteenth
century revived anti-Catholic fever .Extremely anti-Catholic, in 1835 Morse warned that
the governments of Europe were filling the US with Catholic immigrants as part of a
conspiracy to undermine and destroy republican institutions.
Women’s rights : Women could not vote and if married, they had no right to own
property or retain their own earnings. They were also discriminated in the areas of
education and employment, not receiving the opportunities that men possessed. This
encouraged the development of educational institutions for women.
Lucretia Mott: 1848, Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized a women’s rights
convention at Seneca Falls, New York, proclaiming a Declaration of Sentiments Months
earlier, along with Stanton, they successfully worked for the passage of the New York
Married Women’s Property Act which recognized women’s right to her separate
property.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: She along with Lucretia Mott planned a women’s right
convention at the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Seneca Falls which sparked the
women’s movement. She was also active in the fight for abolition and temperance, but
was devoted to women’s rights.
Seneca Falls, 1848: Under the eye of Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, this
convention adopted resolutions for women’s rights. Among those adopted were a demand
for women’s suffrage and a diminution of sexual discrimination in education and
employment.
Emma Willard: In 1814, Willard established the Middlebury Female Seminary where
she devised new innovations in female education. She also established the Troy Female
Seminary in 1821. She provided instruction in math and philosophy in which women
could not take earlier. She led the fight for educational equality among sexes.
Catherine Beecher: Lyman Beecher’s daughter and a militant opponent of female
equality, she fought for a profession in which females could be appreciated. With this,
she discovered the institution of education in which women could play an important part
in. In this profession, women became the main source of teachers.
"Cult of True Womanhood": The alternate ideal of domesticity, this slowed the
advance of feminism. Because it sanctioned numerous activities in reform such as
temperance and education, it provided women with worthwhile pursuits beyond the
family.
American Peace Society: In a social reform movement, William Ladd led the peace
movement by establishing the American Peace Society in 1828. He was joined in the
peace movement by Elihu Burritt who founded the League of Universal Brotherhood in
1846 and promoted the 2d Universal Peace Conference held in Brussels in 1848
prison reform: Prison were meant to rehabilitate as well as punish. The Auburn System
allowed prisoners to work together but never make contact and remain confined at night
in a windowless cell. The Pennsylvania system made each prisoner spend of his/her time
in a single cell with no outside contact.
Abolitionism
Abolitionism is support for a complete, immediate, and uncompensated end to slavery. In
the North before the Civil War, there were only a few abolitionists and these were
generally considered radicals. However, they were prominent and vocal, and as sectional
tension mounted, they became more prominent and influential.
•ABOLITIONISM: Abolitionism was the movement in opposition to slavery, often
demanding immediate, uncompensated emancipation of all slaves. This was generally
considered radical, and there were only a few adamant abolitionists prior to the Civil
War. Almost all abolitionists advocated legal, but not social equality for blacks. Many
abolitionists, such as William Lloyd Garrison were extremely vocal and helped to make
slavery a national issue, creating sectional tension because most abolitionists were from
the North.
American Antislavery Society: The American Antislavery Society was an organization
in opposition to slavery founded in 1833. In 1840, issues such as the role of women in the
abolitionist movement, and role of abolitionists as a political party led to the division of
the organization into the American Antislavery Society and Foreign Antislavery Society.
Because the organization never had control over the many local antislavery societies, its
division did not greatly damage abolitionism.
William Lloyd Garrison: William Lloyd Garrison was a radical who founded The
Liberator, an abolitionist newspaper, in Boston in 1831. He advocated immediate,
uncompensated emancipation and even civil equality for blacks. This made Garrison a
famous and highly controversial abolitionist whose main tactic was to stir up emotions on
the slavery issue.
The Liberator: The Liberator was an anti-slavery newspaper published by William Lloyd
Garrison and Isaac Knapp beginning in 1831. Its bitter attacks on slavery and
slaveowners, as well as its articles and speeches using arguments based on morality to
advocate immediate emancipation made it one of the most persuasive periodicals in the
United States at the time.
Theodore Weld: Weld was an abolitionist student at the Lane Theological Seminary. He
was dismissed when, in 1834, the trustees of the seminary tried to suppress abolitionism.
He led an antislavery demonstration on campus and a mass withdrawal of students from
the school. These students then centered their activities at Oberlin College.
Grimké sisters: Angelina and Sarah Grimké were sisters who toured New England,
lecturing against slavery, in 1837. They became controversial by lecturing to both men
and women. In 1838 both sisters wrote classics of American feminism; Sarah wrote
Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes and Angelina wrote
Letters to Catherine E. Beecher.
Theodore Parker: Parker was a clergyman, theologian, and the author of A Letter to the
People and A Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion. He was also an active
opponent of slavery who aided in the escape of slaves and the rescue of Anthony Burns,
supported New England Emigrant Society, and participated in John Brown’s raid in 1859.
Elijah Lovejoy: Lovejoy was American abolitionist and the editor of the an antislavery
periodical, The Observer. Violent opposition from slaveholders in 1836 forced him to
move his presses from Missouri to Illinois, where he established the Alton Observer.
Lovejoy was killed by an mob in 1837, and his death stimulated the growth of abolitionist
movement.
Wendell Phillips: Phillips was an American orator, abolitionist, and reformer. He also
spoke publicly in favor of women’s rights, temperance, abolition and elimination of
capital punishment. His most famous speech, The Murder of Lovejoy speech protested the
murder of Elijah Lovejoy and gained him recognition from the public.
•NAT TURNER’S INSURRECTION: Turner was a slave who became convinced that
he was chosen by God to lead his people to freedom. In Virginia in 1831, Turner led
about 70 blacks into a revolt against their masters. Before the uprising was brought to a
halt by white militiamen, 55 whites were killed by Turner and his followers and many
blacks were lynched by white mobs. Turner and fifteen of his companions were hanged.
The rebellion convinced white southerners that a successful slave insurrection was an
constant threat..
Gabriel Prosser: Prosser a Virginia slave who planned a slave uprising in 1800 with the
intent of creating a free black state. They intended to sieze the federal arsenal at
Richmond, but the plan was betrayed by other slaves. Prosser and his comrades were
captured by the state militia and executed.
Denmark Vesey: Vessy was a slave from South Carolina who bought his freedom with
$1,500 that he won in a lottery. In 1822, he planned to lead a group of slaves in an
attacking Charleston and stealing the city’s arms. However, the plan was betrayed by
other slaves, resulting in the hanging of Vessy and his followers.
David Walker, Walker’s Appeal: David Walker was a free black from Boston who
published his Appeal in 1829, advocating a black rebellion to crush slavery. The purpose
of Walker’s Appeal was to remind his people that they were Americans and should be
treated fairly.
Frederick Douglass: Douglass was an escaped slave, who became a powerful aboltionist
orator. He captured his audiences with descriptions of his life as a slave. He also
published a newspaper, the North Star, in the early 1830s. Douglass’ influential speeches
encouraged slaves to escape as he did and motivated northerners to oppose slavery.
Sojourner Truth: Sojourner Truth was a runaway slave who became an influential
figure in both women’s societies and the abolitionist movement. In spite of her illiteracy,
she traveled widely through New England and the Midwest, making eloquent speeches
against sex discrimination, Godlessness, and slavery which attracted large audiences.
Harriet Tubman: Tubman was a black woman who, after escaping from slavery in
1849, made 19 journeys back into the South to help as many as 300 other slaves escape.
She was the most famous leader of the underground railroad. Because of her efforts to
lead her people to freedom, Tubman was known as "Moses" among blacks.
underground railroad: The underground railroad was a secret network of antislavery
northerners who illegally helped fugitive slaves escape to free states or Canada during the
period before the American Civil War. The system had no formal organization, but it
helped thousands of slaves escape and contributed to the hostility between the North and
South.
Creole affair: The Creole Affair was an uprising by a group of slaves who were in the
process of being transported in the ship, the Creole. They killed the captain, took control
of ship and sailed for Bahamas, where they became free under British. Incidents such as
this contributed to the intensification of sectional conflict in the United States.
Expansion to 1840
1n 1790, a great majority of Americans lived east of the Appalachian Mountains, but
many began moving west intermittently. Before, 1840, they mainly settled the areas east
of the Mississippi River and avoided the arid Great Plains region. Texas was a popular
destination for American settlers, especially southern planters with slaves, so when the
Mexican government tried to restrict the rights of these settlers, the Texas War for
Independence resulted.
Stephen Austin: Austin was a prominant leader of Americans in Texas. In the 1820s, he
was a highly successful empresario, who had contracted 300 American families to move
to Texas by 1825. After Mexican president Santa Anna invaded Texas in1835, Austin
became one of the leaders of the Texas Revolution.
•TEXAN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE: In 1836, Mexican president Santa Anna
invaded Texas and brutally crushed the rebels at the battle of the Alamo. However, the
leader to the Texans, Sam Houston, retaliated at the battle of San Jacinto. At San Jacinto,
the Texans killed half of Santa Anna’s men in 15 minutes and Houstan captured Santa
Anna and forced him to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence. The Mexican
government never recognized this treaty, but could no longer afford to fight, so Texas
became the Lone Star Republic.
Alamo: The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, that became the setting for and
important episode in Texan war for independence from Mexico. In 1836, Mexican forces
under Santa Anna besieged San Antonio and the city’s 200 Texan defenders retreated
into the abandoned mission. All of the Texans were killed in their attempt to fight the
Mexican army.
Davy Crockett: Davy Crockett was a politician, a frontiersman, and a soldier. From
1827 to 1835 Crockett represented Tennessee in Congress. In he 1835 went to Texas and
joined the revolution against Mexico. He was killed while defending the Alamo in 1836.
Exaggerated stories written after his death made Crockett an American folk hero.
William Barrett Travis: Travis was a lawyer before he moved to Texas in 1831. In
1835, became colonel in Texas Revolution. In 1836, Travis became a war hero when he
was ordered to defend San Antonio and the Alamo. When Santa Anna and his men
attacked, greatly outnumbering Travis’ 200 troops, Travis and all of his men died in
battle.
San Jacinto: The battle of San Jacinto was the last battle of Texan war for independence.
Texan General Sam Houston and 800 of his men ambushed Santa Anna and the Mexican
army. The battle lasted less than 20 minutes, during which after Santa Anna was captured
and forced to signed a treaty granting Texans their independence.
Santa Anna: Santa Anna was elected president of Mexico in 1833. However, in 1834, he
overthrew government and named himself dictator. He invaded Texas in 1835, but got
captured at the battle of San Jacinto in 1836. After this defeat, he was forced into
retirement until 1838. He was overthrown in 1845, but called back in 1846 to fight in the
Mexican War.
Sam Houston: Houston was a military commander and an American statesman who
served in House of Representatives from 1823 to 1827. In 1836, Houston was chosen as
president of the Texan rebels. He led them in the battle of San Jacinto, where he captured
Santa Anna and achieved Texan independence.
Republic of Texas: Texan rebels declared their independence from Mexico in 1836.
They drafted a constitution modeled after the United States Constitution and chose Sam
Houston as their president. Texas was an autonomous nation from the time Santa Anna
recognized Texan independence at the battle of San Jacinto until it was annexed by the
United States in 1845.
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny is the belief that Americans had the right, or even the duty, to expand
westward across the North American continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific
Ocean. This would spread the glorious institutions of civilization and democracy to the
barbaric Native Americans. In order to accomplish this destiny, Americans did not flinch at
atrocities such as provoking war with Mexico or slaughtering Indians.
Great American Desert: The "Great American Desert" was a nickname for the Great
Plains. This area, the present -day Midwest, was characterized by its arid climate, a flat
topography, and lack of trees. Because of these features, it was considered inhospitable and
early settlers chose to cross it on the way to the Willamette Valley of Oregon rather than
settling there.
•"MANIFEST DESTINY": "Manifest Destiny" was the term used, throughout the 1840s,
to describe Americans’ belief that they were destined by God to spread their beliefs across
the continent. This sense of duty created a sense of unity among the nation and stimulated
westward expansion. The term itself was coined by John O’Sullivan in an 1845 magazine
article. The concept justified westward expansion in all its forms and ramifications,
including the Mexican War, the persecution of the Indians, and other such ethnocentric acts.
Was it Imperialism?: American annexation of territories such as Oregon are generally not
considered imperialistic because these lands were obtained by negotiation between two
equal powers and the people there were not opposed to joining the Union. However, lands
gained by force, such as the Mexican cession, are considered imperialistic conquests.
Horace Greeley: Greeley was a journalist and political leader. He opposed slavery, but he
was not an abolitionist. He was editor of the New Yorker and a Whig associated with
Governor Seward of New York. In 1841, he founded the New York Tribune. In 1872, he was
the Liberal Republican nominee for president.
Annexation of Texas, Joint Resolution under President Tyler: In 1843, Tyler started a
campaign to annex Texas, and in 1844 he succeeded in sending a treaty to Congress for the
annexation. This treaty was defeated in the Senate, but later, in early 1845, Congress passed
a joint resolution to annex Texas because of the growing popularity of annexation.
Reoccupation of Texas: After Congress voted to annex Texas, the Mexican governmen
began war preparations when Texans accepted annexation. In response, Polk sent troops to
occupy Texas and the disputed territory south of the Nueces River. Polk believed that the
land was part of the Louisiana Purchase, and therefore it belonged to the United States.
Reannexation of Oregon: Prior to 1846, America and Great Britain had jointly occupied
the Oregon Country. However, in 1844, Polk began to demand that America obtain the
entire territory. In compromise, a treaty was signed in 1846 giving the United States all of
Oregon south of the 49th parallel.
•ELECTION OF 1844: In the election of 1844, the Whigs nominated Henry Clay. The
Democrats, however, were divided between Martin Van Buren and Lewis Cass. A deadlock
at the Democratic national convention resulted in the nomination of dark-horse candidate
James K. Polk. The Liberty party, consisting of a small group of northern antislavery Whigs
who were alienated by Clay’s indecisiveness, nominated James G. Birney. Also, large
numbers of Irish immigrants turned out to vote for Polk, and he won by a small margin.
•JAMES K. POLK: Polk was a slaveowning southerner dedicated to Democratic party. In
1844, he was a "dark horse" candidate for president, and he won the election. Polk favored
American expansion, especially advocating the annexation of Texas, California, and
Oregon. He was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson. He opposed Clay’s American
System, instead advocating lower tariff, separation the treasury and the federal government
from the banking system. He was a nationalist who believed in Manifest Destiny.
54° 40’ or Fight!: In the election of 1844, Polk used "54° 40’ or Fight!" as a campaign
slogan, implying that the he would declare war if Britain did not give the United States all
the Oregon territory up to its northern boundary, the line 54° 40’ N. latitude. However, in
1846 Polk agreed to negotiate, and the two countries divided Oregon at the 49th parallel.
Slidell Mission to Mexico: Slidell was a negotiator sent to Mexico by James Polk with
orders to gain Mexico’s recognition of the independence of Texas and to purchase California
and New Mexico. However, he was not received by the Mexican government because the
threat of military revolt left the Mexican president to weak to negotiate.
Rio Grande, Nueces River, Disputed Territory: A dispute over the southern boundary of
Texas contributed to the Mexican War. Mexico claimed that the Nueces River was boundary
of Texas, but Polk insisted that the Rio Grande River was the boundary line. The land
between these two rivers was uninhabited, but it was a significant slice of Mexican territory.
•MEXICAN WAR: The Mexican war lasted from 1846 to 1848. The main cause of the war
was American desire for territory, especially Texas and California. The war took place
mainly on Mexican soil. Partially because of disorganization and instability in the Mexican
government, the war resulted in and American victory. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
ending the war, made the southern boundary of Texas the Rio Grande, gave California and
New Mexico to the United States, and gave $15 million to Mexico in compensation.
General Zachary Taylor: Taylor was an American major general who became a war hero
during the Mexican War. His troops won important victories in northern Mexico at
Matamoros, Monterrey, and Buena Vista, and his resulting popularity helped him win the
presidential election in 1848.
Battle of Buena Vista: The battle of Buena Vista was a battle during Mexican War. Five
thousand American troops commanded by General Taylor defeated three times as many
Mexican troops under Santa Anna. As a result of this battle, Taylor was put in control of all
of northern Mexico. This American victory also hastened end of the War.
Stephen Kearney: Kearney was an American colonel in the Mexican War. In 1846, he led
an army to Santa Fe and took the New Mexico territory without firing a shot. Kearny then
suppressed a rebellion of both Indians and Mexicans, and managed to send a detachment of
his army south into Mexico in time to join Taylor in the Battle of Buena Vista.
John C. Fremont: Fremont was an explorer, soldier, and politician known as "the Great
Pathfinder." In 1846, he assisted in the annexation of California by capturing insurgents,
seizing the city of Sonoma, and declaring the independence of the "Bear Flag Republic." In
1856, Fremont became the first presidential candidate for the Republican party.
Senator Thomas Hart Benton: Senator Benton was an American statesman. He
represented Missouri in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. His daughter,
Jessie Benton, married adventurer John C. Fremont, and Benton used his influence to have
records of Fremont’s explorations published as government documents.
General Winfield Scott: General Scott commanded American troops during the Mexican
War, and led those troops victory at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and Chapultepec. He also led
the final defeat of Santa Anna when he captured Mexico City in 1847. He ran for president
of United States in 1852.
Nicholas Trist: Trist was the chief clerk of state department and a peace officer. He was
sent to Mexico by Polk to negotiate with Mexican president Herrera. They wanted Trist to
convince Herrera to lower the price he was asking for California and to give Americans the
right of movement over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In 1846, Herrera rejected the offer.
All Mexico Movement: Many Senators in Congress wanted the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo to include all of Mexico, because they believed that to have control of all of Mexico
would give the United States more power. However, this movement failed because the
acquisition of California and her ports satisfied Polk.
•MEXICAN CESSION: The Mexican Cession was the land that Mexico ceded to the
United States in the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo in 1848. This territory included
California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Texas, and parts of Colorado and
Wyoming. The addition of so much land to the United States exacerbated conflict over the
expansion of slavery because some Northerners feared that the extension of slavery into
California and New Mexico would deter free laborers from settling there.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty: The Webster-Ashburton Treaty was a treaty negotiated by
Lord Ashburton of Great Britain and Daniel Webster of the United States in 1842. It settled
a dispute over the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. The treaty was very
popular in the North because the United States got more than half of the disputed territory.
Caroline Affair: The American steamboat, the Caroline, was being used by Canadian
rebels when it was attacked by the government of Canada in late 1837 in American waters.
In 1842 Daniel Webster asked for an apology from British government. The event
heightened tensions between the United States and Britain, but this tension was soon eased.
Aroostook War: The Aroostook War was a boundary dispute between settlers in Maine and
New Brunswick from 1838 to 1839. Full-scale war was avoided through an agreement in
1839, and the issue was settled by Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842.
•OREGON FEVER: During the 1830s and 1840s, many Americans traveled to the Oregon
Territory in order to start a new life. The fertile farmland available in the Willamette Valley
attracted many farmers. People in the East heard exaggerated, enthusiastic reports from
missionaries and pioneers, convincing them that Oregon was a "pioneer’s paradise." Many
settlers traveled to Oregon overland by way of the Oregon Trail or around Cape Horn in the
newly invented clipper ships. This was an important part of westward expansion.
John Jacob Astor: Astor was a wealthy New York merchant who invested in real estate. He
became involved in the fur business and organized a fur trading empire from the Great
Lakes to the Pacific Ocean and to China and Japan. He created the American Fur Company
and established Astoria, the first major fur trading post in Oregon.
Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was an overland route to the Oregon territory, stretching
almost 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri to the Willamette Valley. The pioneers
who traveled this trail in wagon trains faced many dangers. It is estimated that about 11,500
emigrants used overland trails like the Oregon Trail to reach Oregon between 1840 and1848.
Willamette Valley: The Willamette Valley was an area of fertile farmland in the Oregon
Territory which attracted large numbers of farmers in the 1830s and 1840s, especially those
from the Mississippi River Valley. Reports of the abundance of this land sparked the
movement of many pioneers to the West Coast.
Oregon Territory: Congress made the Oregon Territory an official territory of the United
States in 1848. Prior to 1846, the Oregon Territory had been jointly occupied by Great
Britain and the United States with its northern boundary the line 54°40’. In a 1846 treaty, the
two countries split the territory, dividing it at the 49th parallel.
49th Parallel: The 49th parallel was the line of latitude dividing the United States’ and Great
Britain’s portions of the Oregon Territory after 1846. Originally they had jointly occupied
the entire territory, but a compromise was forged in 1846 because president Polk demanded
title to this territory and neither side wanted to go to war over it.
Election of 1848: Cass, Taylor: Zachary Taylor was the Whig candidate in the election of
1848, and his platform was based solely on personal popularity because he was a war hero.;
Lewis Cass was the Democratic candidate. Both parties avoided making the issue of slavery
a campaign issue. Taylor won election on his popularity.
Joseph Smith: Joseph Smith was the founder of the Mormon church. He translated the
Book of Mormon in 1827, after which, he and his followers set up a model city and temple
in Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith saw himself as a prophet, increasing the negative sentiment
towards Mormonism. After being charged with treason and jailed, he was killed by a mob in
1844.
Brigham Young: Brigham Young was the patriarch of the Mormon church who took
control of the church after Joseph Smith was killed. After the Mormons were forced out of
Illinois, Young led them to Utah in 1846, where they prospered. Young has been criticized
for both his support of polygamy and his intolerance towards opposition.
Mormons: The Mormon religion was founded in 1827 by Joseph Smith. Their church is
based in Utah and they believe that the Book of Mormon is the supplement for the Bible.
The Mormons are characterized by their preference to be set apart from the rest of the
community, apparent in their views, which were antebellum in the time the religion was
born.
John Sutter: John Sutter was granted 49,000 acres of land by the Mexican government in
1834 and established a sawmill on the land in 1846. In 1848, he discovered gold. This
discovery led to the onset of the California Gold Rush. Land squatters disputed over Sutter’s
land claims and, subsequently, Sutter’s holdings were found invalid by the Supreme Court.
forty-niners: In 1849, 100,000 Americans, along with immigrants from Europe, Asia and
South America rushed to California in search of easy riches. Competition led to violence
and greed. As a result of inadequate shelter and food and the lack of medical supplies,
10,000 died the first year and few even benefited from the expedition.
Walker Tariff, 1846: The Walker tariff was created by Robert J. Walker, Polk’s secretary
of the treasury, in 1846. The bill slashed all duties to the minimum necessary for revenue. It
also reversed the trend of replacing certain specifics for ad value duties and dropped the
minimum valuation principle. The tariff was signed July 30, 1846.
Independent Treasury System, Van Buren: The system was introduced by Martin Van
Buren in 1837 and it passed through Congress in 1840. The bill had the federal government
keep their revenue, and by doing this, kept public money from private business corporations.
This also kept the government’s money out of state banks.
Independent Treasury System, Polk: After Van Buren was defeated in the election of
1840 by William Henry Harrison, the Independent Treasury System was repealed. However,
when Polk was elected in 1844, he brought back the Independent Treasury System. This
intensified the divisions between the Whigs and Democrats.
Expansion and Slavery
The expansion of slavery into new territories and onto the western frontier became a major
issue after the Mexican-American War. Southerners fought to assert their rights while many
Northerners wished to prevent the expansion of slave labor into new states.
panic of 1857: The causes of the panic were overspeculation in railroads and lands, false
banking practices, and a break in the flow of European capital to American investments as a
result of the Crimean War. The South’s less industrial economy suffered less than the North,
who viewed this as a proof of superiority in both Southern economy and slavery.
Wilmot Proviso: David Wilmot, a Congressman from Pennsylvania, proposed that slavery
be banned in land acquired from the Mexican War. The proviso was given to Congress in
August 1846. It never passed the Senate, but passed the House. It was taken out of the War
Appropriations bill in order for Senate to pass the actual bill.
Barnburners: The Barnburners were a part of the Democratic party in New York. They left
in 1848 to form the Free Soil Party but rejoined after the election of 1848. They believed
slavery should not be extended into the newly acquired U.S. territory and were pro-Wilmot
Proviso. Their party slogan was "Free Trade, Free Labor, Free Speech, Free Men."
•TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO: This was the peace treaty between the United
States and Mexico that ended the Mexican War. Through the treaty, Mexico gave Texas
with Rio Grande boundary, California , and New Mexico to the United States. The U.S.
assumed all claims of the American people against the Mexican government and also paid
Mexico 15 million dollars. The treaty was signed on February 2, 1848. In the end, the treaty
worked to expand the U.S. territory to include parts of Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah,
and Nevada.
Free Soil Party: The Free Soil Party created by the Barnburners, Conscience Whigs, and
the former Liberty party members in the election of 1844. They nominated Martin Van
Buren on a platform of opposition to any kind of slavery. Although they were unable to
carry any state, they had enough influence in North to convey their point.
California applies for admission as a state: Because the population grew during the gold
rush and they were in need of a better government, California decided to petition to become
a state in September of 1849. There was controversy on the issue of it being a free or slave
state, but through the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state.
•COMPROMISE OF 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was an eight part compromise
devised by Henry Clay in order to settle the land disputes between the North and South. As
part of the compromise, California was admitted a free state, while a stricter Fugitive Slave
Law was enforced. Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, while slavery
itself was not abolished and sectional peace returned to the northern and southern states for a
few years. The issue of slavery eventually did lead to future conflicts, though.
Omnibus bill: The omnibus bill is a term used to describe a bill that has many unrelated and
separate topics within it. The bill most commonly known for being omnibus is the
Compromise of 1850. Henry Clay introduced the bill as a whole, but it was later pushed
through Congress as separate measures. Today, most states do nor allow omnibus bills.
Henry Clay: Henry Clay was an influential American politician who earned the title of
"The Great Pacificator" with his development of three compromises. He ran, unsuccessfully,
for president six times and devised the "American System" that favored a protective tariff
and federal support of internal improvements.
Webster’s 7th of March speech: Webster’s speech was an eloquent one presented in favor
of the Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that years of tension built up from the North’s
growing power would be relieved by the compromise and that the North would make the
South its equal, thus saving the Union. Despite his efforts, the speech made few converts.
John C. Calhoun: Calhoun is most known for the "nullification crisis" in 1828 between he
and president Jackson over the tariff of 1828 (tariff of abominations). He supported the
Compromise of 1850 on the basis of the theory of nullification. He was a senator during the
debates over the compromise. Calhoun was also a war hawk.
Fugitive Slave Law: Unlike the previous 1793 slave law, the 1850 slave law was more
strictly enforced. The results of the law were that the North became a hunting ground for
slaves and slaves were denied a trial by jury and other protections they were entitled to. The
anger of the slaves led to riots and other acts of violence.
•PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS: Discontent with the injustice of the Fugitive Slave Law
of 1850, northern states passed "personal liberty laws" in order to strengthen the use of the
habeas corpus writs and prohibit state officials from accepting jurisdiction under federal law.
The laws included the prohibition of the use of state jails to confine alleged fugitives.
Southern states objected to the laws because they violated sectional equity and reciprocal
trust. Northern resistance demonstrated that the slavery issue could not be ignored.
Gadsden Purchase: The Gadsden Purchase was the 1853 treaty in which the United States
bought from Mexico parts of what is now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico.
Southerners wanted this land in order to build southern transcontinental railroad. The heated
debate over this issue in the Senate demonstrates the prevalence of sectional disagreement.
Perry and Japan: Commodore Perry opened relations with Japan, a country closed to the
rest of the world for 2 centuries, in 1853. The treaty he forged protected the rights of sailors
shipwrecked in Japanese territory from inhumane treatment, permitted American ships to
buy coal in Japan, opened Japanese ports of to U.S. commerce, and ended Japan’s isolation.
Anthony Burns: Burns was an American slave who escaped in 1834. He was arrested on
charges of theft and violation of the Fugitive Slave Law. During the trial, a mob of Boston
abolitionists stormed into the courthouse to attempt, unsuccessfully, to rescue Burns.
President Pierce sent him back to his master, but Burns was resold to friends who freed him.
Ableman v. Booth: Booth was arrested for aiding the escape of a fugitive slave in 1859. The
Wisconsin Supreme Court issued a writ of habeas corpus to release him, but habeas corpus
was not valid as a result of Chief Justice Taney’s decision that a court or judge has certain
limits of power. In turn, the battle for federal supremacy commenced.
Prigg v. Pa., 1842: This case resulted when Pennsylvania attempted to ban the capture and
return of runaway slaves within its territory, a challenge to the fugitive slave law of 1793.
Because article IV, section 2 of the Constitution deems the return of fugitive slaves a federal
power, the state law was declared unconstitutional.
Ostend Manifesto: American ambassadors to Great Britain, France, and Spain met in
Ostend, Belgium in 1854 to issue an unofficial document that gave the United States
permission to attain Cuba by any necessary means, even force, and include the island in the
Union. President Pierce, however, rejected the manifesto.
Stephen A. Douglas: American politician known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln
prior to the election of 1860. Douglas was an advocate of the annexation of Mexico, who
aroused the question of slavery in territories with the development of the Kansas-Nebraska
Act in 1854. He was also a strong supporter of the Compromise of 1850.
•KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT, 1854: The Kansas-Nebraska Act ended the peace
established between the North and South by the Compromise of 1850. It was proposed by
Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois and repealed the Missouri Compromise. The act enforced
popular sovereignty upon the new territories but was opposed by Northern Democrats and
Whigs. It was passed, however, because President Pierce supported it. The purpose of the
bill was to facilitate the building of the transcontinental railroad on a central route.
popular sovereignty: this compromise solution was first proposed during the time of the
Wilmot Proviso: the residents of each territory had the option of determining whether it
would be a free or slave state; a part of the Compromise of 1850 and Kansas-Nebraska Act
of 1854.Stephen Douglas a strong advocator.
36° 30’ line: The 36° 30’ line was established by the Missouri Compromise and drew on
parts of California and New Mexico. The Wilmot Proviso sought to extend the boundary
line westward, blocking slavery and territory north of that line. Polk supported the idea of
expansion to end the discussion of whether the new territory acquired was slave or free.
"Bleeding Kansas" and Lawrence: Topeka and Lecompton were the two rival
governments of Kansas. Each claimed to be the lawful one, thus armed themselves and
commenced guerilla warfare. In 1856, Missouri "border ruffians," those who supported
slavery, sacked the town of Lawrence. John Brown, an abolitionist, also led a retaliation two
days later .
"Beecher’s Bibles": Because the abolitionist government in Kansas was organized in 1856,
a pro-slavery posse armed with guns mobbed through the town. Ridiculing the free staters,
they dubbed their guns "Beecher’s Bibles," following the advice of an antislavery minister
that rifles would do no more than Bibles to enforce morality in Kansas.
Pottawatomie Massacre: John Brown led a small group of abolitionists into a pro-slavery
settlement in 1856 to kill unarmed men and boys at Pottawatomie Creek in retaliation to the
border ruffians’ invasion and sacking of the abolitionists’ town of Lawrence. The retaliation
was preceded by a pro-slavery posse’s armed raid through Kansas.
Lecompton Constitution: This constitution was devised by the anti-slavery delegates of
Congress in 1857 to protect the rights of the slaveholders in Kansas and advocate popular
sovereignty. Buchanan disapproved of it, but supported it so that Kansas could be admitted
as a state.
New England Emigrant Aid Company: Aiming to prevent the expansion of slavery into
Kansas, Northerners sent antislavery settlers into this area in 1854, but their attempt was
unsuccessful. Settlers from New England arrived slowly, though the majority of settlers
originated from Missouri and the Midwest. Settlers were mixed in their views on slavery.
Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 during Illinois senatorial campaign: The LincolnDouglas debates were a series of seven, where Douglas argued on the basis of his opposition
to the Lecompton Constitution and depicted Lincoln as a radical abolitionist. Lincoln
condemned Douglas for not taking a moral stand against slavery.
Lincoln’s "house divided" speech: The "house divided" speech was a speech presented
before the Republican party’s state convention in 1858 in Springfield, Illinois. It warned the
people that a "house divided against itself cannot stand," referring to the slavery issue.
Lincoln predicted in his speech that there would mean eventual freedom for the slaves.
Freeport Doctrine: Stephen A. Douglas’ "Freeport Doctrine" stated that exclusion of
slavery in a territory could be determined by the refusal of the voters to enact any laws that
would protect slave property. In 1858, southerners rejected the doctrine because it did not
insure the rights of slaves, a reaction that hurt him in the election.
The 1850s: The Road to Secession
During the 1850s, sectional issues such as slavery became very divisive. The issue of slaver
polarized people, and Southern slaveowners felt that their rights and interests were no
longer being fairly represented. Northerners began to increasingly support free soil and
even abolition, so tensions between the two-sided mounted until Southerners became
convinced that nothing short of secession could protect them Northern persecution.
Nashville Convention: Delegates of the northern and southern states assembled in the
summer of 1850 to decide on the issue of the Compromise of 1850. Fire-eaters discussed
southern rights, while suspicion of their secession rose amongst the northerners. The
meeting itself led to the ultimate decision on the compromise.
fire-eaters: The fire-eaters were extreme advocates of southern rights. They walked out on
the Nashville convention in 1850, raided a mass of Irish canal workers, and whipped and
lynched slaves in the 1860s. They were labeled "fire-eaters" due to their recklessness and by
making their presence strongly felt by all those around.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Harriet Stowe, a Northern abolitionist outraged by the Fugitive Slave
Law, wrote this novel to illustrate the evils of slavery. Though the South denounced the
novel, 500,000 copies were sold in the U.S. and others were translated into 20 languages.
The novel stimulated Northern action against slavery, contributing to the Civil War.
Harriet Beecher Stowe: Stowe was an abolitionist writer who wrote powerful novels
attacking slavery both before and after the Civil War in such novels as Dred, A Tale of
Great Dismal Swamp (1856) and The Minister’s Wooing (1859). The novels are rambled in
structure, yet rich in pathos and dramatic incident. She also wrote short stories and poetry.
election of 1852: The election of 1852 was the end of the Whig Party. Enforcement of the
Fugitive Slave Act split the Whig Party, and the nomination of General Winfield Scott
exacerbated the sectional split. The loss of votes from the South was the result of Scott’s
campaign. Franklin Pierce of the Democratic party won the election with 27 of 31 states.
birth of the Republican Party: The party was formed in 1854 by northern Democrats who
left the party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Former Whigs and Know-Nothings were
party members, also. All opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act and believed that slavery should
be banned from all territories of the nation, except those states where slavery already
existed.
election of 1856: Republican Party, Know-Nothing Party: This election was between John
C. Fremont of the Republican Party, Millard Fillmore of the Know-Nothing Party, and
James Buchanan of Democratic Party. Fillmore’s inexperience weakened his party,
increasing the popularity of the Republicans. Buchanan won the election.
John Brown’s raid: The raid took place at Harper’s Ferry in 1859, and was conducted by
an abolitionist to raid the federal arsenal and start a slave uprising. It failed and Brown was
convicted of treason and hanged because he had ties with the northern abolitionists. At his
death, southern fear of future slave uprisings increased, leading to the cruel treatment slaves.
Sumner-Brooks affair: Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, made a speech
titled, "The Crime Against Kansas," denouncing slavery, and, at the same time, ridiculing
the South Carolina senator, Charles Butler, in 1856. Preston Brooks, Butler’s nephew came
into the Senate chamber and hit him on the head, making Brooks a hero in the South.
•DRED SCOTT DECISION: Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Scott was not a
citizen because he was a slave in 1856, therefore, he did not have the right to sue in federal
court. It was determined that temporary residence in an area did not make one free, and that
the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it violated the fifth amendment,
which did not allow Congress or territorial governments to exclude slavery from any area.
Republicans became more suspicious of Slave Power in Congress.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney: Taney was a Southerner appointed by Jackson as the 5th
justice of the Supreme Court. He is well-known for handing down the Dred Scott decision.
Under his leadership, the federal government had increased power over foreign relations.
Taney ruled in 1861 that Lincoln exceeded his authority in suspending habeas corpus.
John Brown: John Brown was an American abolitionist who attempted to end slavery
through the use of violence. This increased the tension between the North and South. He
was the leader of John Brown’s raid and the Pottawatomie massacre. His life ended when he
was hanged for murder and treason. He is regarded a martyr to the cause of human freedom.
Compact Theory of Government: This theory involves the idea that the United States of
America was founded by the union of thirteen individual states creating a federation of
states. This plays a major role in justifying the secession of the Southern states by stating
that a state had the right to withdraw from the political entity it created.
•ELECTION OF 1860: candidates, parties, issues: A united republican party attempted to
appeal more to the North in order to win the campaign and developed an economic program
to amend the damages of the 1857 depression. They nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held
a moderate view on slavery. The democrats nominated two candidates, Douglas and
Breckenridge, each with opposing viewpoints on the slavery issue. The constitutional party,
created by Whigs, nominated John Bell, who had the desire to preserve the Union.
Democratic Party conventions: The first assembly of delegates in Charleston in 1860
resulted in the split of the Democratic party as the Southern "fire-eaters" left the convention.
They were unable to agree on a platform based on the protection of slavery. An unsuccessful
second attempt to reach a consensus in Baltimore led them to nominate two candidates.
John Bell: Opposed to both Lincoln and Douglas, Whigs nominated Bell in 1860, an
opposer of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Lecompton constitution. Bell created the new
Constitutional Union party, which had a platform based on the preservation of the Union,
and not on the controversial slavery issue.
John Breckenridge: A division in the Democratic Party led to the nomination of two
candidates for the 1860 election. Breckenridge, Buchanan’s vice president, was nominated
by secessionists on a platform based on protection of slavery in territories. His nomination
completed the split of the Democratic party.
Republican Party of 1860: In order to lure votes from Northern states to their party, an
economic system based on protective tariffs, federal aid for internal improvements and the
distributing of 160-acre homesteads to settlers in order, was organized in favor of the
Northerners. Lincoln’s nonchalant views towards slavery led them to victory.
Buchanan and the secession crisis: Buchanan declared secession of states illegal, yet he
had no power to prevent it. He refused Southern demands to remove troops from Fort
Sumter. Because his efforts to supply the fort failed and due to failure of a constitutional
plan, he left the office disappointed and discredited.
Crittenden Compromise proposal: The compromise was proposed by John Crittenden in
an attempt to preserve the Union. The amendments were to bar the federal government from
intervening in southern states’ decision of slavery, to restore the Missouri Compromise, and
to guarantee protection of slavery below this line. It also repealed personal liberty laws.
The Civil War
The Civil War was a terrible, bloody war fought mainly over the issue of slavery. It divided
the nation and resulted in the death of more Americans than all other wars combined. The
Union, with advantages such as greater organization and prosperity, eventually won, but
not before 620,000 Americans died and thousands of fields, homes, and entire towns were
destroyed.
secession: Slavery fueling the states’ rights issue along with the loss of Congress and
Northern opposition to the new Fugitive Slave Law made the election of 1860 the straw that
broke up the union. By March 1861, Lincoln’s innauguration South Carolina, Mississippi,
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded.
•South’s advantages in the Civil War: The Confederate States of America had a strong
advantage in the fact that they were fighting a defensive war in familiar territory, but it also
had advantages buried deep within its much stronger military tradition. Southerners came
from a rural rather than urban environments and therefore had more men experienced in the
use of firearms and horses. This allowed the Confederacy to produce a more able corps of
officers, such as Robert E. Lee.
Tredegar Iron Works: guided by Joseph Reid to success during a time when the economy
in the North and South began to plunge because of their increased divergence. It became the
nation’s fourth largest producer of iron products. During the Civil War the company
contributed to the Confederacy cause.
•North’s advantages in the Civil War: The Union clearly had more military potential with
its larger population of 22 million. In addition to that, the Union had more advantages in
terms of material goods such as money and credit, factories for manufacturing war goods,
food production, mineral resources, and an established railroad system to transport these
material resources. The North in comparison with the South in these areas makes the North
seem more advantageous.
Fort Sumter: Fort Sumter is a fort in Charleston harbor, South Carolina and it was the site
of the first conflict of the Civil War on Apr. 12, 1861. The Confederates under Beauregard
bombarded the fort and were eventually victorious, but the fort was eventually retaken by
Union forces in 1865.
Bull Run: On July 16, General McDowell began to move on Confederate General
Beauregard at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard’s soldiers, with aid from
the forces of Johnston, near the bridge over Bull Run River and drove them to the Henry
House Hill, but Jackson checked the advance and routed the raw Union troops.
Monitor and the Merrimac: March 8, 1862 was the date of first naval battle between
ironclad ships. The Confederate ironclad frigate Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and
defeated the Congress in Hampton Roads but was forced to withdraw March 9 after an
engagement with the Union’s ironclad Monitor, built by John Ericsson.
Lee: Commanding the Army of N. Virginia, he took the offensive in the 7 Days Battle and
beat the Union army at the 2nd battle of Bull Run. Lee repulsed Union advances at the
battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville and Grant’s assaults in the Wilderness
Campaign. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomatox Courthouse.
Jackson: At the 1st battle of Bull Run Jackson earned his nick name when he and his
brigade stood "like a stone wall." Serving under Lee, Jackson flanked the Union army to set
up the Confederate victory at the second battle of Bull Run. At Chancellorsville Jackson
again flanked the Union army but was mortally wounded by his own troops.
Grant: In 1862 he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee, barely escaped
defeat at the Battle of Shiloh and ended Confederate control of the Mississippi in Vicksburg.
Commanding in the West, he thoroughly defeated Bragg at Chattanooga. He directed the
Union army in the Wilderness Campaign and he received Lee’s surrender.
McClellan: He was criticized for overcaution in the unsuccessful Peninsular Campaign and
removed from command. Called on again in 1862, he checked Lee in the Antietam
Campaign, but he allowed the Confederates to withdraw across the Potomac and was again
removed. He would run for president in 1864.
Sherman: He fought in the Vicksburg and Chatanooga campaigns and ge undertook the
Atlanta Campaign. He burned Atlanta and set off, with a force of 60,000, on his famous
march to the sea, devastating the country. After capturing Savannah, he turned north through
S. Carolina, and received the surrender of General Johnston.
Meade: He made himself known in 1862 at Seven Days Battle and the battles of Bull Run,
Antietam, and later at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He commanded of the Army of
the Potomac from 1863, and won the battle of Gettysburg, but he was criticized for not
following up his victory.
Vicksburg: It was a battle fought for control of the Mississippi River. By late 1862, the
Union controlled all of the river except for the 200 miles south of Vicksburg. In May of
1863 U.S. Grant opened siege, and after 6 weeks the Confederates surrendered. Vicksburg’s
fall completed the encirclement of the Confederacy.
Gettysburg: It was Lee’s second invasion of the North. Meade and Lee met just west of
Gettysburg. First, the Union was pushed to Cemetery Hill. Then the South took the Peach
Orchard but were repulsed. On July 3 Lee ordered George E. Pickett’s division forward in
its infamous disastrous charge against the Union center.
Antietam: In September 1862, trying to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, Lee sent
Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry, but Lee’s own advance was halted by McClellan, who
attacked him at Antietam Creek, Maryland., on September 17, the so-called bloodiest day of
the war. It was a Union victory only in that Lee’s advance was stopped.
Appomattox: Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union Gen. U.S. Grant at
Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. The surrender at Appomattox virtually ended the
Civil War, but the rest of the Confederate forces did not surrender until May 26 at
Shreveport, Louisiana.
Jefferson Davis: He left Washington after the secession of Mississippi. As president of the
Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized power, and weakened the states’ rights policy
for which the South had seceded. He had many disputes with Confederate generals, and Lee
surrendered without his approval.
Alexander Stephens: He was a U.S. congressman from Georgia and was opposed to
secession but he remained loyal to Georgia when the state seceded. He was elected vice
president of the Confederacy, and he was against many of the policies of President Davis.
After the war he was interned for several months.
cotton versus wheat: Efforts by the Confederate government during the Civil War to
convince planters to grow to wheat instead of cotton received little success. While some
planters heeded the government’s pleas, many clung to the belief that cotton would never
fail them. As a result, food shortages plagued the Confederacy.
Copperheads: Copperheads were Northerners who sympathized with the South during the
Civil War. The term Copperheads was also used to label all Democratic opponents of
Lincoln. The group was led by Clement L. Vallandigham and was especially strong in the
states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham: Vallandigham was the leader of the
Copperheads during the Civil War. He was briefly imprisoned in 1863 for maintaining in a
speech that the war was being fought to free African-American and enslave whites. The
1864 Democratic platform reflected his pro-Southern views.
suspension of habeas corpus: Writs of habeas corpus are court orders requiring that the a
cause of imprisonment be demonstrated before a person is jailed. This basic civil liberty was
suspended by both Lincoln and Davis during the war to deal with dissent. Lincoln used it to
intimidate border states into rejecting secession.
Republican legislation passed in Congress after Southerners left: banking, tariff,
homestead, railroad: After the South seceded, northerners in Congress enacted legislation
such as the Pacific Railroad Act authorizing a transcontinental railroad and the Homestead
Act granting free land in the west. Acts such as these had been blocked by southerners.
Homestead Laws: The Homestead laws were laws passed in Congress in 1862. They
permitted almost any American citizen to acquire a homestead of up to 160 acres of land in
the West, on the condition that the homesteader cultivate the land for 5 years. This allowed
poor farmers to obtain land in the west and increased westward expansion.
Northern blockade: During the Civil War, the north attempted to establish a blockade of all
Southern ports in order to stop the flow of essential supplies to the Confederacy. The Union
navy was fairly weak, so at first the blockade was not as effective as northerners had hoped
it would be and blockade-running was a common way for Southerners to obtain supplies
Anaconda Plan: The Anaconda Plan was a Union strategy in the Civil War calling for the
establishment of a naval blockade around the Confederacy to prevent the importation of
supplies from Europe. It was slowly implemented and only partially successful, but the
blockade did contribute to the Northern victory.
Submarine: Four submersible vessels were built during the American Civil War by the
Confederates for use against the federal fleet. One of these submarines successfully dragged
a mine through the water to sink a northern ship, but sunk itself as well. Submarines were
used only to a limited degree in the Civil War, and they were far from perfected.
Black Soldiers: It was not until late in the Civil War that African American soldiers were
allowed to participate in combat, and when they were, they suffered a far higher mortality
rate than white troops. Despite the many hardships that it entailed, military service was a
source of pride for blacks because it symbolized their freedom.
Gatling Gun: The Gatling gun was one of the earliest machine guns, but it was the most
effective of early models. The Gatling gun was created created a man by the name Gatling,
who intended to make war so horrible that it would make peace. This weapon contributed to
the high number of casualties in the Civil War.
Rifle: An improved rifle was one of the important technological advancements that
transformed the Civil War. They were able to hit targets more accurately at large distances
than previous guns, making open fields a hazard, so that trench warfare became a necessity.
This also contributed to the high number of casualties during the war.
conscription, draft riots: The Federal Militia Act of 1862 and the Confederate
Conscription Act of 1862 allowed for conscription, but contained many loopholes. Riots in
1863 by anti-conscription protesters and impeded the process of drafting soldiers, but the
establishment of a draft prompted volunteering.
•Emancipation Proclamation: The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order
ending slavery in the Confederacy. It was issued by President Lincoln after the battle of
Antietam. The Emancipation Proclamation only freed slaves residing in the territories in
rebellion against the government of the United States. This proclamation had the dual
purpose of injuring the Confederacy and preventing Great Britain from entering the war in
support of the Confederacy. It also pushed the border states toward abolishing slavery.
Charles Francis Adams: Adams was an American diplomat who, as ambassador during the
Civil War, helped to keep the British from recognizing the Confederacy. In the Trent affair,
he was instrumental in averting hostilities between the two nations, although he failed to
stop the sailing of the Alabama, a raider built in Great Britain for the Confederacy.
Alabama claims: There were a series of claims for indemnity made by the United States
upon Great Britain in 1862. The claims were for compensation for damages inflicted on
Union property by a Confederate steamship built by the British, the Alabama. The claims
were not resolved until the Treaty of Washington in 1871.
Trent Affair: In Nov., 1861, A Union captain stopped and boarded a British vessel, the
Trent, and removed Mason and Slidell, two Confederate emissaries who were on board and
he interned them in Boston. President Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, but the issue
increased tension between the Union and Britain.
Laird rams: The Laird rams were two double-turreted, ironclad steamers, built by a
company in England for the Confederate navy. The United States threatened war if these
ships were released to the South, so the British purchased them for the royal navy. This was
another source of diplomatic tension during the Civil War.
"continuous voyage": The concept of "continuous voyage" involves the idea that a voyage
intended for an enemy port, regardless of the number of stops made before arrival in the
port, contains contraband. During the Civil War the Union embraced this idea, seizing ships
traveling from England to the West Indies with the final destination of Confederate ports.
election of 1864: In 1864, a number of Republicans sought to prevent Lincoln’s
renomination. In order to balance Abraham Lincoln’s Union ticket with a Southern
Democrat, the Republicans nominated Andrew Jackson for vice president. Lincoln was able
to overcome Democratic candidate George McClellan and win a second term in office.
financing of the war effort by the North and the South: In order to pay for the Civil War,
both the Confederate and Union governments were forced to sell public lands and tax. The
fear that heavy taxation would cause unrest and corrode support of their cause, the
governments issued bonds and, in the North, greenbacks. This led to high inflation.,
Clara Barton: Clara Barton, a Union nurse during the Civil War, was known as "the Angel
of the Battlefield." She not only helped the war effort by nursing; she also helped the Union
obtain medical supplies. After the War, Barton worked for the International Red Cross in the
Franco-Prussian War, and organized the American Red Cross, which she headed until 1904.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction was the process of bringing the southern states that had seceded during the
Civil War back into the Union. There were many disagreements about the best way to
accomplish this and many important pieces of legislation emerged as a result.
Reconstruction lasted from the end of the Civil War in 1865 until the Tilden-Hays
Compromise in 1877 restored the Democrats to power in the South.
•Lincoln’s ten percent plan: In it all southerners, except high-ranking Confederate
officials, could get a full pardon and restoration of rights after taking an oath, pledging
loyalty to the Union and accepting the end of slavery. When ten percent of the 1860 voting
population had taken this oath, citizens could vote in elections that would create new state
governments and new state constitutions. After that the state would once again be eligible
for representation in Congress and readmitted to the Union.
assassination of April 14, 1865: President Lincoln wass assassinated while attending a
performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. The assassin,
John Wilkes Booth, escaped with a broken leg, but he was shot later. Lincoln was succeeded
by his vice president, Andrew Johnson.
John Wilkes Booth: Booth was a Southern sympathizer during the Civil War, who plotted
with six fellow-conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On Apr. 14, 1865, he shot
President Lincoln during a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in
Washington, D.C. He escaped, but was later shot and killed.
Ex parte Milligan: Ex parte Milligan was an 1866 Supreme Court limiting the authority of
martial law and the suspension of habeas corpus in times of war. In this case, the court
declared that "martial law can never exist where the courts are open in the proper and
unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction."
•Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a group of Republicans unhappy
with the corruption and policies of Grant’s administration. Among their leaders were Carl
Schurz, Horace Greely, and Charles Sumner. The party nominated Greeley for president.
Greely was a choice acceptable to the Democrats, but unpopular with many of the leaders of
his party, so Grant won reelection despite the corruption within his administration and his
poor leadership.
Wade-Davis bill, veto, Wade Davis Manifesto: Congress, in July 1864, passed the WadeDavis Bill, calling for a stricter form of Reconstruction than that proposed by Lincoln. After
Lincoln pocket vetoed this bill, radicals sought to displace him. They issued Wade-Davis
Manifest, which declared the primacy of Congress in matters of the Reconstruction.
Joint Committee on Reconstruction: The Joint Committee on Reconstruction was the
Congressional committee consisting of leaders of both houses of Congress which led
Congressional Reconstruction after the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 were passed. This
committee would exist until after Hayes was elected president.
•Reconstruction acts, 1867: The Reconstruction Acts divided the Confederate states except
Tennessee into five military districts. Military commanders in the districts were appointed to
oversee constitutional conventions in the districts and the creation of state constitutions.
This military occupation would last until the states created new constitutions that included
black suffrage, the permanent disfranchisement of Confederate leaders, and ratification of
the 14th Amendment.
conquered territory theory: The conquered territory theory was a popular theory held by
many Reconstruction policy makers after the Civil War that the southern states which
seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America should be treated as if
they were territories conquered from a foreign nation.
Texas v. White, 1869: The trial of Texas v. White in 1868, was a case which involved the
disposition of Civil War bonds used by Texas, which had left the Union. It was held that
states in rebellion did not lose their existence or identity. The decision also declared
secession unconstitutional.
the unreconstructed South: This term refers to failure of Reconstruction to permanently
reform the South. Even after Republicans withdrew, there was corruption in the states, and
exploitation of African-Americans was common. When the states were readmitted into the
Union, civil rights legislation was practically overturned with open discrimination.
scalawags: A scalawag was a white Southerner who joined the Republican party during the
Reconstruction period. Scalawags were considered traitors to the Southern cause and were
condemned by Southern Democrats. The term scalawag was applied both to entrepreneurs
who supported Republican economic policies and Whig planters who had opposed
secession.
carpetbaggers: Carpetbaggers were Northerners who went to the South during
Reconstruction. They carried their belongings in carpetbags, and most intended to settle in
the South and make money there. The African-American vote won them important posts in
Republican state governments.
"forty acres and a mule": "Forty acres and a mule" refers to the desire of Radical
Republicans such as Thaddeus Stevens to carry out land redistribution in the South. He
wanted to subdivide confiscated land and distribute it among the freedmen. Proposals such
as these failed in Congress and state legislatures.
black codes: The black codes were local laws intended to force African-Americans to
continue working as plantation laborers. They imposed prohibitive taxes, harsh vagrancy
laws meant to intimidate the freedmen, restrictions on blacks’ ability to own property.
Essentially, they condemned the newly-freed slaves to conditions not unlike slavery.
Ku Klux Klan: The KKK was an organization formed by ex-Confederates and led by
Nathan B. Forrest. It was founded in the South in 1866 in opposition to Reconstruction.
Members used disguises, rituals, whippings and lynchings, to terrorize African-Americans
and their supporters. Forrest disbanded the Klan in 1869.
Thaddeus Stevens: As a leader of the radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program after
the Civil War, Stevens saw the Southern states as "conquered provinces." He sincerely
desired the betterment of the lives African-Americans. He proposed the Fourteenth
Amendment, guaranteeing civil rights and was a leader in the impeachment of President
Johnson.
Charles Sumner: Sumner was the aggressive abolitionist who was physically assaulted by
Preston Brooks after making a strong antislavery speech. He was one of the leaders of the
radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program and was also an active participant in the
impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
Andrew Johnson: As president he was denounced by the radical Republicans for his
Reconstruction program. When Johnson tried to force Stanton out of office, the radical
Republicans passed a resolution of impeachment against him for violation of the Tenure of
Office Act, but the Senate failed to convict him by one vote.
Freedmen’s Bureau: The Freedmen’s Bureau furnished food and medical supplies to
blacks, and to needy whites as well. It was also concerned with the regulation of wages and
working conditions, the maintenance of schools for illiterate former slaves, and the
distribution of lands abandoned by or confiscated from Southern proprietors.
General Oliver O. Howard: Howard was a Civil War general who took part in the Bull
Run, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga campaigns. As commissioner
of the Freedmen’s Bureau after the war, he was unable to prevent many abuses to freedmen,
but managed to provided needed food and medical and employment aid to many people.
Civil Rights Act: This act was passed in Congress with nearly unanimous Republican
support in March 1866, and it attempted to redress the issue of slavery by defining all
persons born in the nation as citizens. It also specified the rights of citizens, the right to sue,
make contracts, give evidence in court, hold, convey, and inherit property.
Thirteenth Amendment: The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in
1865. It prohibited "slavery or involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." This amendment guaranteed freedom for
African Americans.
Fourteenth Amendment: The Fourteenth Amendment was passed in 1868. It said that no
state can make or enforce any law which "deprives any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law." Also, states could not "deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
Fifteenth Amendment: Secretary of State Hamilton Fish ratified the Fifteenth Amendment
to the Constitution of United States on March 30, 1870. This amendment explicitly forbid
denial of the right to vote for citizens "on account of race, color, or previous condition of
servitude."
Tenure of Office Act: The Tenure of Office Act was a measure passed by Congress in
1867. It prohibited the president from dismissing any cabinet member or other federal
officeholder whose appointment had required the consent of the Senate unless the Senate
agreed to the dismissal. Johnson’s violation of this act caused the impeachment crisis.
•IMPEACHMENT: Impeachment is the formal accusation by a legislature against a public
official, to remove him from office. The term includes both the bringing of charges, or
articles, and the trial that may follow. President Andrew Johnson, after violating the Tenure
of Office Act, by removing Secretary of War Stanton faced impeachment. The formal
accusation of Johnson went through the House on Feb. 24, 1868, but the Senate failed to
convict him. This is the only instance of impeachment of an American president.
Chief Justice Chase: Salmon Chase was the sixth chief justice of the Supreme Court and an
abolitionist. As chief justice, he presided over the impeachment trial of President Johnson.
His greatest achievement, however, was as secretary of the treasury, when he created a
national bank system.
Secretary of War Stanton: Edwin Stanton served as the secretary of war under Abraham
Lincoln during the Civil War, but his dismissal by President Andrew Johnson and his
subsequent refusal to leave office act precipitated the impeachment of President Johnson in
1868.
Hiram R. Revels, Blanche K. Bruce: Revels and Bruce were the first two AfricanAmerican politicians to serve a full term in the United States Senate. They were both
representatives from Mississippi, and were the only two African-American Senators during
Reconstruction.
•Compromise of 1877: As a result of the electoral vote from the election of 1876, Congress
created a 15-member bipartisan commission, on January 29, 1877, to resolve the dispute
concerning the electoral votes between Tilden and Hayes. The committee consisted of five
Democrats, five Republicans, and five Supreme Court justices. Hayes was unanimously
awarded the electoral votes from Oregon and South Carolina and the ones from Louisiana
by a commission vote of 8 to 7.
The Legacy of Reconstruction
Reconstruction changed the lives of southerners,, especially those of the many slaves who
first tasted freedom during this period. Southern society changed in order to adjust to
emancipation, but former slaves were still relegated to inferior and submissive positions
through economic, political, and social restrictions of their rights. The social and political
atmosphere of the postwar South would endure long into the 20th century.
Reconstruction Myth: The Reconstruction Myth is the false belief that during
Reconstruction, Radical Republicans intended to exploit the South by forcing it into
economic and political submission. Such beliefs were promoted by movies such as Birth of
a Nation, and Gone With the Wind.
Solid South: After Reconstruction, the South became solidly Democratic. Once they gained
control, the Democrats cut back expenses, wiped out social programs, lowered taxes, and
limited the rights of tenants and sharecroppers. These white southerners remained a major
force in national politics well into the 20th century.
sharecropping: It was the farm tenancy system that arose from the cotton plantation system
after the Civil War. Landlords provided land, seed, and credit. The croppers contributed
labor and received a share of the crop’s value, minus their debt to the landlord. This along
with the crop lien system held back African Americans economically.
crop lien system: Through this system, the white southern landowners possessed a tight
hold over African American farm production during much of the Reconstruction periond.
Black economic rights were eroded away with this crop lien system and along with
sharecropping. A cycle of dependency and debt would be the result of these systems.
segregation: Segregation was the practice held in the South after legislation made explicit
discrimination in law illegal. In response to that legislation the concept of "separate but
equal" dominated the policies Southern policy makers. This practice of keeping the races
separate would not officially broken up until the mid-twentieth century.
Grantism and Postwar Politics
Ulysses S. Grant was elected president of the United States in 1868 because he was a war
hero, but his cabinet was riddled with corruption. Grant did manage to make some
important accomplishments in the area of foreign policy, but his ability to cope with
domestic controversy, especially the economic issues which began to arise, created chaos in
national politics.
Ulysses S. Grant: Grant was an American general and the 18th president of the United
States. A war hero, Grant was admired throughout the North and was endorsed by Union
veterans. Although he was a strong military leader, Grant proved to be a passive president
with little skill at politics.
purchase of Alaska: Alaska was ceded to the United States by the Russian Czar Alexander
II in a treaty signed on March 30, 1867. Secretary of State William Henry Seward arranged
the $7.2 million purchase at 1.9¢ per acre. Critics ridiculed this purchase as "Seward’s
icebox," but it expanded American territory at a reasonable price.
Secretary of State William Seward: Seward was the American Secretary of State who
handled diplomatic issues during and after the Civil War. He was involved in the Trent
Affair and his most notable act was the purchase of Alaska. This purchase was denounced at
the time as "Seward’s folly, but it added a significant amount of territory to the United
States.
Napoleon III: After his election in 1848, Napoleon III proclaimed himself the Emperor of
France, instituted reforms, and rebuilt Paris. His successful imperialist ventures were
overshadowed by a failed campaign in Mexico to create a French-Mexican Empire and the
Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in his deposition.
Maximilian in Mexico: Maximilian was instructed by Napoleon III in 1864 to establish a
French empire in Mexico, but the Mexicans were hostile to Maximilian and loyal to
President Juárez. The United States invoked the Monroe Doctrine as justification for their
demand for French nonintervention. Although the French drove Juárez’s army from the
capital, Maximilian’s empire disintegrated when French troops withdrew.
Treaty of Washington, 1871: The Treaty of Washington was a treaty arranged by Hamilton
Fish. In it, the U.S. and Great Britain settled many minor disputes such as the Alabama
claims, which had arisen during the U.S. Civil War. The treaty also provided for arbitration
of disagreements over the Canadian-American boundary and fishing rights.
Secretary of State Hamilton Fish: Fish served as Grant’s secretary of state. He arranged
the Treaty of Washington, which settled disputes with Britain over the Alabama claims the
and Canadian-American boundary. Also, he prevented American filibustering expeditions
against Cuba from escalating into war with Spain.
"Whiskey Ring": Grant’s private secretary, Orville Babcock, was unmasked in 1875 after
taking money from the "whiskey ring," a group of distillers who bribed federal agents to
avoid paying millions in whiskey taxes. On May 10, 1875, 16 distillers in areas of Saint
Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago were captured.
Black Friday: Scandal caused a short-lived financial crisis in the United States that
occurred on Friday, September 24, 1869. The panic was precipitated when two financial
speculators, James Fisk and Jay Gould, attempted to corner the U.S. gold market. Fisk and
Gould probably made a profit of about $11 million through their manipulations.
"Salary Grab Act": In the Salary Grab Act of 1873, Congress voted a 100% pay raise and
a 50% increase for itself. Both raises were made retroactive two years back. The public was
shocked, leading to a Democratic victory in the next congressional election. The act was
later repealed, but it was another example of the corruption of the postwar government.
Credit Mobilier: Officials of the Union Pacific Railroad created a fake construction
company, called the Credit Mobilier, in order to cheat the government out of money allotted
to the construction of the Union Pacific Railroads. Grant’s vice-president, Colfax, was
linked to this scandal.
Sanborn Grab Fraud: In the Sanborn Grab Fraud, a politician named Sanborn was given a
contract collect $427,000 in unpaid taxes, receiving a 50% commission for all money
collected. He then used this commission as Republican campaign funds, allowing the
candidate to focus on his campaign rather than fundraising.
Bribing of Belknap: William E. Belknap was Grant’s secretary of war. He took a bribe to
sell lucrative Indian trading posts in Oklahoma. Belknap resigned in 1876 when voters
learned of his corruption. Although Grant was not personally involved, he loyally defended
his subordinates.
Liberal Republicans: The Liberals Republicans’ revolt marked a turning point in
Reconstruction history. They split the Republican party, supporting the Republican southern
policy while attacking regular republicans on several key issues and denouncing Grantism
and the spoils system.
election of 1872: In 1872, Republicans unhappy with the reelection of President Ulysses S.
Grant formed the Liberal Republican party and nominated as their candidate the journalist
Horace Greeley. Although he was also endorsed by the Democrats, Greeley was defeated,
and the new party collapsed.
Panic of 1873, depression: Transforming the northern economy, the Panic of 1873
triggered a five-year depression. Banks closed, farm prices plummeted, steel furnaces stood
idle, and one out of four railroads failed. However, once the depression began, demand rose.
This issue divided both major parties and was compounded by the repayment of federal
debt.
"Waving the bloody shirt": During the election of 1876, the Republicans backed
Rutherford Hayes against the Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden. They resorted to a
tactic known as "waving the bloody shirt," which was used in the last two elections. The
tactic emphasized wartime animosities by urging northern voters to vote the way they shot.
Greenbacks, Ohio Ideas: During the Civil War the Union had borrowed money through the
sale of war bonds, known as Greenbacks, to private citizens. Senator John Sherman of Ohio
and other Republican leaders obtained passage of the Public Credit Act of 1869, which
promised to pay the war debt in "coin." Debtors favored the Greenbacks because they could
repay debts easier with this inflated currency.
Specie Resumption Act: The Sherman Specie Resumption Act promised to put the nation
effectively on the gold standard in 1879. With some convincing, it changed the minds of the
Republican voters who also wanted to continue Greenbacks for the sake of "easy money."
Grant signed this act. Unfortunately, robber barrons schemed to corner the gold market.
Greenback-Labor Party: The Greenback party was formed in 1876 with James Weaver as
its presidential candidate. The party adopted the debtors’ cause, fought to keep greenbacks
in circulation, and promoted the inflation of farm prices. The party elected 14 members to
Congress . As prosperity returned, the Greenbacks faded.
election of 1876: The presidential election of 1876 resulted in neither Democrat Samuel
Tilden nor Republican Rutherford Hayes receiving the 185 electoral votes necessary to
become president. There were 20 disputed votes, and a Congressional committee gave all of
these to Hays, making him president. In exchange, he ended military rule of the South.
Gilded Age Politics
As America modernized, politics played an increasingly important role in the lives of the
common men. Diverse groups participated in the political arena as they attempted to reform
the social, political and economical problems of the newly industrial nation. Taking its
name from the novel, The Gilded Age, the era referred to the decades from the 1870s to the
1890s where Americans struggled to battle corruption in a morally deteriorating society.
· PENDLETON CIVIL SERVICE ACT: Because of the Pendleton Civil Service Act,
political candidates were forbidden from soliciting contributions from government workers.
This act also set up a civil service commission to prepare competitive exams and establish
standards of merit for a variety of federal jobs. In 1883, Congress enacted a civil service law
introduced by Senator George Pendleton of Ohio. Although President Arthur was a Stalwart,
he had the courage to endorse the act which reformed the spoils system.
Chester A. Arthur: He became president after the assassination of Garfield. This 21st
president, who served from 1881 to 1885, rose above the political corruption prevalent
during the times and headed a reform-oriented administration that enacted the first
comprehensive U.S. civil service legislation. He supported the passage of the Pendleton Act
in 1883.
Election of 1884: James G Blaine was nominated by the Republicans, while Grover
Cleveland was the Democratic nominee. The Independent Republicans, known as
"Mugwumps," supported Cleveland, which cost Blaine the election. The Democrats
controlled the House, while the Republicans dominated the Senate.
Stalwarts, Roscoe Conkling: The Stalwarts, who favored the spoils system of political
patronage, were lead by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling. The battle over patronage split
the Republican party into two factions: the Half-breeds and the Stalwarts. The two differed
mainly over who would control the party machinery.
Half-breeds: They argued with the Stalwarts on the issues of who would control the party
of machine and would distribute patronage jobs. The Half-breeds supported civil service
reform and merit appointments to government posts. They were joined together as the
Republican party, but disputes over patronage split it into two: Stalwarts and Half-breeds.
James G. Blaine: Blaine was a Republican Congressman, senator, secretary of state under
Garfield, and a presidential candidate under the Republican Half-Breeds, who ran against
Conkling. Blaine was considered one of the most popular Republicans of his time, and was
elemental in his party’s success in elections.
Mugwumps: This term designated dissident members of the Republican party, who, in the
presidential election of 1884, refused to support the nominee of their party, James G. Blaine.
Instead, they supported the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland, who was later elected.
The term was first used derisively in a New York City newspaper, the Sun.
"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion": At a rally on election eve, a clergyman denounced the
Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Blaine failed to repudiate the
remark and the Democrats widely publicized this insult to Catholics, drinkers and patriotic
Democrats. Blaine’s mistake allowed Cleveland to obtain New York’s electoral votes.
High Tariffs: Republicans preferred high tariffs, while Democrats preferred low ones.
Cleveland supported low tariffs. The Dingley tariff of 1879 increased rates to an all-time
high levels while the Currency Act of 1900 officially changed the U.S. gold standard. The
Wilson-Gorman Protective Tariff also unsuccessfully attempted to create an income tax.
Treasury surplus: The high tariffs were feeding a large and growing budget surplus. This
surplus stood as a continual temptation to distribute it in the form of veterans pension or
expensive public-work programs, known as pork barrel projects. Cleveland was convinced
that surplus constituted a corrupting influence.
Pension GAR: After the Civil War, veterans formed the Grand Army of the Republic
(GAR) to lobby for pensions. Veterans disability pensions cost the government millions
dollars a year, but in 1879, bowing to GAR pressure, Congress had eased the rules for
securing them. The GAR actively encouraged veterans to file claims.
Secret ballot: Between 1888 and 1896, 90% of all the states were convinced to adopt a new
ballot like the one in Australia, which was a method of voting that listed voter options. This
was a Populist goal articulated in the Omaha Platform. The paper ballot emerged as a
dominant voting method. The secret ballot is also known as the Australian ballot.
"Murchinson letter": Charles Murchinson wrote a letter to the British Ambassador to ask
how he should vote during the election of 1888. The ambassador fell into the trap and
advised Murchinson to vote for Cleveland, rather than Harrison. The Republicans gracefully
publicized the "Murchinson Letter" as a foreign attempt to meddle in an American
election.
Cleveland’s 1887 annual address: Cleveland focused his entire annual address message to
Congress on the tariff issue. He argued that lower tariffs would not only cut the federal
surplus but also reduce prices and slow the development of trusts. His tariff message upset
many corporate boardrooms who thought that lowering the tariff would hurt their prosperity.
Presidential Succession Act of 1886: This act determined that if both the President of the
United States and the Vice President both died or if they were both disqualified, there would
be a line of succession. The line started with first the president pro tempore, secretary of
state, secretary of treasury, secretary of defense, and continued.
Election of 1888, candidates, issues: Because Blaine decided not to run, the Republicans
turned to Benjamin Harrison. Republican focused on the tariff issue. The Republicans
falsely portrayed the Democrats as advocates of "free trade," which many felt would have
horrible consequences. Harrison won in the electoral college by defeating Grover Cleveland.
Benjamin Harrison, Billion dollar congress, Czar Reed: Harrison quickly rewarded his
supporters. He appointed a past GAR commander as commissioner of pension. In 1890,
Harrison signed the pension bill that Cleveland had earlier vetoed. The Republican Congress
of 1890 became known as the Billion-dollar Congress.
McKinley Tariff: His administration enacted a higher tariff in 1897 and committed the
country to the gold standard in 1900. It generally promoted business confidence. Probably in
part because of these policies, the economy recovered from a severe depression, and the
Republicans became identified with economic prosperity.
Election of 1892: The Republicans re-nominated Harrison, while the Democrats turned to
Grover Cleveland who was a Conservative. The Populists nominated James B Weaver who
did not did better than expected. Voters generally reacted against the high McKinley Tariff.
Cleveland’s conservative economic policies brought him support, and he won the election.
Morgan bond transaction: During the depression of 1893 to 1897, the gold reserve
dwindled to $41 million. Cleveland turned to Wall Street bankers J.P. Morgan and August
Belmont agreed to lend the government $62 million in exchange for U.S. bonds at a special
discount. The government then bought gold, which restored confidence in the government.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff: In order to increase the sight of the governments role in an age of
towering fortunes, this tariff became a law without the signature of approval from
Cleveland. It did have a modest income tax of 12% on all income over $4000, but the
supreme court declared it unconstitutional in 1895.
Dingley tariff: The McKinley administration furthered its conservative platform through the
Dingley Tariff of 1897, which increased rates to all-time high levels. The Currency Act of
1900 officially changed the U.S. to the gold standard. Due to the discovery of gold in Alaska
and the prosperity of farms prices, there was little protest against the Dingley tariff.
Gold Standard Act, 1900: This act officially put the United States on the gold standard. It
was passed by William McKinley’s administration during a time when both the House of
Representatives and the Senate were dominated by Republicans. Subsequent to this act, the
U.S. went on and off the gold standard several times and abandoned it in 1971.
"New Imperialism"
Growing into a leading nation, the United States hoped to further its international standing
by emulating European nations that were expanding their influence throughout the world.
During the 1870s, the U.S. "new imperialism" was directed towards finding access to
resources, markets for surplus production, and opportunities for overseas investments.
Although the U.S. did expand its influence in other countries, it preferred market expansion
to the traditional European territorial colonialsim.
Alaska: Secretary of state William H. Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in 1867.
$7.2 million was paid to Russia for Alaska, and it was highly contested by Congress. Also
known as "Seward’s Icebox" or "Seward’s folly," it was generally thought to be useless, but
later proved to be an excellent addition.
Pan Americanism, James Blaine: In 1881 Secretary of State James G. Blaine advocated
the creation of an International Bureau of American Republics to promote a customs union
of trade and political stability for the Western Hemisphere. The assassination of Garfield
kept Blaine from his organization until 1889.
US mediation of border disputes: The United States offered its aid to promote the peaceful
resolution of border conflict between a number of states. The United States also worked to
bring an end to the War of the Pacific which was fought between Chile and the alliance of
Peru and Bolivia.
Port of Pago Pago: Restless stirrings in America were felt in the far-off Samoan Island in
the South Pacific. The U.S. navy sought access to the Port of Pago Pago as a refueling
station. The U.S. ratified a treaty with Samoa in 1878 which gave America trading rights
and a naval base at Pago Pago.
Tariff autonomy to Japan: During the Meiji period following the collapse of the
shogunate, Japan transformed, from its traditionally isolationist feudal society into a world
power, taking on imperialistic quailites. Emperor Meiji took it upon himself to enact tariffs,
and thus, Japan controlled its own tariffs.
Hawaiian Revolution: Hawaii’s wholesale sugar prices plummeted as a result of the
elimination of the duty-free status enjoyed by Hawaiian sugar. Facing ruin, the planters
deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Jan 1893, proclaimed the independent Republic of Hawaii,
and requested U.S. annexation. Hawaii was claimed as an American territory in 1898.
Sino-Japanese War: A Chinese patrol clashed with Japanese troops on the Marco Polo
Bridge near Beijing on July 7, 1937. Using the incident as a pretext to begin hostilities, the
Japanese army in Manchuria moved troops into the area, precipitating another Sino-Japanese
war. Although the war was never actually declared.
Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power: . A Union naval officer during the
American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, Mahan served in the navy for nearly 40 years. He
was promoted to the rank of captain in 1885. The title of The Influence of Sea Power upon
History, received international recognition as a comprehensive of naval strategy.
Industrial America
During the late 19th century, the industrial sectors of society rapidly expanded.
Corporations emerged, and the captains of industry created ,major industrial empires that
drastically changed the face of American business. Although many opposed the large
businesses when they hurt individuals, Americans generally favored industrialization. Even
the common man shared in the American desire to gain wealth through the new industrial
economy.
Laissez-faire: It meant non-governmental interference in business. The doctrine favors
capitalist self-interest, competition, and natural consumer preferences as forces leading to
optimal prosperity and freedom. It began in the late 18th century as a strong liberal reaction
to trade taxation and nationalist governmental control known as mercantilism.
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations: In The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, Adam
Smith believed that self-interest was an "invisible hand in the marketplace, automatically
regulating the supply of and demand for goods and services." He endorsed a laissez-faire
approach to economics and was the first to define the system of capitalism.
Andrew Carnegie: Carnegie decided to build his own steel mill in 1870. His philosophy
was simple: "watch the costs and the profit will take care of themselves." At the age of 33,
when he had an annual income of $50,000, he said, "beyond this never earn, make no effort
to increase fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes."
· UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD, CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD: The Pacific
Railroad Act of 1862 had authorized the construction of the transcontinental railroad. The
Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads were joined together to form the first
transcontinental railroad in May 1869 when railroad executives drove a golden spike into the
ground at Promontory Point, Utah in order to connect the two. It allowed Americans to
travel from coast to coast in a week; it had previously taken several months to do so.
"Robber Barrons": Known as the great captains of industy and as robber barons who lined
their pockets, these captains, or villains, of industry made their money by manipulating the
stock markets and company policies. Some of these Robber Barrons were Jay Gould, Hill,
and John D. Rockefeller.
John D. Rockefeller: He is famous for his Standard Oil Company. He had a desire for cost
cutting and efficiency. Rockefeller helped form the South Improvement Company in early
1872, which was an association of the largest oil refiners in Cleveland, and he arranged with
the railroads to obtain substantial rebates on shipments by members of the association.
Standard Oil Company: The Standard Oil Company was organized in 1870 by
Rockefeller, his brother William, and several associates. In 1882 Rockefeller formed the
Standard Oil Trust. This, the first corporate trust, was declared an illegal monopoly and
ordered dissolved by the Ohio Supreme Court in 1892.
Horizontal consolidation: Within three years, the Standard Oil Trust had consolidated
crude oil by buying throughout its member firms. It had slashed the number of refineries in
half. Rockefeller integrated the petroleum industry horizontally by merging the competing
oil companies into one giant system.
Vertical consolidation: The Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude-oil buying
throughout it members firms and slashed the number of refineries in half. Rockefeller
integrated the petroleum industry vertically by controlling every function from production to
local retailing. He controlled all aspects of manufacturing from mining to selling.
Henry Clay Frick: Frick’s job was to manage the daily operations of Carnegie’s company.
With Frick’s great leadership, Carnegie’s steel mill profits rose every year despite labor
troubles and a national depression. With Henry’s help, Carnegie was free to pursue
philanthropic activities.
Charles Schwab: He became president of Carnegie Steel when he bought half of the
company for half a billion dollars. Therefore, he combined Carnegie’s company with
Federal Steel. After the agreement, Morgan set up the U.S. Steel corporation. This became
the first business to capitalize at more than $1 billion dollars.
Thomas A. Edison: He epitomized the inventive impulse. An American inventor, his
development of a practical electric light bulb, electric generating system, sound-recording
device, and motion picture projector had advanced the life of modern society. He shared the
same dream as Carnegie to interconnect industry system with technology.
Alexander Graham Bell: An American inventor and teacher of the deaf, he was most
famous for his invention of the telephone. Since the age of 18, Bell had been working on the
idea of transmitting speech. He was one of the cofounders of the National Geographic
Society, and he served as its president from 1896 to 1904. He also founded the journal
Science in 1883. His other inventions includes the induction balance, audiometer, and the
first was recording cylinder introduced in 1885.
Leland Stanford: An American Railroad magnate and a politician, he served as the
Republican governor of California and the U.S. senator from California. With Hill, he
started the Central Pacific Railroad Company, and in 1870, he founded the Southern Pacific
Railroad Company.
James G. Hill, Great Northern Railroad: He reorganized and expanded the railroad
industry in the 1870s and 1880s. He was exemplified as a robber baron who manipulated
stock markets and company policies. He and three other partners bought the St. Paul and
Pacific Railroad.
Cornelius Vanderbilt: An American industrialist and philanthropist, he became associated
with the New York and Harlem Railroad in 1867, and became president in 1886. At the
same time he began to act as head of the Vanderbilt family. He founded the Vanderbilt
University.
Bessemer process: The process consisted of a shot of air blasted through an enormous
crucible of molten iron to burn off carbon and impurities. This new technology, combined
with cost analysis, provided a learning railroad experience for Carnegie. The bessemer
invention offered a means of driving up profits, lowering cost, and improving efficiency.
United States Steel Corporation, Elbert H. Gary: Gary was a lawyer who later became
president of the Federal Steel Company in 1898. Gary was a strong foe of unions, but he
introduced profit sharing and encouraged higher wages and better working conditions. The
city of Gary, Indiana., originally a steel company town, is named after him.
Mesabi Range: Andrew Carnegie bought an ore company in the newly opened Mesabi
Range in Minnesota in 1892. The hills contained large deposits of iron ore. The Mesabi
Range is one of the chief iron-producing regions in the world. Iron production began there in
the late 19th century.
J. Pierpont Morgan: When national depression struck a number of railroads in 1893,
Morgan refinanced their debts and built an intersystem alliance by purchasing blocks of
stock in the world of competing railroads. He also marketed U.S. government securities on a
massive scale.
Gustavus Swift, Phillip Armour: Swift, a Chicago meatpacker, and Philip Armour turned
pigs and cattle into bacon, pork chops, and steaks. They also developed the technique of
refrigerating food in order to ship food across seas. They both won a large share of the
eastern urban market for meat.
James B. Duke: An American tobacco industrialist and philanthropist whose career
originated with a small family business, James, along with four partners, merged to form the
American Tobacco Company in 1890. The family concentrated on cigarette production in
1881. Within few years, James lead and dominated the national market.
Andrew Mellon: An American financier, industrialist, and statesman, and educated at the
University of Pennsylvania, he started his career in the banking firm of Thomas Mellon and
Sons of Pittsburgh. He later became a partner and the president, in 1902, of the firm that
developed into the Mellon National Bank.
"Stock watering": This term referred to the act of issuing stock certificates far in excess of
the actual value of the assets. Some who "stock watered" persuaded the populace to buy up
stock, but then sold the stock when prices rose, and made a profit while ruining the business
of other investors. This was during 1890 when the stock market was at an all time high.
Jay Cook Co.: He was a Philadelphia banker who had taken over the new transcontinental
line, the Northern Pacific, in 1869. In September of that year, his vault was full of bonds that
he could no longer sell. Cook fail to meet obligation and his bank, which was the largest in
the nation, was shut down.
Jay Gould and Jim Fiske: They attempted to corner the gold market in 1869 with the help
of Grant’s brother-in-law. When gold prices tumbled, Gould and Fiske salvaged their own
fortunes. Unfortunately, investors were ruined. Grant’s reputation was tarnished and could
not be restored.
Pool, Trust: Competition became so vicious that railroads tried to end it by establishing
pools in order to divide the traffic equally and to charge similar rates. The pool lacked legal
status, while the trust was a legal device that centralized control over a number of different
companies by setting up a board of trustees to run all of them.
Rebates: A rebate is a partial monetary return of an amount paid. The Interstate Commerce
Act prohibited rebates for railway rates because they discriminated between different
groups. Small farmers were angered that they were required to pay more than other interests
were. This Act was passed in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Depression of 1873: Early in Grant’s second term, the country was hit by an economic
depression known as the panic of 1873. Brought on by over expansive tendencies of railroad
builders and businessmen during the immediate postwar boom, the Panic was triggered by
economic downturns in Europe and by the failure of Jay Cooke’s bank.
Holding Companies: A holding company is a corporation that owns a controlling share of
the stock of one or more other firms. When Standard Oil faced the problem of antitrust suits
in 1892, lawyers invoked New Jersey law that allowed permitted corporations to own
property in other states by simply reorganizing the trust as an enormous holding company.
Fourteenth Amendment’s "due process clause": The fourteenth amendment declared in
its first clause that all person born or naturalized in the United States were recognized as
citizens of the nation and as citizens of their states and that no state could abridge their rights
without due process of law or deny them equal protection of the law.
· INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT, INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION:
The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was passed to provide that a commission be
established to oversee fair and just railway rates, prohibit rebates, end discriminatory
practices, and require annual reports and financial statements. The act established a new
agncy, the Interstate Commerce Commission, which allowed the government to investigate
and oversee railroad activities.
Long haul, short haul: It was cheaper to ship a long haul on the railroads than it was to
ship a short haul. Small farmers were angered that they, who made many short hauls, were
discriminated against. In the 1870s, many state legislatures, outlawed rate discrimination as
a result of protests led by the Grangers.
· SHERMAN ANTITRUST ACT, 1890: Fearing that the trusts would stamp out all
competition, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which outlawed trusts and
other restraints of trade. Violators were fined up to five thousand dollars and one year in
prison. The Sherman Antitrust act failed to define either trust or restraint of trade clearly. As
a result, between 1890 and 1904, the government prosecuted only eighteen antitrust suits,
and it was instead used to hinder the efforts of labor unions who acted "in restraint of trade."
Frank Norris, The Octopus:The U.S. novelist Frank Norris, was a noted pioneer of
naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology
on the human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus, published in 1901, and The Pit ,
published in 1903, attack the railroad and wheat industries in the United States.
New South, Henry Grady: Henry Grady was a U.S. journalist and orator born in Athens,
Georgia. He bought share in Atlantic Constitution in 1879. As editor, he did much to restore
friendly relations between the North and South during a period of bitter hatred and conflict.
He often lectured on the concept of "The New South," which referred to a rejuvenated south.
The Growth Of Labor
Reacting to the emergence of big business, workers organized themselves to protect their
welfare. Feeling that they were helpless against the practices of the large corporations,
workers collectivized to gain power through their numbers. Labor Unions, such as the
National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, were created in order to establish forums
for workers to express discontent.
National Labor Union, William Sylvis: In 1866, acting on his dream of a nationwide
association to represent all workers. Sylvis called a convention in Baltimore that formed the
National Labor Union (NLU). The organization supported the eight-hour day movement, but
also embraced banking reform and an end to conviction labor.
· KNIGHTS OF LABOR, URIAH STEPHENS, TERRENCE POWDERLY: The
Knights of labor dreamed of a national labor movement. This organization was founded in
Philadelphia in 1869, and was led by Uriah Stephens, who was also the head of the Garment
Cutters of Philadelphia. They welcomed all wage earners, and demanded equal pay for
women, an end to child and convict labor, and cooperative employer-employee ownership.
In their organization, they excluded bankers, lawyers, professional gambler, and liquor
dealers.
· AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL): Confronted by big business, Samuel
Gompers and Adolph Strasser put together a combination of national crafts unions to
represent the material interests of labor in the matter of wages, hours, and safety precautions.
They demanded bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations such as railroads,
mining, and manufacturing. They did not intend to have a violent revolution nor political
radicalism.
Samuel Gompers: An American labor leader, he, as president of the American Federation
of Labor (AFL), stressed cooperation between management and labor instead of strike
actions, as a means of obtaining labor demands. He led the AFL for forty years, until his
death in 1924.
Collective bargaining: The major function of unions is collective bargaining, a process by
which unions and employers negotiate terms of employment. The terms are set forth in a
written agreement that the union and the employer promise to enforce. The AFL demanded
collective bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations.
Injunction: An injuntion is a court order. It was generally used against strikers. It is an
order or decree in the law of equity, requiring a defendant to refrain from committing a
specific act, either in process or threatened, injurious to the plaintiff. Injunctions are
generally preventive, restraining, or prohibitory in nature.
Pinkertons: They were a group in Allan Pinkerton’s organization, the National Detective
Agency. They often spied on the unions for the companies. In 1877, when a railroad strike
broke out, they were called in as strikebreakers. In the Homestead Strike, the Pinkertons
fired on the strikers, killing many of them.
Closed Shop: The closed shop is an agreement between a trade union and an employer
which is a collective bargain. It provides that employees in the bargaining unit shall be
union members and remain in good standing in the union as a condition of employment.
Many of these shops were banned by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.
Blacklist, Yellow Dog Contracts: With the formation of labor unions, workers began to
strike to obtain better conditions. However, employers blacklisted employees that went on
strike, which which made getting another job later much harder. They also made employees
sign yellow dog contracts, which forced the employee to agree not to strike or join a union.
Company Union: First adapted by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in 1915, it was a
company-sponsored labor union that was dominated by the management. The workers
wanted unions, and they got them, but they were controlled by the management, so the
company had the final word on the labor policy.
Great Railroad Strike, 1877: A group of railroad workers on the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. This spread up and down the railroad
line across the nation. Railroad roadhouse were torched. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent
in troops to stop the strike. 100 people died in the strike.
· haymarket square riot: Strikers and police had a confrontation while a strike was in
progress on May 4, 1886, at the McCormick reaper works in Chicago. Several protesters
were shot by police the day before, and a protest against police violence was called. The
police were attempting to break up the meeting when a bomb was thrown by a protester. A
violent gun battle ensuedin which seven police were killed. Many police and civilians were
injured as well.
John Peter Altgeld: He served as the liberal governor of Illinois from 1893 to 1897. He
was criticized for pardoning the anarchists who threw the bomb in the Haymarket Square
Riot and for objecting to the use of federal troops in the Pullman strike. His action was
considered dangerously radical by the American public.
Homestead Strike: Called in 1892 by the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin
Workers, it was one of the most violent strikes in U.S. history. It was against the Homestead
Steel Works, which was part of the Carnegie Steel Company, in Pennsylvania in retaliation
against wage cuts. On July 6, company guards and Pinkertons opened fire on the strikers
after four months of striking, killing and wounding many strikers. The state militia dispersed
the strikers.
American Railway Union: Created by Eugene V. Debs, it was a union created in a shortlived attempt to bring all of the railroad workers into one organization. This union was a
precursor of the union movement that followed in the 1930s. The union was involved in the
1894 Pullman Strike.
Pullman Strike: The American Railway Union and Eugene V. Debs led a nonviolent strike
which brought about a shut down of western railroads, which took place against the Pullman
Palace Car Company in Chicago in 1894, because of the poor wages of the Pullman
workers. President Grover Cleveland interfered and stopped the strike by saying that they
had interfered with the right of the government to maintain the uninterrupted transport of
mail. Debs was arrested and the strike was broken up.
Eugene V. Debs: As the president and the organizer of the American Railway Union, he
helped bring about the shut down of western railroads with the 1894 Pullman Strike. He was
arrested for these actions. He also helped organize the Social Democrat party in 1897, after
meeting socialist Victor Berger. He was the party’s presidential candidate five times: in
1900, 1904, 1908, and 1912. He later became a lecturer and organizer for the Socialist
movement.
Richard Olney: He was the United States Attorney General from 1893 to 1897. He also sat
on the board of directors of three major networks of railroads. The General Manager’s
Association attempted to get an federal injunction from Olney against the strikers for
refusing to move cars carrying U.S. mail.
Danbury Hatters Strike:. The Supreme Court declared in 1908, after a strike by workers in
Danbury, Connecticut, which was known for its hat industry, that unions were prohibited
from setting up boycotts in support of strikes. It was said that a boycott was a "conspiracy in
restraint of trade."
Urbanization
Rapid urbanization began in the 1870s as people flocked to the cities. These urban centers
quickly crowded, and many cities became impersonal metropolises that were divided into
business, residential, social and ethnic centers. Amidst this chaos, corruption thrived as
political bosses ran the city for their own personal gain. It appeared as if the nation was
modernizing quicker than it could deal with problems of urbanization.
George Washington Plunkitt: A minor boss in Tammany Hall and a member of the New
York State Assembly, he was skilled in winning numerous votes for party candidates by
associating with and being kind to the people in New York. He was paid by these
candidates, and he received generous rewards.
"Honest Graft": This term, created by George Washington Plunkitt, referred to the police
corruption that took place in the Tammany Hall political machine. The practices included
paying bribes to make an individual a police officer, to get him a promotion, or to get him to
the position of a sergeant.
Boss Tweed: He was an important figure in New York’s political machine, the Tammany
Society. He held New York City and state political posts where he increased his power.
Forming the Tweed Ring, which bought votes, he controlled New York politics, and
encouraged judicial corruption.
Boss George B. Cox: Cox, the boss of Cincinnati’s Republican political machine, had a
reputation for being one of the most honest bosses. He worked his way up the ladder from
being a newspaper boy to being the head of the political machine. In addition, he helped
with many public works in the city.
· TAMMANY HALL: Founded by anti-federalist William Mooney, it is the name for the
New York Democratic party machine, also known as the Tammany Society, whose
supposed goal was to preserve democratic institutions. However, Tammany Hall gained a
great reputation for its corrupt practices, and was opposed by reform groups. It began to gain
power with the rise of Boss Tweed in 1868. Its leader, Alfred E. Smith, ran for president of
the United States.
Thomas Nast: A political cartoonist and caricaturist, he became an illustrator for Frank
Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper in 1855. He later worked for Harper’s Weekly. He was best
known for his cartoons slandering the corrupt Tammany ring of New York during the period
from 1869 to 1872.
Streetcar Suburbs: The creation of electric streetcar systems allowed families to move
farther from the city’s center. Streetcar companies purchased land on the city’s periphery
and made tremendous profits on the sale of the real estate. The streetcar system allowed
people to live farther away from their work. This facilitated the move away from the city’s
center.
Tenements: Built by a landlord, tenements were small housing units that were extremely
overcrowded, poorly built, and that contained filth. There was a lack of fresh air and light in
these housing units, and in addition, they were inhabited mainly by new immigrants. The
worst tenements became known as slums.
Denis Kearney: He was a labor leader who protested the increasing numbers of Chinese
laborers when California had an economic depression in 1877. With his support, he formed
the Workingman’s Party of California, which later became associated with the Grange
movement.
James Bryce: He was a British historian and statesman who became the leader of the
Liberal Party. He served as the ambassador to the United States from 1907 to 1913. He was
also the author of The American Commonwealth (1888), which is one of the most discerning
studies ever written on U.S. political institutions.
John A. Roebling: Roebling was one of the creators of the suspension bridges. He also
created and manufactured steel-wire ropes which he used, along with steel cables, in his
construction. One of his most famous works was the Brooklyn Bridge which he completed
shortly before his death.
Louis Sullivan: Sullivan was an American architect who used steel frames to design
skyscrappers. He was also the founder of what is now the Chicago School of Architects. His
most famous pupil was Frank Lloyd Wright, who later became a famous architect. Together
with his partner Dankmar Adler, he produced over 100 buildings.
Frank Lloyd Wright: Wright was one of the greatest twentieth-century architect and is
cosidered a pioneer of the modern style. He began as a designer for the Adler Sullivan firm,
and he introduced many innovations, including double-glass windows, metal furniture, and
air conditioning. He created the philosophy of "Organic Architecture."
Ashcan School: This school contained a group of painters, known as The Eight, who
exhibited their style together as a group in 1908. Led by Robert Henri, the Ashcan School
focused on more contemporary subjects, rather than on the academic and impressionist
styles of the 19th century.
Armory Show: It was an art exhibition that took place in New York between February 17
and March 15, 1913 at the 69th Regiment Armory. It was an international exhibition in
which modern art was first shown in the United States. A quarter of a million paid to see the
show.
Anthony Comstock: Comstock was a reformer, who helped organize the New York Society
for the Suppression of Vice in 1873, of which he became secretary. He was also influential
in the passage by Congress of the 1873 law concerned with obscenity in the U.S. mails. It
became known as the Comstock Law.
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Riis was a social reformer and writer who wrote one
of the most influential, popular, and early social documentaries in American history. He
wanted to reform tenement housing and schools. In addition, he was influential in bringing
about parks and playgrounds in overcrowded neighborhoods.
Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: Thorstein Bunde Veblen was best
known for his book, The Theory of The Leisure Class, which was published in 1899.
Introducing the concept of "conspicuous consumption," his writing was an assault on the
values and lifestyles of the Gilded Age businessmen.
From Melting Pot To Salad Bowl
The earlier immigrants to American consisted mainly of Northern Europeans. However,
during the 1870s, a flood of immigrants, arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe,
gushed into the already overcrowded metropolises. Many immigrants faced the dual
problems of changing cultures and migrating from a rural life to an urban one. In addition
to these difficulties, the new immigrants often faced prejudice from nativist Americans.
"New Immigration": They were a new group of immigrants coming into the United States
that consisted of Italians, Slavs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. They came from both
Southern and Eastern Europe, and also from the Middle East. In the 1890s, their numbers
first began to increase, and the numbers continued to increase for the next three decades.
Most of the immigrants came from peasant and poor backgrounds and boosted America’s
foreign-born population by 18 million. They were often discriminated against.
"Old Immigration": This Term applies to those migrating from Western and Eastern
Europe. They were the largest group of immigrants that migrated to the United States. The
largest group of approximately three million, came from Germany in the 1840s and 1850s.
Next came the British, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants, which totaled 2 million. In addition,
one and a half million traveled over from Ireland. All of these immigrants came over in
search of jobs and of new economic opportunities.
Literacy tests: Passed by Congress in 1917in order to restrict immigration, the law enlarged
the group of immigrants that could be excluded from the United States. Literacy tests were
imposed on all immigrants, and any immigrant who could not pass the tests was not allowed
entry into the U.S.
Chinese Exclusion Law, 1882: Passed by Congress, it was one of three laws that attempted
to solve the increasing immigration problem. There had also been increasing labor violence
against the Chinese. By this law, immigrants had to be examined, and all convicts,
polygamists, prostitutes, anarchists, persons suffering from loathsome or contagious
diseases, and persons liable to become public disturbances and problems were all excluded
form the U.S.
American Protective Association: Founded by Henry F. Bowers, this was a secret antiCatholic society founded in 1887, in Clinton Iowa. The panic of 1893 greatly increased its
membership, and it supported the Republican Party until it split over the question of whether
or not to support William McKinley. It died in 1911.
The Middle Class Reform Impulse
As Americans viewed the poverty throughout their cities, middle class Americans strove to
enact reform measures that would aid their society. Groups were formed to aid the less
fortunate Americans who inhabited the slums of the cities. Although these citizens strove to
aid their fellow man, in many cases, there was a prevalent feeling of condecension towards
the poorer classes.
Jane Addams, Hull House: She was a social worker and a Nobel laureate. With the help of
Ellen Star, she created the Hull House in 1889 in Chicago, which was the first settlement
house in the U.S. It was a welfare agency for needy families, and it also served to combat
juvenile delinquency and to assist the recent immigrants in learning the English language
and in becoming citizens. In addition, in 1912, Addams played a large role in the formation
of the National Progressive Party and the Women’s Peace Party.
Lester Frank Ward: Ward worked with the U.S. Geological Survey. He argued against
William Graham Sumner in his Dynamic Sociology and stated that the laws of nature could
be changed by mankind through government experts regulating big business, protecting
society’s weaker classes, and preventing the destruction of natural resources.
· SOCIAL GOSPEL: It was a Protestant liberal movement led by Washington Gladden and
Walter Rauschenbusch that applied Christian principles to the numerous social problems
that affected the late 19th century United States as a result of industrialization. The
movement preached and taught religion and human dignity to the working class in order to
correct the effects of capitalism. In 1908 the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in
America adopted a social creed that called for many improvements in society.
Walter Rauschenbusch: He was a clergyman who was one of the leaders of the Social
Gospel movement. He sought to solve social problems caused by the industrialized society
by applying Christian principles. He also helped found the Society of Jesus to publish
periodicals for the working class.
Washington Gladden: He was a Congregationalist minister who became known for his
pragmatic social theology. He linked theological liberalism with strong social concern. He
worked with Walter Rauschenbusch as a leader of the Social Gospel movement. In addition,
he wrote 38 books, which include Working People and their Employers.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War, the laws regulating many
aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in this
league in the fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23 states and in
1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
Salvation Army: Founded by Methodist William Booth, it is a religious and charitable
organization dedicated to spreading the Christian faith and giving assistance to those in need
of both spiritual and material aid. It was founded in 1865 in England as the Christian
Mission, whose goal was to give aid to the London slums.
YMCA: British Sir George Williams founded this organization in response to unsanitary
social conditions in large cities at the end of the Industrial Revolution, and to stop the young
workers from gambling and engaging in other disreputable. In the U.S., it began
constructing gyms, libraries, and summer camps.
Rev. Josiah Strong: Strong was the secretary of the American Home Missionary Society
and the minister of Cincinnati's Central Congregational Church. Afraid that poverty was
escalating, he wrote his book Our Country; Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis in
1885, where he stated that cities were centers of anarchy and destruction.
· SOCIAL DARWINISM: It is a theory developed in the late 19th century by which
individuals and societies believed that people, like all other organisms compete for survival
and success in life. It was believed that human progress depended highly on competition.
Those who were best fit for survival would become rich and powerful, and the less fit in
society would be poor and the lower classes. Many felt that this theory was expounded by
Charles Darwin, but in reality, they misinterpreted his words.
Herbert Spencer: Spencer was a British philosopher, who was regarded as one of the first
sociologists. His works include Social Statics, Principles of Psychology, and A System of
Synthetic Philosophy. He created a system of philosophy that included his own theory of
evolution, but also incorporated all existing fields of knowledge.
William Graham Sumner, What Social Classes Owe Each Other: Sumner was a
sociologist and author of What Social Classes Owe Each Other. In this book, he stated that
unchangeable laws of nature, such as survival of the fittest, control all social order and they
can not be changed by man.
Henry Ward Beecher: Beecher was the pastor of the Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims in
Brooklyn, New York, who was also one of the earliest and best known abolitionists. Also,
he was an effective champion of women's rights and suffrage. He was also editor in chief of
the religious and political periodicals Independent and The Christian Union.
· Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward, 2000-1887: He was an essayist and journalist who
founded the Springfield Daily News, and then turned toward literature. He published his
most famous work in 1888, which was entitled Looking Backward, 2000-1887. This novel
was a depiction of an ideal society in the year 2000. This novel led to the formation of many
socialistic clubs. To further publicize his views, Bellamy created the journal, New Nation, in
1891.
Henry George, Progress and Poverty: George was an economist and social philosopher. In
his book Progress and Poverty, he stated that land ownership is concentrated in the hands of
a few, and these people reap the benefits of the rise in value of the land. He recommended a
shift to what he called a single tax.
The Single Tax: Developed by social philosopher and economist Henry George, it was a
doctrine of social reform where all taxation should be reduced to a single tax on land. The
doctrine was described in his book Progress and Poverty, and it was influenced by 17th
century philosopher John Locke and British economist David Ricardo.
The Flowering Of American Culture
Along with the new social currents of the day caused by rapid urbanization, immigration,
and the growth of business, came a fervor of cultural display. American culture diversified
as Americans saw the society around them drastically changing, causing them to strive to
express their views through various forms.
Henry James: James was a writer and brother of philosopher William James. He wrote
about the impact of European culture on Americans who traveled or lived abroad. Some of
his famous writings include The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, and The Golden
Bowl.
Charles Darwin: Darwin was a British Scientist who created the theory of modern
evolution. In his theory, the development of organisms came through a process called
natural selection, which is often called "survival of the fittest." His theories were presented
in his novel The Origin of Species.
Rev. Russell Conwell, "Acres of Diamonds": Conwell was a Baptist minister who
preached about ordinary man's and capitalist's materialistic longings. He used religious
virtue to justify the quest for wealth as a Christian endeavor. This was the message in his
"Acres of Diamonds" lecture, which he gave over 6000 times.
Dwight L. Moody: Moody was the creator of the Illinois Street Church which was later
renamed the Moody Memorial Church. Together with Ira Sankey, he began a series of
revival meetings and opened the Northfield Seminary for Young Women and the Mount
Hermon School for Boys. He also founded the Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889.
Rerum Novarum, 1891: Formulated by Pope Leo XIII, it was the Catholic social doctrine.
It held private property as a natural right, and it found fault with capitalism for the poverty
and insecurity that it left the working class in. Many Catholic socialism movements are
derived from this.
Charles Sheldon, In His Steps: He was a Congregational clergyman and a social reformer.
He was also the author of the book In His Steps , which is the story of people who tried to
pattern their lives after the life of Jesus. It emphasized social problems which tied it into the
Social Gospel Movement.
Mary Baker Eddy: She was the founder of the Christian Science Association and the
Church of Christ, Scientist. After a remarkable recovery from sickness, she published
Science and Health, about the fundamentals of her metaphysical system of healing. In
addition, she founded the international daily newspaper Christian Science Monitor.
Chautauqua Movement: Methodists John Heyl Vincent and Lewis Miller founded this
movement, which combined daily Bible studies with healthful recreation. It later expanded
to include concerts, lectures, and courses in science and humanities. The movement was
imitated numerous times in the United States.
Johns Hopkins University: Financed by John Hopkins, it is an institution of higher
learning in Baltimore, Maryland. It was founded in 1876. It is world renowned for its
medical school and its applied physics laboratory. Former President Woodrow Wilson
received his Ph.D. in political science here.
Charles W. Eliot, Harvard: Educated at Harvard University, he was an assistant professor
of mathematics and chemistry there for five years. In 1869, he became the president of
Harvard, who remodeled the curriculum on a liberal basis. He created a set of books
containing 50 volumes known as Harvard Classics.
Josiah Willard Gibbs: At Yale, he was a professor of mathematical physics for 34 years.
He laid the foundations of the modern understanding of electromagnetic phenomenon and
thermodynamics. The real importance of his studies and theoretical descriptions of the
behavior of subatomic particles have only been recently recognized.
Morrill Land Act, 1862: Introduced to Congress by Republican Justin Morrill, the act
introduced a bill to establish state colleges of agriculture and to bring higher education
within the reach of the common people. Proceeds from the sale of public lands were given to
states to fund the establishment of these universities of agriculture and mechanics. They
were called land grant colleges and were located in the Midwest and West. Many
universities such as Michigan, Iowa State, and Purdue profited from its provisions.
Hatch Act, 1887: It was an act written by Representative William Henry Hatch of Missouri.
This act gave each state $15,000 a year to help establish and maintain agricultural
experiment stations. It was a supplement to the land grant colleges, which the government in
order to promte the teaching of agriculture.
· "gilded age": Given its name by the novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley, it is a
time period which criticized the lobbyists, swindlers, politicians who took bribes, and those
who got rich in the postwar boom. The period was characterized by industrial production,
westward expansion, immigration, and urban growth, as well as strikes, depressions, despair
and bitterness, buoyancy and free-spending. The span of this era ranges from the end of the
Civil War, 1869, to the turn of the century.
Nouveau riche: It was the new class of people which was created by the wealth and
prosperity generated from the industrial capitalism and the big businesses. This class grew
during the Gilded Age. Most of these people were self-made and showed their importance
through ostentatious displays. Robber barons were included in this class.
William James: James was a philosopher and psychologist, who came up with the
philosophy of pragmatism, which is summed up in his lectures entitled Pragmatism: A New
Name for Old Ways of Thinking. As a psychologist, he wrote his famous Principles of
Psychology which established him as one of the most influential thinkers of the time.
Pragmatism: Developed by William James and Charles Sanders Pierce, it is a philosophical
doctrine stating that the test of the truth of a proposition is its practical utility, the effect of
an idea is more important than its origin, and the purpose of thought is to guide action.
E.L. Godkin, editor of The Nation: Godkin was an editor, whose criticism in his book The
Nation and New York's Evening Post, which he edited, was influential in the reform
movement. He and others codified the standards in the Victorian era in both literature and
the fine arts. He was also a former mugwump and anti-imperialist.
William Dean Howells: Howells was a novelist, critic, and editor of the Atlantic, who
championed authors such as Stephen Crane, Mark Twain, Frank Norris, and Henry James.
He was also president of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In his life he wrote
many works, including A Fearful Responsibility, and The Rise of Silas Lapham.
Stephen Crane: Cranes was a writer and poet who began the use of the naturalistic style of
writing. His most famous novels include The Red Badge of Courage, Maggie, a Girl of the
Streets, and The Open Boats and Other Stories. The Black Riders and Other Lines, and War
is Kind and Other Poems are two volumes of his poems.
Hamlin Garland: Garland was a short story writer who used his experiences working on
farms in Iowa and South Dakota as central themes for his countless short stories that
denounced American farm life. He published these stories under the titles Main-Travelled
Roads and Other Main-Travelled Roads.
Bret Harte: Harte was a writer who was also the editor of the Overland Monthly, which
published many of his famous works. These stories included "The Luck of Roaring Camp"
and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat." He published a collection of his works called The Luck of
Roaring Camp and Other Short Stories. He also wrote for Atlantic Monthly.
Mark Twain: Twain was a writer named Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who used Mark
Twain as his pseudonym. He is characterized by his humor and sharp social satire. His many
famous novels include The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer, and A Connecticut
Yankee in King Arthur's Court.
The Gilded Age, Mark Twain and Charles Dudley: It is a novel written in a time when
materialism and corruption controlled the lives of Americans. It was written by Twain, and
Dudley was the coauthor. Many of the characters in the novel were recognized by readers of
the book as figures in society.
· HORATIO ALGER’S BOOKS FOR YOUTH: Alger was a writer of juvenile fiction.
His novels held a theme of rags to riches, where poor youth would win fame and money by
having virtues of honesty, diligence, and perseverance. Among his collection are Luck and
Pluck, Tattered Tom, and his most famous Ragged Dick. By emphasizing merit rather than
focusing on social status as the way to determine success, his more than 100 novels had a
major impact on the youth of that time.
James McNeill Whistler: Whistler was an etcher and painter who was a champion of
modern art. He also incorporated Japanese styles of art and made many technical
innovations in art. He is also well known for his portraits. The White Girl and Twelve
Etchings from Nature are his most famous etchings.
Winslow Homer: One of the greatest American painters, Winslow Homer is best known for
his watercolors and oil paintings of the sea. These paintings often have great dramatic effect
because of the way they show man's powerlessness in the face of the unfeeling and
mysterious forces of nature.
Joseph Pulitzer: Joseph Pulitzer was a large newspaper publisher. In the newspaper
circulation wars of the 1890s, publisher Joseph Pulitzer was one of the leading combatants.
His chief opponent was William Randolph Hearst. The two used every tactic, including
sensational yellow journalism, to encourage people to buy their papers.
William Randolph Hearst: Through dishonest and exaggerated reporting, William
Randolph Hearst's newspapers whipped up public sentiment against Spain, actually helping
to cause the Spanish-American War. Hearst was quite willing to take credit for this, as his
New York City newspaper testified in an 1898 headline: "How Do You Like the Journal’s
War?"
The Emergence Of Modern Woman
The new urban environment fostered the growth of feminism. As millions of women began to
work outside the home, they saw themselves in a new light, and began to demand certain
rights. Many women asserted their independence by participating in social reform
movements. Along with their male counterparts, they crusaded for pressing reforms, such
abolition and prohibition.
Susan B. Anthony: For more than half a century Susan B. Anthony fought for women's
suffrage. She traveled from county to county in New York and other states making speeches
and organizing clubs for women's rights. She pleaded her cause with every president from
Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A pioneer in the modern quest for women's rights, Stanton helped
to organize a political movement that demanded voting rights for women. She was a
prominent leader in the campaign for what became the 19th Amendment to the United States
Constitution which guaranteed female suffrage.
Carrie Chapman Catt: When Susan B. Anthony retired in 1900 from the NAWSA, she
chose Carrie Chapman Catt to take her place. Though Catt was forced to resign in 1904 due
to her husbands illness, she remained active in NAWSA and in 1915 became its president.
After this, Catt continued to play a large role in the fight for Women's rights.
Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a U.S. woman suffragist who was born in Moorestown, N.J. She
was imprisoned three times in England and three times in the U.S. for activities in woman
suffrage movement. She led the Congressional Union for Women's Suffrage, later called the
National Woman's party, in lobbying for the right to vote during World War I.
Women’s Christian Temperance Union: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU) was founded in 1874. Partly through their efforts, six states adopted Prohibition by
1890. It became the nation’s first mass organization of women. Its activities included
welfare work, prison reform, labor arbitration and public health.
Francis Willard: In 1874 a temperance crusade swept the United States. A young lecturer
and educator, Frances Willard, joined the movement, became famous for building the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). She soon became the president of the
newly formed union. Willard stressed religion and morality in her work.
Carry A. Nation: A vehement foe of alcoholic beverages, Carry A. Nation would appear at
a saloon, berate the customers, and proceed to damage as much of the place as she could
with her hatchet. She was the scourge of tavern owners and drinkers alike in Kansas, as well
as in many other states.
Clara Barton: Single-handedly, she organized supply depots to serve Civil War soldiers.
For four years after the war, she headed the search for missing soldiers. In 1872 she
campaigned to organize a branch of the Red Cross in the United States. She succeeded in
1881. For 23 years she directed Red Cross work in every great disaster.
Colleges admitting women: By the end of the 19th century the number of women students
had increased greatly. Higher education was broadened by the rise of women's colleges and
the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth
of resident college students were women. By 1900 this had increased to more than one third.
Bicycling emerges as a hobby for women: Constraints on women were loosened toward
the end of the nineteenth century when bicycling swept the U.S. Fearful of waning vitality,
middle and upper-class women turned to bicycle riding as a source of exercise, recreation,
and a way to escape the restrictive Victorian attitudes towards female physical activity.
Divorce rate: By the turn of the twentieth century divorce rate in the United States had
started to steadily grow. This was due to more opportunities for women which made them
less economically dependent on their husbands. An increased number of people living in the
cities also contributed to the fact that cities had higher divorce rates than rural areas.
The Frontier West
As America expanded, many Americans desired to move westward and cultivate new lands.
Federal government policies intended to facilitate the move westward, but it was often at the
expense of the Native Americans who already occupied the land. As Americans continued to
move the frontier farther and farther west, America expanded across the continent.
Great American Desert: For years, the geography of the U.S. was unknown to most
Americans. Their perceptions of western regions were drawn from descriptions left by early
travelers. Maps published prior to the Civil War often called the Great Plains area the "Great
American Desert." It was a region deemed unfit for settlement.
Homestead Act, 1862: This act cut up Western public lands into many small holdings for
the free farmers. It was originally started by Andrew Johnson as the first homestead bill but
met strong opposition by Southern Representatives and therefore could not be passed until
the secession of the Southern States during the Civil War.
Barbed wire, Joseph Glidden: Barbed wire was invented and patented by Joseph Glidden
in 1874 and had a major impact on the cattle industry of the Western U.S. Accustomed to
allowing their cattle to roam the open range, many farmers objected to barbed wire. Others
used it to fence in land or cattle that did not belong to them.
Indian Appropriations Act, 1871: By this act Congress decided that Indian tribes were no
longer recognized as sovereign powers with whom treaties must be made. Existing treaties,
though, were still to be considered valid, but violations continued to occur. This lead to
many conflicts, including that between the Sioux and the U.S. at Little Big Horn.
Plains Indians: Great Plains tribes began attacking wagon trains carrying settlers during the
1850s. They had been angered by settlers who drove away the buffalo herds they depended
on for food, clothing, and shelter. When war would break out, the Indians would either be
defeated and transported, or a treaty would be made in which they lost part of their lands.
Chivington Massacre: The United States Army, led by Colonel John M. Chivington,
attacked and massacred the Cheyenne Indians that were settled along Sand Creek, Colorado
in 1864. At the time, the Cheyenne were being led by Chief Black Kettle, and were attacked
despite a previous agreement made with the governor.
Battle of Little Big Horn: The Sioux refused to sell the land to the government in 1875,
and refused to leave the area to inhabit reservations. When the Sioux refused, the army
under Lieut. Col. Custer, was sent to enforce the order.In this battle the main body of
Indians, under Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, wiped out General Custer's men
in 1876.
Chief Joseph: When he became chief of the Nez Perce Indian tribe in the American
Northwest in 1871, Joseph led his people in an unsuccessful resistance to white settlers who
were confiscating land. The tribe was ordered to move. Joseph agreed, but when three of his
tribe killed a group of settlers, he attempted to escape to Canada with his followers.
Ghost Dance Movement: As the Sioux population dwindled as a result of the federal
government policies, they turned to the Ghost Dance to restore their original dominance on
the Plains. Wearing the Ghost Shirts, they engaged in ritual dances that they believed would
protect them from harm. The ritual allowed them to reaffirm their culture amidst the chaos.
Battle of Wounded Knee: Convinced that Sitting Bull was going to lead an uprising, the
United States Army massacred more than 200 Indians at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on
Dec. 29, 1890. After the incident, the Ghost Dance movement which had been recently
revived by Indians rapidly died out. This event ended the conquest of the American Indian.
Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor: This book, by Jackson, was a discourse
concerning the plight of American Indians published in 1881. She gathered information
regarding American Indians and their lives while serving on a federal commission
investigating the treatment of Indians. Jackson also wrote Ramona concerning the same
topic.
· DAWES SEVERALTY ACT, 1887: It was proposed by Henry L. Dawes, and was passed
in 1887. It was designed to reform what well-meaning but ignorant whites perceived to be
the weaknesses of Indian life-- the lack of private property, the absence of a Christian based
religion, the nomadic traditions of the Indians, and the general instability in their way of life
-- by turning Indians into farmers. The main point of the law was to emphasize treating
Indians as individuals as opposed to members in a tribe, or severalty.
· FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, FRONTIER THESIS: In his analysis of how the
frontier, moving from east to west, shaped the American character and institutions, Turner
decisively rejected the then common belief that the European background had been
primarily responsible for the characteristics of the United States. He also justified overseas
economic expansion as a means to secure political power at a time when America began
focusing on expanding its influence throughout the world.
Safety Valve Thesis: This assertion stated that as immigrants came to the eastern United
States during the late nineteenth century and "polluted" American culture, citizens of the
U.S. would have the West as a "safety valve" to which they could go in order to revitalize
their pure Americanism.
Comstock Lode: One of the richest silver mines in the United States was discovered in
1859 at the Comstock Lode in Nevada. This discovery contributed to the speed by which
Virginia City, Nevada was built. An influx of settlers came to Nevada, and Nevada granted
statehood in 1864.
Reform Populism In The 1890s
Populism emerged in the 19th century in order to reform the system from within. Creating
the Populist Party with James Weaver as their presidential candidate, the Populists strove
to bring their reforms into the political limelight. Although they did not succeed in electing
their candidate to the presidency, many of their reforms were later enacted.
· GRANGER MOVEMENT: During the decade of the 1870s, U.S. farmers were beset
with problems of high costs, debts, and small profits. the farmers made their grievances
known through the Granger Movement. Membership peaked in the mid-1870s. There was
little the farmers could do concerning prices. Only in 1877 did the Supreme Court rule that
states could regulate businesses of a public nature. To counteract unjust business practices,
the farmers were urged to start cooperatives such as grain elevators, creameries, and stores.
Granger Laws: The Grangers in various states lobbied state legislatures in 1874 to pass
maximum rate laws for freight shipment. The railroads appealed to the Supreme Court to
declare the "Granger laws" unconstitutional. Instead, the Court ruled against the railroad’s
objections in Munn v. Illinois.
Farmers’ Alliance: This alliance was a political organization created to help fight railroad
abuses and to lower interest rates. It called for government regulation of the economy in
order to redress their greivanes. It was founded in New York in 1873, and consisted of the
Northwest Farmers' Alliance in the north and the National Farmers' Alliance and
Independent Union in the south. They failed to unite, however, and in 1892 gave way to the
Populist party.
· POPULIST PARTY PLATFORM, OMAHA PLATFORM, 1892: The Populist party,
or people's party, was a party that represented the "common man." It was created towards
the end of the nineteenth century. Some of their goals included creating postal savings
banks, enacting immigration restriction, setting a graduated income tax and limiting the
presidency to a single six-year term. The Populist platform represented views of farmers in
the West. The Omaha platform of 1892 nominated James Weaver of Iowa for president.
"Crime of 1873": This is the term given to a federal law of 1873, which adopted the gold
standard over the silver standard. This dropped silver coinage in favor of gold coinage, by
advocating free silver. This "Crime of 1873" was one of the motivating forces behind the
beginning of the Free Silver movement.
Bland-Allison Act: This act was passed over the presidential veto in 1878 and required the
secretary of the treasury to buy at least 2 million dollars of silver each month and coin it into
dollars. Because of its weight and bulk and the fact that it had not been coined since 1806,
most of the silver did not circulate; rather, remained in the treasury.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act: This act forced the treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of
silver each month.. However, the price of silver did not rise and precious gold was being
drained away from the treasury while cheap silver piled up. This act, therefore, helped to
precipitate the panic of 1893, and it caused a decrease in foreign investments in the U.S.
economy.
Bimetallism: Bimetallism is the use of both silver and gold as the basis of an economy as
opposed to the use of one or the other or none. During the gold and free silver campaigns of
the early 1900s, the Republicans believed in a money system based on the single gold
standard, while the democrats believed in bimetallism.
"Coin" Harvey: The silverites’ most influential piece of propaganda was William H.
Harvey's Coin’s Financial School, published in 1894. It explained the monetary issue in
simplified partisan terms, denounced "the conspiracy of the Goldbugs," and insisted that the
free coinage of silver would eliminate the debt.
Free silver: This was a chiefly unsuccessful campaign in the late 19th-century U.S. for the
unlimited coinage of silver. Major supporters of this movement were owners of silver mines,
farmers, and debtors, for whom silver production would be economically favorable. William
Jennings Bryan led the democratic party to support free silver during the 1890s.
16 to 1: During the Panic of 1873 the world market ratio of silver to gold fell below the ratio
of 16:1 for the first time in world history. This coincided with the opening of rich silver
mines in the Western united States and also with post-Civil War deflation. It resulted in the
movement in favor of free silver and bimetallism of the populists
Depression of 1893: This panic swept the country two months after the second inauguration
of President Grover Cleveland. Banks closed their doors, railroads went bankrupt, and farm
mortgages were foreclosed. People hoarded gold, and the treasury’s gold reserve was
depleting. A notable cause was the struggle between the free silver and gold advocates.
Coxey's Army, 1894: This was actually a band of unemployed people who marched to
Washington DC during the depression of 1894 under the leadership of Jacob S. Coxey, a
quarry operator. They urged the enactment of laws which would provide money without
interest for public improvements, which would create work for the unemployed.
Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1893: In 1893 President Grover Cleveland,
who stood for the gold standard, succeeded in having the Sherman Silver Purchase Act
repealed over the strong objections of William Jennings Bryan. However, little gold was in
the treasury; thus, the panic of 1893 could not be avoided and the crisis remained until 1896.
Ocala Demands, 1890: These demands were essentially a platform of the Democratic/
Populist party for the 1892 election created at a gathering in Ocala, Florida in 1890.
Northern leaders generally favored a third party candidate, while Southerners feared that it
would weaken the southern Democratic Party.
Tom Watson: An U.S. journalist, legislator, and a southern alliance leader from Georgia, he
urged southern farmers to recognize their common plight and act together. He was also the
Populist party’s presidential candidate in 1904 and 1908, served as a senator from 1921 to
1922, and edited The Weekly Jeffersonian, a populist magazine.
James B. Weaver: An United States legislator and prominent figure during the Populist
movement, he served as a congressman from 1879 to 1781 and 1885 to 1889. He was the
presidential candidate of the Greenback and People’s parties in 1892. Weaver was also a
former civil war general.
"Pitchfork" Ben Tillman: An U.S. Populist party leader born in South Carolina, he was
elected governor of South Carolina in 1890 and 1892, and he served on the U.S. Senate from
1894 to 1912. Very progressively minded, Tillman promoted many reform programs in
South Carolina, including better public education.
Mary Ellen Lease: She was a fiery lawyer from Wichita, Kansas who was very active in the
movements for agrarian and labor reform. She burst out on to the scene in the 1890's as a
spellbinding Southern alliance orator vehemently crying that the farmers needed to "raise
less corn and more hell."
"Sockless" Jerry Simpson: He was an intelligent rancher from Kansas who lost his stock
in the hard winter of 1886 to 1887, and he became a major Southern Alliance leader. When
he mentioned the expensive silk stockings of a conservative politician and remarked that he
could afford no such fineries a hostile newspaper editor named him "Sockless Jerry."
Ignatius Donnelly: A noted United States writer and a champion of the Populist Party,
Donnelly served as an U.S. Congressman from Minnesota from 1863 to 1869. He also wrote
Great Cryptogram in an attempt to prove that Francis Bacon wrote William Shakespeare's
works.
· WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN: Despite the fact that he was defeated three times for
the presidency of the United States, William Jennings Bryan, the principal figure of the
Populist party, molded public opinion as few leaders have done. A surprise to the public, he
polled many votes during the 1896 election, which may have been a direct result of his
"Cross of Gold Speech." For many years he was the leader of the Democratic party, and it
was his influence that won the Democratic presidential nomination for Wilson in 1912.
"Cross of Gold Speech": William Jennings Bryan won the national Democratic
convention's nomination for the presidency in 1896 through a vigorous appeal for free
coinage of silver known as the "Cross of Gold" speech. Turning to those who wanted only
gold as the monetary standard, he exclaimed: "You shall not crucify mankind upon this
cross of gold." As a Populist, he did not support the gold standard since it would deflate the
currency, which would make it more difficult for citizens to repay debts.
· ELECTION OF 1896, CANDIDATES, ISSUES: The presidential candidates were the
Republican William McKinley from Pennsylvania, and the Democrat William J. Bryan. The
Populists also supported Bryan for the presidency, but chose Tom Watson for the vice
presidency. The Republicans believed in the gold standard, while the Democrats believed in
bimetallism and the unlimited coinage of silver. McKinley won the election. The Populism
collapsed after 1896, but Progressivism emerged in its wake.
Marcus Hanna: He was an industrialist who became convinced that the welfare of industry,
and therefore the nation, was bound by the fortunes of the Republican party. To further his
goals he waged the most expensive political campaign the nation had ever seen to get
William McKinley elected president in 1896. He also served in the Senate.
Imperialism
As the 19th century came to a close, many voices cried for American expansionism to
match the imperialistic ambitions of Europe and Japan. The dream for global destiny was
justified by such logic as the expansion of overseas markets, desire for a stronger navy,
and the spreading of Christianity to uncivilized peoples around the globe. Eventually, this
expansionism translated into conflict, climaxing in 1898 with the Spanish-American War.
James G. Blaine, Pan-Americanism: As Secretary of State, Blaine fostered closer U.S.Latin American relations and brought about the first Pan-American Congress in order to
forge commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the 21
republics of North, Central, and South America.
Venezuelan boundary dispute: Venezuela had a dispute over its boundary with the
British Colony of Guiana. In 1895, while the British refused to resolve the issue, United
States Secretary of State Richard Olney sent a message to London declaring that the US
would be "practically sovereign on this content."
Bering Sea seal controversy: When the US purchased Alaska in 1867, it included some
small Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea. Congress leased the island to a US company
which killed seals with the understanding that they would not kill more than 10,000 male
seals per year. This led to the regulation of pelagic sealing in 1893.
"Yellow journalism": Two rival newspapers in New York City, William Randolph
Hearst’s Journal, and Joseph Pulitzer’s World, sensationalized editorializing on the issues
to increase circulation. One of Hearst’s gimmicks was "The Yellow Kid," which gave the
name of Yellow Journalism to this tactic.
Josiah Strong, Our Country: Reverend Josiah Strong wrote the book Our Country: Its
Possible Future and Present Crisis expressing his fears of the inability of relief
organizations to cope with the explosive growth of the urban poor in the 1870’s and
1880’s.
•Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890)
helped create and develop the expansionist movement. Mahan, former head of the Navy
War College at Newport, Rhode Island wanted to expand United States Navy to build an
isthmusian canal, and to establish strategic colonies as cooling stations, and to protect US
political and economic interests.
Samoa, Pago Pago: America’s Navy wanted to establish a port in the Samoan Islands, so
their ships could refuel in the island of Pago Pago. This was an example of the United
States Navy’s expansion efforts in the pacific. Their goal was to obtain more ports so
they could have more ships out on the ocean to control the seas.
Virginius: In 1873 a Spanish gunboat captured the Virginius, a ship fraudulently flying
the American flag, in Cuba. Secretary of State Fish and the Spanish minister came
together in Washington and signed a protocol bringing the end to the Virginius affairs.
Spain paid the US $80,000.
de Lôme letter: On February 8, 1898, Hearst’s Journal published a private letter written
by Spanish minister to the United States Depuy de Lôme regarding his reservations for
Cuban independence and disparaging President McKinley. Many Americans would have
agreed, but they resented hearing it from a Spanish diplomat.
Maine explodes: When an explosion rocked the Maine in Havana harbor on February 15,
1898, killing 266 American crewmen, irritation turned to outrage. A review of the
evidence later concluded that a ship-board ammunition explosion caused the blast. Still, a
navy inquiry blamed the blast on a "Spanish mine."
•Teller Amendment: The U.S. had been motivated o war in part by the desire to aid the
Cubans in their attempt to liberate themselves from the colonial rule of Spain. To this end
the Teller Ammendment was added to the Declaration of War. It speciffically prohibited
the annexation of Cuba, as a cause of the war.
· SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR: The Spanish-American War lasted just three months
with only a few days of actual combat. Action started on May 1, 1898, when George
Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines and seized or destroyed all ten
Spanish ships anchored there. The war ended after Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera
attempted to break through American forces losing 474 men. The Filipinos celebrated
their freedom from four hundred years of Spanish rule on July 4,1898.
Assistant Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt was appointed
as Assistant Secretary of the Navy by President William McKinley in 1897. Roosevelt
was an impatient disciple in the Spanish-American War, acting largely on his own. In
1898, Roosevelt resigned to become second in command of the Rough Riders.
Commodore Dewey, Manila Bay: The first action of the Spanish-American War came
in 1898 when Commodore George Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the
Philippines. This fleet destroyed and captured all ten Spanish ships that were assigned in
Manila Bay. One American and 381 Spanish men died in the attempt.
Cleveland and Hawaii: In 1887 the United States gained the right to establish a naval
port in Pearl Harbor. President Grover Cleveland was troubled with the crisis in Hawaii
since Hawaiians claimed to want annexation. However, once their queen was overthrown,
Hawaiians were uncertain if they wanted annexation at all.
Queen Liluokalani: Liluokalani was the Queen of Hawaii who did not like Americans
since they built their port in Pearl Harbor. Queen Liluokalani was overthrown when
Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40% and planters wanted the independent Republic of
Hawaii.
Annexation of Hawaii: In 1890 under the McKinley Tariff, domestic sugar growers
ended the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar. After Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40%
and Queen Liluokalani was overthrown, the Hawaiians decided to request United States
annexation.
Rough Riders, San Juan Hill: The battle of San Juan Hill was fought on July 1, 1898
during the American advance on Santiago during the Spanish-American War. A division
including the Rough Riders, under the command of General Kent, captured the hill,
placing the American army on high ground overlooking Santiago.
Treaty of Paris,
1898: The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War and developed an American
empire overseas. In the treaty, Spain agreed to abandon Cuba and exchange Puerto Rico,
Guam and the Philippines to America for $20 million. The treaty gave the United States a
new imperialistic reputation.
American Anti-Imperialist League: The critics of imperialism were many and
influential. Forming the Anti-Imperialist League, they believed that every country
captured by the U.S. had the same rights under the Constitution and the Declaration of
Independence.
Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico: By the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Spain
recognized Cuba’s independence and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific
Island of Guam to the United States in exchange for $20 million. As 1899 dawned
Americans possessed an island empire from the Caribbean to the Pacific.
Walter Reed: In 1900 Walter Reed was appointed to the Yellow Fever Commission as a
result of his investigation of the disease. After being sent to Cuba to find out more about
Yellow Fever, he discovered that the disease was carried by a mosquito. He later became
a curator at Army Medical Museum and a professor at Army Medical College.
Insular
Cases: The decisions regarding whether the Constitution applies to Puerto Rico and the
Philippines are known as the Insular Cases. They ruled that the residents are inhabitants
but not citizens of the United States. Because of this ruling, these countries were not
honored by the Constitution and were treated as colonies.
· Platt Amendment: Senator Orville Platt, at the request of the War department, made a
revised bill to remove some of the restrictions stated in the Teller Amendment. The Platt
Amendment stated that the United States would withdraw from Cuba if they did not sign
a treaty with any other foreign power. It also gave the United States the right to interfere
with Cuba if they believed that it was not a fit enough country to take care of itself. Also,
they established the right to hold a naval base in Cuba.
Protectorate: When a more powerful state controls the economy, foreign affairs, or
police power of another state, it is considered a protectorate. In the case of the United
States, Cuba was a protectorate as a result of the Platt Amendment. Other examples might
include Nicuaragua, the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands.
· Aguinaldo, Philippine insurrection: In 1896 Emilio Aguinaldo started a Filipino
movement for independence to get out of Spain’s control. When Spain surrendered,
Aguinaldo drew up a constitution and proclaimed the Philippines’s independence. When
the Treaty of Paris gave the United States power over the Philippines, Aguinaldo became
angry and tried to fight. He soon realized that he would lose and gave up.
Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes: John Hay’s Open Door Notes was a
policy that explained the importance of American commercial influence on foreign
policies. The Open Door Notes stated that the pre-thought "informal empire" was correct
as opposed to overseas colonies being favored by imperial power.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxers, a secret group of Chinese men known as I Ho Ch’uan,
opposed Christianity in their country. Numbering 140,000, the Boxers killed thousands of
foreigners as well as Chinese suspected of being Christian. British, American, Russian,
Japanese and French soldiers were sent to China to end the "Boxer Rebellion."
Extraterritoriality: Extraterritoriality is a principle in international law that allows
certain visiting foreign citizens or their property to be exempt from the laws of a host
nation. Foreign heads of states traveling abroad and diplomats representing their home
countries are examples of people benefiting from extraterritoriality.
Most favored nation clause: The most favored nation clause is a commercial treaty that
regulates special low tariffs on goods imported to the United States. All countries
awarded the Special Nation Status must be treated equally. Duties for the same group of
goods should be the same low regardless from which country signatory of the status they
are imported.
Roosevelt & Progressivism
Many intellectuals increasingly challenged the foundations of the social order. Voices of
reform thundered over the nation calling for democratic government, better cities, and
the curbing of corporate power. This movement, labeled progressivism, found its first
national leader in Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt actively pursued many of his goals:
labor mediation, consumer protection, conservation, business virtue, and activism
abroad. His successor, Taft, continued in Roosevelt’s aims but lacked his political genius.
Election of 1900: candidates and issues: William McKinley, the Republican candidate,
beat William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic candidate, for President. The Republican
campaign theme of prosperity, summed up in the slogan "A Full Dinner Pail," easily won
him a second term. McKinley had 284 electoral votes where as Bryan had 115.
· Roosevelt’s Big Stick diplomacy: One of Roosevelt’s most famous statements was
"speak softly and carry a big stick." An example of his meaning in this statement was
when Canada wanted the Alaskan land that America owned. They were fighting over the
boundaries because of gold found in the area. Roosevelt simply stated that if the
boundaries would change, there would be serious consequences. Because of his problem
solving method, Roosevelt was known to use "Big Stick" diplomacy.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty: The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 stated that both the United
States and Britain promised not to claim control over any canal built between the oceans
that separated their countries. This included the Panama Canal which America later took
over anyway.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty: In 1901, the United States planned to construct the Panama
Canal. This meant they would be in need of a new treaty. Secretary of State John Hay and
British Ambassador Sir Julian Pauncefote agreed on a new treaty that would drop
England’s claim on the canal.
Panama Revolution: Financed by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief agent of the New
Panama Canal Company, the Panama Revolution was a planned revolt by Panamanians
against Colombian occupation of the Isthmus of Panama. The United States did not
encourage the revolution, but it did make clear that it would not allow it to fail.
· The Panama Canal: When a French company supposed to build a canal across the
Isthmus of Panama went bankrupt, it offered to sell its assets to the United States. The
Hay-Herrán agreement, which would have granted the US a ninety-nine-year lease on a
strip of land for canal construction, was rejected by the Colombian senate. Determined to
have a canal, Roosevelt found a collaborator in Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who organized a
"revolution." After Panama was recognized, the canal building commenced.
Virgin Islands purchased: Denmark, in 1917, sold to the United States its West Indian
territories for $25 million, including the Virgin Islands. These islands, located at the
perimeters of the Caribbean, were of great military importance during the Second World
War. They mainly served to protect the US mainland as well as the Panama Canal.
Goethals and Gorgas: George Goethel was a civil engineer who directed a completion
of the Panama Canal. William Gorgas helped to make it possible to construct Panama
Canal by killing mosquitoes carrying yellow fever and malaria. Theodore Roosevelt later
appointed these men important positions in The Panama Canal Zone.
Venezuela Crisis, 1902: In 1902 the country's debts became so large that European
creditor nations blockaded Venezuela; the United States intervened to obtain arbitration
of the dispute. Castro's departure for Europe in 1908 opened the way for his deputy, Juan
Vicente Gomez, to seize power.
Drago Doctrine: Luis Maria Drago was an Argentine diplomat who formulated a
supplement to the Monroe Doctrine known as the Drago Doctrine. In 1902, Great Britain,
Germany, and Italy imposed a joint naval blockade on Venezuela in order to coerce that
country into paying its debts.
· Roosevelt Corollary: In 1904, Roosevelt created the Roosevelt Corollary to the
Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine justified U.S. intervention in the affairs of Latin
American nations if their weakness or wrongdoing warranted such action. An example of
this interference was the American intervention in Haiti when it was not wanted. The
document was primarily a pass for the US to interfere with other countries’ business
when it was not wanted nor needed.
U.S. intervention in Haiti: In 1915, President Woodrow Wilson sent the United States
Marines into Haiti. The purpose was to calm the anarchy that the US claimed existed in
the country. In 1916, Congress ratified a treaty that would allow the US ten years of
control over Haiti to maintain order and give political and economic assistance.
Dominican Republic: In 1915, after bloody upheavals in Haiti and the Dominican
Republic, Wilson ordered the marines. A Haitian constitution favorable to U.S.
commercial interests was ratified in 1918. The marines remained in the Dominican
Republic until 1924, and in Haiti until 1934.
Revolution in Nicaragua: In 1911 a US-supported revolution in Nicaragua brought to
power Adolfo Díaz, an officer of the American-owned Nicaraguan mining property.
American bankers loaned the Díaz government $15 million in exchange for control of
most of Nicaragua. When a revolt broke out, Roosevelt ordered in the marines.
Russo-Japanese War, Treaty of Portsmouth: The Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) was
the first conflict in which an Asian power defeated a European country. Fighting began
when the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur after Russia, which had
occupied Manchuria during the Boxer Uprising in China, refused to withdraw its troops.
San Francisco School Board Incident: American relations with Japan suffered when
the San Francisco school board, in 1906, ordered all Asian children to attend segregated
schools. Summoning the school-board members to Washington, Roosevelt persuaded
them to reverse this discriminatory policy.
Elihu Root: As secretary of war in the cabinets of William McKinley and Theodore
Roosevelt, Root reorganized the army and established the Army War College. As
Roosevelt's secretary of state from 1905 to 1909, he reformed the consular service,
improving US relations with Latin America, and sponsoring a series of arbitration
treaties.
Taft-Katsura Memo: By the Taft-Katsura Memo of 1905, the United States and Japan
pledged to maintain the Open Door principles in China. Japan recognized American
control over the Philippines and the United States granted a Japanese protectorate over
Korea.
· Gentleman’s Agreement: In the 1890’s, workers feared their jobs would be taken by
the Japanese immigrants and they wanted a law preventing any more immigrants to move
to the United States. In 1907 Japan proposed the Gentlemen’s Agreement which
promised that they would halt the unrestricted immigration if President Roosevelt
promised to discourage any laws being made that would restrict Japanese immigration to
the US.
Great White Fleet: This was a naval fleet that went on a voyage around the world. After
15 months, when the fleet returned, President Roosevelt met all the crew members
personally. The two objects of this voyage were being friendly with the nation’s allies but
also to show other nations the naval power of the United States.
Lodge Corollary: When a Japanese syndicate moved to purchase a large tract of land in
Mexico’s Lower California, Senator Lodge introduced a resolution to block the Japanese
investment. The Corollary went further to exclude non-European powers from the
Western Hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine.
Root-Takahira Agreement: In 1908, Japan and the United States signed the RootTakahira Agreement. Through this document the two nations promised not to seek
territorial gain in the Pacific. These two nations also promised to honor an open door
policy in China.
Lansing-Ishii Agreement, 1917: Robert Lansing, Secretary of State under President
Wilson, negotiated the Lansing-Ishii agreement on November 2, 1917 with Japan,
whereby the United States recognized Japan's special interests in China. However, the US
still felt they had a right to China.
Jones Act, 1916 (Philippines): In 1916, Congress passed the Jones Act which provided
for a government for the Philippines and committed the United States to granting Filipino
independence. The government created was based on the Constitutional model. In 1934, a
bill was finally passed to actually grant the Filipinos their independence.
Jones Act, 1917 (Puerto Rico): The Jones Act of 1917 was passed by the United States
to regulate trade in Puerto Rico. It established the Sea Land service to prevent carriers
and shippers from using unfair pricing practices. Its establishment encouraged parallel
pricing for all carriers.
Mexican Revolution, Díaz, Huerta, Carranza: Rebels, led by Francisco Madero in
1911, overthrew Porfirio Díaz. In 1913, Madero was overthrown by a military regime led
by Victoriano Huerta. The US refused to recognize Huerta’s government because it had
come to power violently. Eventually, this led to Mexican-American hostilities.
Mexican migration to the U.S.: In the period from 1877 to 1910 economic conditions
were worsening in Mexico. By 1914 more than 100,000 Mexicans had migrated to the
United States. These new immigrants found mainly in railroad industries and agriculture
where jobs were vacated by the war. They filled partly the US need for labor during war.
"watchful waiting": "Watchful waiting" refers to Wilson’s policy towards the events
unfolding in Europe. In effect, it was America’s policy of neutrality throughout most of
the First World War. This policy was taken although it was clear that the United States
had obvious ties to Britain and would likely favor it.
ABC Powers: The ABC powers consisted of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. In 1914, the
ABC powers called a conference to prevent a war between the United States and Mexico
caused by the Veracruz Incident. When president Carranza rejected the proposal for a
new Mexican government, the conference came to an end.
Pancho Villa, General Pershing: During the political turmoil of Mexico in 1916, bandit
Pancho Villa murdered 16 Americans, then burned down Columbus in New Mexico.
With the U.S. outraged, General John J. Pershing was sent with 12,000 troops to catch
Villa with no avail. Massive US response angered some Mexicans and led to hostilities.
Archangel expedition: In 1918, Allied forces landed in the port of Archangel, Russia to
defend Allied military stockpiles from German attack. Allied forces later became antiBolshevik and seized the port. Allies favored the Whites during the period of Russia’s
civil war. United States involvement in this campaign compromised American neutrality.
Democracy, efficiency, pragmatism: Democracy is a form of government in which a
substantial proportion of the citizenry directly or indirectly participates in ruling the state.
Pragmatism is a philosophical movement, developed in the United States, which holds
that both the meaning and the truth of any idea is a function of its practical outcome.
Wright Brothers, Kitty Hawk: Wilbur and Orville Wright created the modern field of
aeronautics. After over 200 calculations and tests at Kitty Hawk they built the first
practical airplane, marking the beginning of the individual progressive spirit. They were
highly honored internationally and a monument to them was built at Kitty Hawk.
"Muckrakers": Those American writers who early in the 20th century wrote both
fiction and nonfiction to expose corruption in business and politics were called the
muckrakers. Muckraker was a term first used by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906.
They were given this name because of their tendency to "spread the muck around."
Henry Demarest Lloyd, Wealth Against Commonwealth: A leading opponent of
business monopolies, Henry Demarest Lloyd was one of the pioneer muckrakers of the
late 19th century. He developed his antimonopoly theme as financial writer and editor at
the Chicago Tribune.
Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: Thorstein Veblen is best known for
his book The Theory of The Leisure Class (1899). Veblen’s book is a classic of social
theory that introduced the concept of "conspicuous consumption." Veblen continued to
write other books dealing with the same general theories.
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: A journalist, photographer, and reformer, Jacob
August Riis publicized the plight of immigrants in New York City slum tenements. His
photographs, articles, and books focused on the squalid living conditions of the city's
poor and spurred legislation to improve those conditions.
Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities: An eminent American reformer and
journalist, Joseph Lincoln Steffens, was a leader of the muckrakers. He wrote a series of
articles that documented corruption in American cities, asserting that some cities were
run by political bosses who remained in power with the help of powerful businessmen.
Frank Norris, The Octopus: The U.S. novelist Frank Norris was a noted pioneer of
naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology
on human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus (1901) and The Pit (1903), attacked
the railroad and wheat industries in the United States.
Ida Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company: As a Pennsylvania journalist, editor,
and biographer, Tarbell became famous as a muckraker through her well-documented
articles on political and corporate corruption in McClure's Magazine and American
Magazine.
David Graham Phillips, The Treason of the Senate: Author of many popular problem
novels of the early 20th century, Phillips was also a prominent journalist. His "Treason of
the Senate" series of articles (1906) in Cosmopolitan magazine were an important
contribution to the muckraking movement in American journalism.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Woman and Economics: Gilman was a leading American
feminist writer known for Woman and Economics (1898), a feminist classic she wrote. It
attacked the commonly accepted idea that women should be economically dependent on
men while suggesting alternatives such as cooperative kitchens and day-care programs.
John Dewey, The School and Society, "progressive education," "learn by doing":
Dewey’s ideas of progressive education, described in The School and Society, greatly
affected educational techniques. He founded the Laboratory School, a school in which
students learned of life by actively doing things rather than following a strict curriculum.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Supreme Court: Holmes was a professor of law at
Harvard who resigned to become a member of the Supreme Court. As a jurist he
interpreted the Constitution in a very liberal manner, earning him the name "the Great
Dissenter" among his colleagues.
Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts: The Boy and Girl Scouts, formed to educate the youth of
America, heavily embody Dewey’s concept of "learn by doing." They focused on
teaching children of their proper patriotic role in society and working to broaden the
horizons of their members though a number of varied activities.
Edward Ross: Ross wrote one of the first books dealing with social psychology. He
analyzed the transmission of social behavior through society by its transmission from one
person to another. His ideas conflicted with McDougall’s, another psychologist who
believed that the process of evolution created instinctive sociological behavior.
Richard Ely: Ely, a progressive economist, was an economics research professor at
Northwestern University. He founded the American Economic Association in 1899 and
was the first economist to suggest that government interference in regulation of the
national economic was not harmful but even sometimes helpful.
Initiative, referendum, recall: These were three types of progressive electoral reforms
passed by some western states. Initiative allowed voters to enact laws directly. The
referendum allowed voters to express their opinions of specific issues. Through recall
voters were able to directly remove public officials from office.
Direct primary: The direct primary was another progressive municipal reform. It
originated in Wisconsin (1903) and rapidly spread throughout the rest of the United
States. It provided that the members, not the leadership, of each party nominate the
party’s nominees for public office.
Australian ballot (secret ballot): Many electoral reforms gave voters greater control
over the government, especially at the ballot boxes where voters could be easily swayed.
By 1910 all states had replaced the corrupt system of preprinted ballots with a new secret
ballot, begun in Australia, which was much more difficult to rig.
Triangle Shirtwaist Co. fire: An accidental fire at the Traingle Shirtwaist Company
killed 141 workers. It prodded the concerns of many progressive reformers since the
workers, locked in the factory and unable to escape, were killed by brutal working
conditions. These concerns raised new questions of human and immigrant rights and of
existing labor laws.
International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU): This union of American
needle-trade workers launched drives to improve working conditions, end the practice of
workers paying for their own equipment, and raise working rates. It is remembered for
the militancy of its early organizational drives and its fight against sweatshops.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War the laws regulating many
aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in
this league in their fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23
states and in 1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
Square Deal: Roosevelt, on a speaking tour against the Northern Securities Company,
called for a "square deal." This progressive concept denounced special treatment for the
large capitalists and is the essential element to his trustbusting attitude. This deal
embodied the belief that all corporations must serve the general public good.
Forest Reserve Act, 1891: The Forest Reserve Act, strongly supported by Roosevelt and
Pinchot, created a system of national forests, consisting of approximately 200 million
acres, which were protected from the short-sighted greed Roosevelt saw in many large
companies. Through this act Roosevelt also enlarged Pinchot’s forest staff from 123 to
1,500 people.
Newlands Reclamation Act, 1902: Roosevelt drafted the Newlands Reclamation Act
when he noticed that decades of rapid industrial growth had destroyed much of the
limited natural resources of the land. It insured that all natural resources would be
managed by experts. Funding came from public-land sales and was used to build
irrigation projects.
Conservation conference, 1908: As Roosevelt’s conservative trend began to permeate
through the public mind, he began to create several groups to raise public awareness of
nature and the necessity of conservation. The first meeting was of the White House
Conservation Conference, followed by the National Conservation Commission.
Anthracite coal strike, 1902, George F. Baer: The Anthracite coal strike was the first
strike in which the government became involved but did not side with the management.
Roosevelt instead mediated a series of negotiations between the strikers and the owners
over issues of wages, safety conditions, and union recognition.
Elkins Act, 1903, rebates: The Interstate Commerce Commission was initially created to
regulate the economy for the federal government. It was not originally given enough
power to regulate the monopolized railroad system. The Elkins Act strengthened the ICC
by stiffening penalties against secret railroad rebates to favored shippers.
Hepburn Act, 1906: The Hepburn Act, in conjunction with the Elkins Act, granted the
Interstate Commerce Commission enough power to regulate the economy. It allowed the
ICC to set freight rates and, in an attempt to reduce the corruption in the railroad industry,
to require a uniform system of accounting by regulated transportation companies.
Mann-Elkins Act, 1910: The Mann-Elkins Act further extended the regulatory ability of
the ICC. It allowed them to regulate cable and wireless companies dealing with telephone
and telegraph lines. The ICC was also given greater rate-setting power as well as the
ability to begin court proceedings against companies disputing the new rates.
· "trustbuster": Teddy Roosevelt, deeply conservative at heart, did not want to destroy
the big corporations that he saw necessary to American life. He did, however, believe that
they must be held to strict moral standards. He earned the "trustbuster" name when he
filed suit against the Northern Securities Company, followed by 43 other cases. He left
many of the larger companies serving the public good alone, but he broke up many other
large, monopolistic companies in the interests of American welfare and economy.
Northern Securities Co. case: This was the first company Roosevelt filed suit against in
his trustbusting stage. It was a large holding company formed by railroad and banking
interests. In 1902 Roosevelt "trustbusted" them by claiming they violated the Sherman
Anti-Trust Act in holding money against the public good. The company was dissolved.
Meat Inspection Act: The Meat Inspection Act was passed by Roosevelt as a strong
response to Sinclair's book describing the conditions of food as well as wartime scandals
in 1898 concerning spoiled canned meats. It created strict sanitary requirements for meat,
began a quality rating system, and provisioned for a federal department to inspect meat.
Immunity of Witness Act: The Immunity of Witness Act, passed in 1906, prevented
corporate officials from pleading immunity in cases concerning their own corporation’s
illegal activities. Previously, many officials used this immunity plea to avoid testifying in
any way concerning their actions.
W.E.B. DuBois: For more than 50 years W.E.B. DuBois, a black editor, historian, and
sociologist, was a leader of the civil rights movement in the United States. He helped
found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and
was its outstanding spokesman in the first decades of its existence.
Niagara movement: At a meeting in Niagara Falls, Ont., in 1905, W.E.B. DuBois and
other black leaders who shared his views founded the Niagara Movement. Members of
the Niagara group joined with concerned liberal and radical whites to organize the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
Springfield Ill riot, 1908: The period of Booker T. Washington represented a period of
increasing anti-black violence. The large anti-black riot in Springfield in 1908 was
representative of the peak of a period of harsh discrimination, white resentment of black
advances, and mass public segregation.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The
NAACP was an organization founded in 1909 by blacks and whites under such leaders as
W.E.B. DuBois to safeguard civil, legal, economic, human, and political rights of black
Americans. It lobbied for legislation, sponsored educational programs, and engaged in
protest actions.
The Crisis: The Crisis was the magazine of the NAACP. It generally reflected the views
of the blacks and whites who headed the NAACP. W.E.B. DuBois was editor of The
Crisis from 1910 to 1934. He often wrote that Blacks should develop industry and
business separate from the white economy in order prove their non-dependence on white
society
Brownsville Incident: Roosevelt, though not as racist a president as those before him,
did not have a perfect record. In 1906 he discharged an entire regiment of blacks accused
of rioting in Brownsville. This unfair and illegal action was later reversed by Congress
once all involved parties had died.
Upton Sinclair, The Jungle: Sinclair was an American writer and reformer who wrote
The Jungle. This book exposed the unsanitary working conditions in the stockyards of
Chicago, eventually leading to an investigation of both working conditions and the
conditions of food. It eventually led to the enactment of the Pure Food Act.
Pure Food and Drug Act: The Pure Food and Drug Act, enacted through the efforts of
Harvey Wiley and Sinclair in 1906, gave consumers protection from dangerous and
impure foods. All products must be clearly labeled and must explain a product which
cannot be seen or judged by a consumer. This act solved problems concerning
fraudulently labeled items.
Panic of 1907: Roosevelt’s constant trustbusting of large corporations caused
questionable bank speculations, a conservative gold standard, and strict credit policies,
eventually leading to the Panic of 1907. This panic brought the need for banking reform
to the forefront of political activity, finally culminating in the Federal Reserve Act.
Election of 1908: candidates, issues: The Republican platform consisted of Taft and
Sherman. They ran for continued anti-trust enforcement, conservation, and increased
international trade. William Jennings Bryan ran for the Democratic Party on a similar
anti-trust platform. The Socialist Party was represented by Eugene Debs. Taft easily won.
Mark Hanna: Hanna was a successful American politician and businessman. He helped
manage several campaigns including the Republican presidential nomination of
McKinley. Hanna was later selected chairman of the Republican National Committee, an
organization he used to collect a large war chest to assist in McKinley’s election.
Scientific management, Frederick W. Taylor: Taylor was an engineer who first
integrated scientific management with business. He became foreman of the Midvale Steel
Company in 1878 and used mathematics to determine maximum industrial productivity,
using time and motion studies to find what each worker should for the highest efficiency.
Wisconsin, "laboratory of democracy": La Follette enacted sweeping changes during
his governorship of Wisconsin in 1900. He adopted a direct primary system, began to
regulate the railroads in his state, increased corporate taxes, and passed other progressive
reform legislation. He also created a legislative reference library for lawyers.
· Robert M. La Follette: La Follette, initially a Republican in Congress, broke from this
party in 1924 when he realized big business was dangerously out of control. The
populace agreed with this opinion by electing him governor as an independent. He took
the reform movement, previously only found at the municipal level, to new heights, the
state. The new state level of regulation had some inherit problems, but as the progressive
movement entered the national government, these problems were solved.
Regulatory commissions: As the Progressive Era advanced, regulatory commissions
became more prevalent and numerable. The excesses of the monopolistic railroad
companies became known to all. In an effort to end the abuses of the rich capitalists
regulatory commissions were created to divide the concentrated wealth.
Jane Addams, Hull House: Addams was a prominent social reformer in the US and
Europe. In 1889 she created Hull House in Chicago, a settlement home designed as a
welfare agency for needy families. It also tried to teach immigrants English customs.
Addams also played an important role in the National Progressive party.
Florence Kelley, consumerism: Kelley was largely responsible for the regulation of
child labor. She saw its evils as a resident in Hull House for several years. In 1899 she
was selected general secretary of the National Consumers’ League, which used organized
consumer boycotts and strikes to force improved factory conditions.
home rule for cities: Home rule was a new form of city government other than the
mayor-council form that emerged in the Progressive Era. Under this form of government
the city was run by a committee of three elected commissioners. They locally ran the
county rather than allowing the state to handle affairs.
· Municipal Reform: The beginning of the Progressive Era is marked by a great increase
in municipal reform. Nearly all elements of the urban population participated in these
reform efforts. The middle class began the movement and was the core of urban
beautification. Businessmen pushed for citywide elections and for the city-manager
system of government. In reforms concerning the commoners, even the political bosses
assisted. This municipal level reform soon moved to the state level.
Tom Johnson, Sam (Golden Rule) Jones, Brand Whitlock, Hazen Pingree: These
were all progressives who reformed the political process. Johnson reformed public
ownership of utilities in Chicago. San Jones reformed profit sharing and education in
Toledo, Ohio. Pingree reformed taxes, the honesty in government, and beautified his city.
City manager plan, commission plan: This form of government replaced the traditional
mayor/council version in several cities. It began in Texas when progressives removed the
corrupt mayor and council, replacing them with five elected commissioners. They were
experts in rebuilding the ruined city, which is what they were elected to do.
Daniel Hudson Burnham, 1909 Chicago Plan: Burnham, in conjunction with John
Root, built the first steel-frame buildings that later developed into modern skyscrapers.
Burnham was the designer of the famous Chicago Plan, a plan in which many beautiful
pre-skyscraper buildings were designed in Chicago.
William Howard Taft: As president, Taft focused primarily on a continuation of trustbusting and reuniting the old conservatives and young progressives of the Republican
Party. Taft also strongly supported a national budgetary system. He was unable to reunite
the two parties and, as a result, the Democratic party swept the 1912 elections.
Department of Labor (from 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of
Corporations also in 1903): This department was created in 1913 with the intention of
assisting the welfare and working conditions of the general worker. It was empowered to
investigate and report illegal corporative activities.
Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 1909: This tariff was initially intended to lower several other
tariffs, but after numerous compromises in the Senate it became a protective measure.
Many Progressive reformers considered this a sign that the companies and various special
interests were preventing consumer prices from reaching reasonable levels.
Ballinger-Pinchot controversy: Pinchot charged that Ballinger was giving the nation's
natural resources to private corporate interests. Under investigation it was found that
Ballinger did nothing illegal though he did bend the government's environmental policies.
Since Taft have given him support, Taft lost standing with the progressive Republicans.
Insurgents: Insurgents was a nickname for a small group of reformist Republicans. This
group, including La Follette and Norris, turned against Taft after his passage of the 1909
tariff and completely separated after he supported the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. The
separation between progressive and conservative republicans was caused by this group.
Uncle Joe Cannon (Old Guard): Cannon was a Republican who served as Speaker of
the House from 1903 to 1911. He strongly opposed many progressive reforms and was
thus not very popular in the house. Progressives and Democrats joined to remove much
of his power in 1910, allowing the Republican-Democratic coalition to run the Senate.
Senator George Norris: Norris was a reformist senator who favored federal regulation
of public utilities. Through a change in House rules he ended the rule of the Speaker of
the House Joseph Cannon. He also created the Tennessee Valley Authority, a dam
building company. As he ignored the limitations of party politics he slowly lost support.
Rule of reason: Standard Oil case, American Tobacco case: In 1911 a progressive
interpretation of the Sherman Act was enacted by the Supreme Court. According to this
"rule of reason" principle, only "unreasonable" combinations restraining trade were
illegal. This interpretation emerged when the court broke these two companies into
smaller firms.
· "dollar diplomacy": In an effort to avoid Roosevelt’s "big stick" economic policy,
President Taft sought to avoid military confrontation by using money to increase foreign
interest in the US. He planned to donate large sums of money to generate economic,
social, and political stability in Latin America rather than sending the military to force
stability. His efforts were largely a failure as most of the money never reached the actual
people of Latin America. Most of the money was stolen by corrupt government officials.
Secretary of State Knox: Knox was responsible for the creation of the Latin American
Division of the State Department. He planned to promote better relation, but the US kept
a portion of the military in the Dominican Republic. This was planned to quiet
revolutionary thoughts and to prevent foreign financial problems.
Manchurian railroad scheme: In an attempt to force Japan and Russia to sell their land
in Manchuria for railroad investment, President Taft moved to construct his own
competing rail system. China refused to approve Taft’s plan and Japan and Russia began
to grow suspicious of the US’s motives.
Roosevelt’s Osawatomie, Kansas speech: The differences between Taft and Roosevelt
were revealed in Roosevelt’s 1910 Osawatomie "New Nationalism" speech. Roosevelt
unveiled a plan in which he called for a protection of welfare over property, opposing
Taft’s support of numerous tariffs as well as the Old Guard in Congress.
Taft-Roosevelt split: In 1912 the Democrats finally regained control of the presidency
due to the Taft-Roosevelt split. Taft’s inability to associate with the progressive elements
of his party convinced Roosevelt to return. Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party and
thus siphoned enough votes to cause the Republicans to lose the election.
Bull Moose Party: This party, formally known as the Progressive Party, was created by
Theodore Roosevelt after his split with Taft. It was created in his anger of Taft being
nominated in the Republican Party. They advocated primary elections, woman suffrage,
and prohibition of child labor. They outpolled the Republicans but lost to the Democrats.
Progressivism to Wilson
In 1912, the divided Republicans were no match for the united Democrats. Woodrow
Wilson easily glided to victory as the Democrats also took both houses of Congress.
Except on the issue of race, the election identified the party firmly with reform for the rest
of the century. Wilson’s agenda included tariff reform, banking and currency reform,
corporate regulation, and labor legislation. Four amendments to the Constitution within
the span of eight years demonstrated the efficiency of the progressive impulse.
· Woodrow Wilson, New Freedom: The Democratic Party, to which Wilson belonged,
had a past history of 45 ballots without a nomination. To overcome this stumbling block
the Democrats united with the Progressives, running under a compromise platform.
Wilson’s "New Freedom" campaign was concerned with progressive programs similar to
both parties. He did not, however, support trustbusting in the same way that Roosevelt
did. To him, all big business was morally evil and should be broken up.
· Theodore Roosevelt, New Nationalism: In the election of 1912 Roosevelt was
nominated under a platform nicknamed "The New Nationalism." This platform followed
the previous trustbusting and regulation trend as well as alleviating many common
progressive concerns such as child labor, woman’s suffrage, and minimum wages. A
Federal Trade Commission was also planned to regulate the economy. This platform was
essentially identical with many of the progressive reforms later passed under Wilson.
Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life: Croly best captured the nature of
progressivism in this book. He dreamed of an activist government which would serve all
citizens. Specifically, he suggested a redefinition of government, democracy, and
individualism. Roosevelt copied many of his ideas for his New Nationalism platform.
· Election of 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, Debs - issues: The election of 1912 was
very interesting for most Americans since there were 4 active political parties. Roosevelt
tried to run with the Republican Party, but Taft was chosen. He left and created the
Progressive Party. Wilson ran with the Democratic Party. Debs continued to run on the
Socialist platform. All of the platforms dealt primarily with economic reform, indicating
the change that Americans wanted. Debs even received 900,000 votes.
Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party: Eugene V. Debs was an American Socialist leader and
five time presidential candidate. In 1897 he created the Social Democratic Party of
America. He received nearly one million votes for president while he was imprisoned in
jail. His Socialist party was quite popular until it splintered apart along internal divisions.
Daniel DeLeon, IWW, Wobblies, "Big Bill" Haywood: The Industrial Workers of the
World, nicknamed the "Wobblies," was a radical labor group formed by "Big Bill"
Haywood. They were never large, but they captured many people’s imaginations as they
preached revolution. Though they won several strikes, they were more rhetoric than
action.
National Monetary Commission: The National Monetary Commission examined
monetary data collected by the Pujo Committee and recommended a new form of
banking. This advice, suggesting a secure Treasury reserve and branch banks, later
became the Federal Reserve System, used to adjust the value of money to keep the
economy stable.
Edgar Lee Masters, Spoon River Anthology: Edgar Lee Master’s poems are unique in
that they are presented as the voices of a town’s graveyard talking about their lives. His
work’s realism and irony contrast with the romantic and sentimental trends in progressive
literature, demonstrating the revolt against conventional social standards that was
beginning.
D. W. Griffith, The Birth of a Nation: D. W. Griffith revolutionized the field of motion
pictures after his production of The Birth of a Nation in 1915. This story demonstrated
the power of film propaganda and the racist effects it had on people. It also began a trend
towards hour-long, dramatic, well-acted films.
Edwin Porter, The Great Train Robbery: The Great Train Robbery, produced by Edwin
Porter in 1903, was the first major American film. It used new innovations such as the
intercutting of scenes shot in different settings. These scenes were later unified to form a
coherent narrative ending in a scene of suspense.
Nickelodeons: Nickelodeons, movies costing a nickel each, became extremely popular in
the Progressive Era due to the freedom they offered children from parents. Immigrant
children could easily imagine away their restrictive home conditions. Noticing the lack of
moral oversight, many progressives moved to create censorship boards for these films.
Scott Joplin, Ragtime: Scott Joplin was a pianist and one of the most important
developers of ragtime music. He believed that ragtime should evolve into an indigenous
black American opera style. His 1899 release of "Maple Leaf Rag" was the beginning of
popular ragtime music.
Eugenics movement: The Eugenics movement is one of the best examples of
progressive ideas contradicting science. Some Americans believed that the society could
be improved by controlled breeding. They accomplished this by sterilizing many
criminals and sex offenders. The right to do so was upheld in the court case Buck v. Bell.
Mary Ritter Beard, Charles A. Beard, Historical revisionism: Mary and Charles were
two historians that pioneered a new perspective on history. They each believed that
history must be reexamined from a modern perspective and that the economic, political,
and social threads of present time must be followed back to generate a clearer picture.
Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: This book, published in 1916, is a
preview to the ideas later espoused by Adolf Hitler. Written in the Progressive Era, this
book calls for absolute racial segregation, immigrant restriction, and a forced eugenics
movement by crime and by race type.
Billy Sunday: Billy Sunday was an American Fundamentalist preacher and professional
baseball player. He conducted regular ‘revivals’ throughout the nation, in which he used
broadcasting to strengthen people’s bond with Christianity. The broadcasts of his revivals
are considered among the most effective ever.
Margaret Sanger: Sanger was a leader among birth-control advocates. She attacked the
Comstock Law, a law which prevented the distribution of birth control. In 1916 she
opened the first American birth-control facility. She was convicted for this "public
nuisance," won an appeal, and eventually gained the right for birth-control.
Sixteenth Amendment: The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, is an obvious
indicator to the Progressive era in which it was passed. It authorized the income tax
thereby allowing the Underwood-Simmons Tariff of 1913 to lower many tariffs. This
amendment invalidated an earlier Supreme Court decision calling the income tax was
unconstitutional.
Seventeenth Amendment: The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, moved the
election of senators from the state legislatures to the general populace. It followed the
ideas already laid down by the Australian secret ballot and the direct primary. This law
was intended to create a more democratic, fair society in the eyes of progressives.
Eighteenth Amendment: The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, prohibited the
non-medical sale of alcohol. This amendment resulted from intense efforts among various
women’s movements, proving to the nation that women could effect political changes.
This amendment is the midpoint of a growing drive towards women’s rights.
Nineteenth Amendment: The Nineteenth Amendment, granting women the vote in
1920, is a logical progression from the prohibition movement. As women felt their power
in politics increasing, they began to demand the ability to vote from their male peers. In
the spirit of progressivism they were granted the vote in 1920.
Charles Evans Hughes: Charles Evans Hughes was an American jurist and statesmen.
As governor of New York he eliminated much of the corruption in government, passing
many progressive reform measures. He served as the chief justice of the Supreme Court
in the depression years of the 1930s and supported many aspects of Roosevelt’s liberal
New Deal.
Pujo Committee: The Pujo Committee researched and later reported on the
concentration of money and credit over the general populace. They found that the money
and credit of the US is localized inside a small group of rich capitalists. This committee’s
findings later led to the creation of the Federal Reserve Banking system.
Federal Reserve Act: The Federal Reserve Act was a compromise designed to stabilize
the currency in the US. It split the US into 12 regions with one Federal bank in each
region. Commercial banks bought stock from this bank. The discount rate at which the
federal bank lent the money determined the interest rate.
Underwood-Simmons Tariff: The Underwood-Simmons Tariff reduced the tariffs from
the Payne-Aldrich Tariff to about 29%. It included a graduated income tax, made legal by
the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, to correct for this monetary loss. Wilson,
noticing that it followed his principle of "New Freedom," heavily advocated it.
Income tax: The income tax, originally declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court,
was later ratified as the Sixteenth Amendment. This new power was first used in the
Tariff Act of 1913 which set the tax of corporate income at 1%. It also levied a 1% tax on
all rich families. Income tax has been greatly increased as tariffs have been lowered.
Federal Trade Commission, cease and desist orders: The Federal Trade Commission,
created by the Federal Trade Commission Act, promoted free and fair trade competition.
It investigated economically unfair business practices and regulated these. The
commission also regularly generated statistics of economic and business conditions to the
public.
· Clayton Antitrust Act, labor’s Magna Carta (?): The Clayton Act was designed to
clarify the Sherman Antitrust Act in terms of new economic issues that had arisen.
Practices such as local price-cutting and price discrimination were made illegal. The right
of unions to strike, boycott, and picket was also confirmed. This act would have been
labor’s Magna Carta had it been followed, but unfavorable court interpretations rendered
many of its pro-labor sections powerless without further legislation.
Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan: From 1913-1915, Bryan served as
Secretary of State to Wilson. The US’s stubbornness on the issue of neutrality rights led
Bryan to resign his position in 1915. He felt that instead of insisting on passenger’s
rights, the United States should keep Americans off belligerent ships, a differing view on
neutrality.
arbitration treaties: The arbitration treaties were negotiated by Secretary of State Root
with 25 other nations. International disputes could be deferred to the Hague Tribunal as
stipulated by the arbitration treaties. An example of such a treaty is the Anglo-Japanese
Alliance. The treaties were undermined by disputes of individual national interests.
Panama Tolls dispute: In 1912, the United States passed a bill that would exempt the
United States from payment in the use of the Panama Canal. Great Britain opposed the
move saying it violated the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. After some dispute the United
States eliminated the exemption clause and the president signed the bill in 1914.
Colonel House: Colonel Edward M House was part of the Wilson administration and
served as an advisor to the president. He later was part of the Roosevelt administration
and was involved in New Deal legislation taking his traditional Wilsonian democracy to
the New Deal era and its actions.
Louis Brandeis, "Brandeis brief": In 1916, Woodrow Wilson appointed Louis
Brandeis, a Jew, to the Supreme Court, which was briefly opposed because of antiSemitism. In 1908 in Muller v. Oregon, his Brandeis brief provided evidence as to why
women need limited work hours. This represented the Court’s adapting to the new,
changing industrial society.
La Follette Seaman’s Act: Passed in 1915, the La Follette Seaman’s Act improved
working and living conditions as well as making ships safer. It applied to US ships as
well as any ship docked in a US port. Included provisions regulating work hours, as well
as pay and food quality. The act was designed to attract Americans to ocean occupations.
Keating-Owen Act: The Keating-Owen Act, passed in 1915, attempted to prevent the
problem of child labor. It forbade interstate shipment of products whose production was
due to the labor of children under fourteen or sixteen. This law was particularly important
because it was the first attempt by Congress to regulate interstate commerce.
Workmen’s Compensation Act: The Workmen’s Compensation Act heightened the
rights of employees to bring legal action against their employers for injuries. Prior to this
act, the employee had to prove they were not at fault and that it was not a normal risk.
This act created scales of compensation for any injury, regardless to the party
responsible.
Federal Warehouse Act: Wilson heavily supported the Federal Warehouse Act, which
allowed farmers to more easily secure long-term, low-interest credit, using land or crops
as the loan security, from regional Farm Loan Banks. Prior to the passage of this act,
farmers had to use actual money or property as security, making loans harder to obtain.
Federal Highways Act, 1916: The Federal Highways Act of 1916 was pushed by Wilson
and supported by the Democratic congress. It stated that federal funds would match
appropriations made by states funds for highway construction. This aided the automobile
industry and allowed for the existence of more cars.
Adamson Act, 1916: The Adamson Act of 1916 was a compromise that avoided a
railroad strike. It set an eight hour day for interstate railroad workers with a salary of one
and a half for overtime work. The act signaled a major victory for railroad workers. An
example of Wilson’s sympathy to labor and was one of his important worker protection
laws.
Smith-Lever Act: The Smith-Lever Act, enacted in 1914, created a system of
agricultural extension work funded by federal grants. Students not in college benefited
because they were taught agricultural skills by county agents. It was part of the
governments plan to encourage a growth in American agriculture.
Smith- Hughes Act: The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 created the Federal Board for
Vocational Education to encourage agricultural growth. Furthermore, it gave the federal
government greater control over education because it required that states submit
proposals for education to a federal board.
First World War
When war burst upon Europe in August 1914, most Americans wanted no part. Wilson
immediately proclaimed American neutrality and called on the nation to be neutral "in
thought and in action." Yet the United States and Britain were linked by extensive
economic ties and many Americans felt close emotionally with the British. Fearing a
world dominated by imperial Germany, and seething over violation of neutral rights on
the seas, Wilson declared war in 1917.
"Sick man of Europe," Ottoman Empire, Balkan Wars: The ancient Ottoman empire
had lost its grip throughout the late 1800’s. In the Balkan Wars, Balkan States gained
their independence from the Ottoman Empire, called the "sick man of Europe." From it,
the newly independent nations of Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia were created.
Triple Entente: Allies: Beginning in the early 1900’s, Britain, France and Russia had
signed treaties with each other. After Austria declared war on Serbia, Germany declared
war on the allies (Russia and France), in turn drawing Great Britain into the war. This
system of alliances had escalated what was once a localized incident.
Triple Alliance: Central Powers: The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, AustriaHungary, as well as Italy. Germany, with its blank check provision to Austria- Hungary,
had in encouraged the war declaration on Serbia. Afterwards, Germany declared war on
Russia and France, Serbia’s allies by treaties.
loans to the Allies: In total, the United States lent the Allies over $10 billion. Great
Britain owed the United States over $4.2 billion by the end of the war. This great
indebtedness led to conflict later when the United States attempted to collect. Also, it led
to increased reparations for Germany because of allied indebtedness.
British blockade: In an attempt to win the war of attrition that was World War I, Great
Britain utilized its sizable navy to blockade all trade going in and out of Germany.
Germany responded with its U-boats, eventually going on the offensive in 1917 by itself
blockading Britain at the cost of American involvement.
Lusitania, Arabic pledge, Sussex pledge: In 1915, the British Lusitania was sunk
bringing protests from Wilson. The Arabic was sunk in the same year and Germans
followed with the Arabic pledge promising to stop attacks on passenger vessels. In 1916,
Germans sunk the Sussex and made the Sussex pledge to promise a stoppage of attacks.
election of 1916: Hughes, Wilson, issues: Wilson ran for reelection for the Democrats
on the call that he had kept the United States out of the war. Charles Evans Hughes was
the Republican candidate who attacked the inefficiency of the Democratic Party. Wilson
won the election, so was able to continue his idealistic policies.
unrestricted submarine warfare: On January 31, 1917, Germany announced it would
resume unrestricted submarine warfare, a repudiation of the Sussex pledge, and sink all
ships without warning whatsoever. This action was backed by the German belief that this
would lead it to victory before the Americans could become involved in the war.
· Zimmerman Note: Also known as the Zimmerman Telegram, the Zimmerman note
was a message intercepted by British intelligence from Germany to Mexico in 1917
proposing that in the event of a German war with the United states, Mexico should attack
the US. It would be a Mexican opportunity to retake the Mexican Cession. This was one
of a few events which led to widespread public support for the Allies and eventual United
States involvement in the World War.
Russian Revolutions, 1917, March and Bolshevik: In March 1917 a revolution
overthrew Russia’s tsarist regime. The second Revolution, commonly called the October
Revolution, was an armed coup organized by the Bolshevik party. These revolutions were
caused by and led to Russia pulling out of World War I.
war declared, April 1917: On March 2, 1917, President Wilson called a special
Congressional session for April 2, in which he proposed the declaration of war against
Germany. The declaration was passed by the Senate by a vote of 82 to 6 and in the House
by a vote of 373 to 50 before it was then signed by Wilson.
Wilson’s "Peace without victory": In 1916 President Wilson called for a "peace
without victory." His words were a call to the European nations to stop the conflict based
on a balance of power and to form a peace in which nations together would keep the
peace. Wilson foresaw the vengeful atmosphere that would follow a prolonged war.
"Make the world safe for democracy": "Make the world safe for democracy" was
Wilson’s famous line justifying United States involvement in the World War. It was
based on the belief that from this international power struggle, a democratic revolution
could arise. In other words, a new democratic world order led by the United States would
follow.
· Creel Committee: The Committee on Public Information, formed in 1917, was headed
by journalist George Creel. At the beginning of the first World War, Americans sided
with neutrality. The CPI was a propaganda committee that built support for the war effort
in Europe among Americans. It depicted Germans and other enemies on bad terms, and
served to censor the press. Anything German was frowned upon. The Creel Committee,
or CPI, was successful in raising widespread American support for the war effort.
bond drives: Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo organized the raising of funds,
or Liberty Loans, necessary for the war with five campaigns between 1917 and 1919 with
much excitement. People felt obliged to buy bonds because they were afraid of being
seen as unpatriotic. Eventually, they raised over $21 billion for the war.
War Industries Board: Created in July 1917, the War Industries Board controlled raw
materials, production, prices, and labor relations. It also encouraged production by
allocating raw materials, standardizing manufactured products, instituting strict
production and purchasing controls, and paying high prices to businesses.
Bernard Baruch: Bernard Baruch was a Wall Street broker before being chosen by
President Wilson in 1918 to head the War Industries Board. He was aided by a coalition
of 100 businessman who advised him on fiscal policy. This was part of Wilson’s effort to
take stronger action in the war effort.
Herbert Hoover, Food Administration: The Food Administration was created in 1917
as part of the war effort, and a response to the poor harvests of 1916 and 1917. Headed by
Herbert Hoover, it set prices for agricultural goods high to encourage the production of
agricultural products. It encouraged conservation with such days as "meatless Tuesdays."
Espionage Act, 1917; Sedition Act, 1918: The Espionage Act of 1917 enacted fines and
imprisonment for false statements, inciting rebellion, or obstructing recruitment or the
draft. Also papers which opposed the government could be banned from the U.S. postal
service. The Sedition Act of 1918 made illegal any criticism of the government. It was
poorly applied and used to trample civil liberties during the war hysteria as in the
example of the imprisonment of Eugene Debs.
Eugene V. Debs imprisoned: Eugene Debs was questionably imprisoned and was given
a 10 year prison term for giving a speech at a Socialist’s convention. The speech
criticized American policy, involvement in the war and for warning of the dangers of war
and militarism. His imprisonment was an example of the reactionism and hysteria of the
period.
AEF: From 1917-1918, the AEF, or American Expeditionary Force, sent 2 million men
to France under General John J. Pershing. Most enlisted in search of action and
adventure. The United States insisted the AEF be independent of French and English
armies because it was believed the U.S. would have a stronger bargaining voice with a
separate army.
selective service: As part of US mobilization for war, on May 18, 1917, the Selective
Service Act was passed. Men from 21-30 were to register for the military. At the time,
the United States military was in poor disarray and men were desperately needed. Made
into a party-like atmosphere, 24 million registered, and 3 million were actually drafted.
Eddie Rickenbacker: Rickenbacker was an American Aviator during World War I.
During the war, he served in the US Air Service as commander of the 94th Aero Pursuit
Squadron. Shooting down 22 planes, he was America’s leading pilot. He received the
Distinguished Service Cross as well as the Congressional Medal of Honor.
Postwar Aims
During the war, Wilson believed that United States involvement would translate into a
new democratic world order. In a fourteen-point speech to Congress, Wilson summed up
United States war aims and its noble objectives. November 1918 saw the war grind to a
halt. The peace conference, held at Versailles in 1919, was dominated by conflict among
the "Big Four," and the resulting treaty proved a disaster. Ultimately, Wilson failed in his
most cherished objective, American membership in the League of Nations.
aims of Allies and US at peace conference: The main goal of Wilson and the American
delegation was to secure an international peacekeeping organization; a peace based on
Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The aims of the other allies were not as liberal as that of the
US. The enormous reparations settled on was representative of this atmosphere.
· Fourteen Points: The Fourteen Points were Wilson’s proposals and beliefs for a postwar world order. They dealt with the things that led to the first World War. For example,
the first points called for open treaties, freedom of the seas, arms reduction and free trade.
The other points dealt with self determination and finally a general association of nations,
the League of Nations. During the conference of Versailles, Wilson pushed the Fourteen
points and was partly successful.
· Versailles Conference and Treaty: The Big Four dominated the conference in 1919
that determined the postwar world order. Wilson promoted his Fourteen Points while
other Allies sought vengeance. The treaty found Germany liable for the war and
established new nations based on self determination. It also made German colonies
mandates under the League of Nations and included the controversial article X that kept
the US out of the League. These provisions set the stage for World War II.
US Versailles delegation: The delegation was headed by President Wilson himself, and
included Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker Bliss, Colonel Edward M.
House, and attorney Henry White. Blatantly missing from the delegation were any
Republican leaders, so the conference became not an American but a Democratic affair.
Big Four: Wilson, George, Clemenceau, Orlando: The Big Four were the dominating
four at the Versailles conference after World War I. President Woodrow Wilson
represented the United States, Lloyd George for Britain, Clemenceau for France, and
Vittorio Orlando represented Italy. Each had a different prerogative and differing
interests.
· League of Nations: The organization promoted by Wilson in his Fourteen Points was
the League of Nations. The US never joined because of controversy over Article X of the
League Covenant that took away the United States’s freedom of determination in world
affairs. Implemented at the Versailles conference, it existed from 1920 to 1946, meeting
in Geneva, Switzerland, until it was taken over by the United Nations. After WWI, it
divided German colonies into mandates of various League members.
· collective security: Collective security was the dogma behind Article X of the League
of Nations covenant of the Versailles Treaty. It stated that every nation would serve to
protect the territorial integrity and existing governments of all other League nations.
Hence, it was felt that this would ensure peace in the postwar world order. The belief
manifested inself in the international world court that was established and later in the
establishment of the United Nations after the demise of the League.
new nations, self determination: The idea of new nations and self determination was
behind some of the aspects of the Treaty of Versailles. Self determination meant every
nationality getting their own country, so new nations were created to allow this.
Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and
Finland were new nations which filled this definition. Even with the doctrine of self
determination, boundaries for new countries still left many misrepresented and under
others’ control.
reparations: Reparations were implemented by European powers wanting vengeance
against Germany. Germany was forced to pay a huge sum, some $33 billion to the Allies
for civilian and veterans costs. This huge amount led to Germany’s economic downfall,
allowing for the rise of Hitler and World War II
mandate system: As a provision of the Versailles Treaty, Germany’s colonies became
mandates of the League of Nations and delegated to France, Japan and Britain. The
colonies became in actuality, those of the respective countries, which was one of their
purposes in fighting the war.
Article 10 of the Versailles Treaty: The most controversial of the League of Nations
covenants, Article 10 said that all nations must protect the territorial and political
integrity of other League members. The article meant that if one nation was engaged in
war, all others must become involved. This article was a large part of why the US
rejected the League.
Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty: By Article 231, Germany accepted total
responsibility for her and her allies for starting the First World War. Reparations
payments were based on this claim. It led to hatred among Germans and inadvertently
contributed to conditions precipitating World War II.
Senate rejection, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, reservations: Senate reservationists did
not fully oppose the League except for mainly one Article. They did not want the United
States going to war defending another League member without Congress’s permission, as
was stipulated by Article X. They wanted that article removed before ratification.
· "irreconcileables": Borah, Johnson, La Follette: The irreconcileables were those in
Congress who felt the United States should not be a member of the League under any
circumstances. They opposed nearly all of the provisions of the League of Nations and
felt that the League obstructed the United State’s freedom of self determination. Wilson
attempted to overcome them and get ratification for the League but was unsuccessful in
his campaign. The United States never joined the League of Nations.
Impact of the War
The war affected the lives of millions of industrial workers, farmers, women, and blacks
in important ways. For all its horrors, World War I brought prosperity to the American
economy. The wartime mood also gave a boost to moral-reform movements. Still, the
wartime spirit saw new racial violence and fresh antiradical hysteria. The antiradical
panic crested in the Red Scare of 1919-1920. Americans, tired of idealism, revealed their
feelings in the election of 1920 leaving Republican Warren Harding in the office.
Women’s Roles in World War I: Prominent women’s leaders like Carrie Chapman Catt
and Anna Howard Shaw saw war as an opportunity for women’s rights. Thousands of
American Women took vacated jobs and became involved in industrial production as
well as volunteer agencies at home and abroad. Supplied America’s labor needs.
Harriet Stanton Blatch: A prominent women’s leader who during the war offered a
view on why women should play a role in the wartime effort. In a variant of Wilson’s
theme of determining the postwar peace, women should play a role so that after the war,
they will have an opportunity to gain power and rights.
black migration to Northern cities: During the war, blacks left their traditional homes
in the South and migrated North for job opportunities in the war industries. About
500,000 blacks migrated North during the war. Led to racial tension and violence in the
North. This growing concentration of blacks led to the Harlem Renaissance.
wartime manpower losses: During World War I, military casualties alone accounted for
just over 8.5 million deaths on both sides. Russia and Germany by far lost the most men
at 1.7 million killed each. In comparison, the United States lost only 126,000 men. In all,
over 21 million men were injured during the war.
Congressional elections of 1918: In 1918, the Republicans gained an advantage in both
the House of Representatives as well as the Senate. Republicans no who had traditionally
supported Wilson’s plans in Europe no longer supported him because of his cry to voters
for a Democratic Congress.
Red Scare, Palmer raids: In 1919, there was a string of bombings. Among the victims
was Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. In November 1919, Palmer led raids and
arrested around 700 suspected communists and anarchists. Some were deported under the
Alien Act. The Red Scare in the United States followed Communist revolutions in
Russia.
strikes: 1919, coal, steel, police: Post-war strikes occurred because of an increase in
prices. The most famous strike was in a Seattle shipyard. The government responded with
troops to break up the strike. Chicago police struck and were all fired. The United Mine
Workers of America under John L. Lewis struck as well, fueling the Red Scare.
inflation during the First World War: As Americans were sent to Europe to fight in
World War I, a labor shortage was created. With the shortage came higher wages which
led to more purchases and in turn, inflation. The rise in prices was regulated by the WIB
which set prices.
election of 1920: candidates, issues: Senator Warren G. Harding was the Republican
dark horse with running mate Calvin Coolidge. They advocated a "return to normalcy"
from the war environment. James Cox, and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Democratic
nominees. They ran on a platform endorsing the League with reservations.
brief depression, 1920-1921: A brief depression occurred from mid-1920 to the end of
1921. It was due to decreased European purchases from American industries after the
war. Prices fell and unemployment was over 12% at its height. It was followed by the
improved economy of the 1920’s until the Great Depression struck.
Twenties Domestic Affairs
America of the 1920s was a period of prosperity as well as industrial and technological
growth. With the recent end of World War I, Americans yearned for a return to
"normalcy" and political leaders that could provide it, thus turning to the leadership of
Warren G. Harding.
Election of 1920: candidates, issues, vice-presidential candidates: The democrats
nominated James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt for his running mate. Republicans
chose Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio and Governor Calvin Coolidge of
Massachusetts. Harding sensed popular longing for calm and won in a landslide victory.
Normalcy: Coined by Warren G. Harding in an address before the Home Market Club on
May 14,1920 in Boston, this term came to symbolize, to powerful businessmen, the
immediate abandonment of the foreign and domestic policies of Wilson. This meant a
return to high protective tariffs and a reduction in taxes.
Sheppard-Towner Act: Lobbying for child-labor laws as well as worker protection for
women and support for education by the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee
resulted in the Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921. This act provided $1.2 million for prenatal
and baby-care centers in rural areas.
Esch-Cummins Transportation Act: Also known as the Transportation Act of 1920,
this act allowed the government to take over the railroads from Dec 26, 1917 until Mar 1,
1920. They were forced to carry heavy traffic while ignoring maintenance. The result was
the Act of Feb 28, 1920 and attempted to insure the operation of the railroads.
•Immigration Acts 1921, 1924, quota system: In 1921 Congress limited annual
immigration to about 350,000 people annually. In 1924, they limited the number to
164,000 people annually. This also restricted immigration to 2% of the total number of
people who lived in the U.S. from their respective country since 1890 and completely
rejected the immigration of Asians. The intent of these provisions was to reduce the
immigration of foreign people in the United States.
KKK revival: A KKK was an organization founded in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1866.
Nathan Bedford Forrest served as the first Grand Wizard for this organization. They
aimed to destroy radical political power and establish white supremacy in the U.S. They
were formally disbanded in 1869, but then it was revived in 1915, led by William J.
Simmons.
•Harding scandals: Charles Forbes, Harry Daugherty, Sceretary of Interior Fall,
Teapot Dome, Harry Sinclair: Forbes, director of the Veteran’s Bureau, in 1924, was
exposed and convicted of stealing funds from it for personal economic growth.
Daugherty, appointed attorney general, was forced from office in 1924 after receiving
payments from violators of prohibition. Fall leased government oil reserves in 1921 to
Sinclair, president of the Mammoth Oil Company. All suspects evaded prosecution.
Harding, Warren G.: Although Harding lacked the qualifications for presidency, his
ordinary, friendly manner and advocacy of a return to "normalcy" resulted in a landslide
vicotry in the election of 1920. Unfortunately, his administration was full of scandals and
on Aug 2, 1923, Harding died in San Francisco of a heart attack.
Coolidge, Calvin: Harding’s death brought vice president Coolidge to the presidency,
where his silences became legendary. As president, he held an antipathy to
progressivism, believed the government had no obligation in protecting citizens against
natural disasters, and warned of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation and control."
Taft, Chief Justice William Howard: Taft was appointed by President Harding in 1921.
Under his jurisdiction, the Supreme Court overturned many progressive reform measures
that were opposed by popular business interests. An example of this was the 1919 federal
law imposing taxes on the products of child labor that he overturned.
Conference for Progressive Political Action, 1922 (CPPA): A committee designed to
revive the practices of the progressive era, the CPPA adopted policies of pro-labor, profarmer, and government ownership of railroads and utilities such as telephones and
electricity. It helped defeat the conservative Republican candidates in 1924.
Bureau of the Budget: Created by the Budget and Accounting Act on June 10, 1921,
this act provided for the Bureau to be located in the treasury department with the director
appointed by the president. The Bureau provided for a more efficient management of the
budget within the treasury department.
Mellon, Secretary of Treasury tax cuts: Mellon was the secretary of the treasury under
Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. Under his administration, Congress lowered the income
tax rates for the wealthy. Mellon also succeeded in balancing the budget every year from
1921 to 1928.
Norris, Senator George, Muscle Shoals: Norris successfully prevented President
Coolidge from selling a federal hydroelectric facility at Muscle Shoals, Alabama to automaker Henry Ford for only a portion of the value of the land. He also helped reject
further tax cuts for the rich.
election of 1924: candidates, Robert La Follette, Progressive Party: CPPA delegates
revived the Progressive Party at the meeting in Cleveland in July of 1924 and nominated
Robert La Follette for president; the Socialist party and AFL supported this nomination,
also. The Democratic Party nominated John W. Davis, a compromise candidate. The
Republicans nominated Coolidge, who won with 54% of the vote.
McNary-Haugen Bill, vetoes: The veto of the McNary-Haugen Bill by Coolidge
reflected a fear of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation." He denounced the bill as an
unconstitutional scheme because it would benefit American agriculture at the expense of
the general public’s welfare.
Federal Farm Board: This action was a result of Hoover’s response towards the
problems faced by agriculture. He secured the passage of legislation that established the
Board to Promote Cooperative Commodity Marketing. By doing so he was permitted to
raise farm prices while still preserving the voluntarist principle.
Election of 1928: candidates, personalities, backgrounds: Candidates Al Smith and
Herbert Hoover represented the social and cultural differences of the 1920s. Smith was
the Democratic candidate with the experience of being the governor of NY. Hoover was
an inexperienced candidate that had never sought a public office before, yet he won.
•Prohibition: Prohibition was first an issue before World War I. Progressives saw it as a
way to deal with the social problems associated with alcoholism. Congress submitted the
18th amendment prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic liquors
in 1917. However, closet manufacturing of alcoholic beverages and a rise in criminal
activities within the cities due to illegal importation of alcohol led to its repeal with the
21st amendment in 1933.
Volstead Act, Al Capone: The Volstead Act of 1919 established the Prohibition Bureau
within the Treasury Department, but it lacked financial stability and was ineffective.
Capone was a mob king in Chicago who controlled a large network of speakeasies with
enormous profits; his illegal activities convey the failure of prohibition in the twenties.
Sacco and Vanzetti Case: On Apr 15, 1920 two robbers killed a clerk and stole money
from a shoe factory in South Briantree, Massachusetts. Nicola Sacco and Bartholomeo
Vanzetti were arrested and both were charged with the robbery and the murder. The jury
found them both guilty. Both men died in the electric chair on Aug 23, 1927.
Leopold and Loeb Case: The case in 1924 involved the murder of a young boy by two
rich and intelligent college students. This case has been referred to for its moral lesson on
human nature. It also shows that not only famous cases have been products of social
developments; Americans responded to criminal cases also.
•fundamentalists, Billy Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson: During the twenties,
Protestants who insisted on the divinity of the Bible, were angered by the theory of
evolution. Fundamentalist legislatures even introduced bills to prohibit the teaching of
evolution in schools. An evangelist, Billy Sunday’s most famous quote reads, "If you turn
hell upside down you will find ‘Made in Germany’ stamped on the bottom." Evangelist
McPherson used drama and theatrical talent in her sermons, winning many followers.
Scopes Trial, Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan: In 1925, the Tennessee
legislature outlawed the teaching of evolution in public schools. The American Civil
Liberties Union volunteered to defend any teacher willing to challenge this law. William
Jennings Bryan agreed to assist prosecution. Darrow was the head of ACLU’s lawyers.
Roaring Twenties
American culture and society in the 1920s were marked by a wave of new lifestyles and
ideas. While the movie industry produced new celebrities and jazz music became popular,
literature flourished and flappers defined a social trend. Amidst the speakeasies, jazz,
and jitterbugs, Americans began to stray from traditional values as the culture changed.
•Prosperity: This is a term that refers to the economic stability and opportunity
experienced during the 1920s. The inventions of new consumer goods and home
electrical products contributed to this prosperity. The economy during this time was
stimulated by the new and booming electrical industry. A growth oriented business
climate of the time was expansionist regarding American capitalism. This boom also was
started with the invention of the affordable automobile.
KDKA, Pittsburgh: This was the first successful radio station in the U.S. to start
broadcasting on Nov 2, 1920. It began the radio era when KDKA, based in Pittsburgh,
broadcast the news of President Harding’s election. This radio station also influenced the
establishment of the Federal Radio Commission.
Federal Radio Commission, 1927: The FRC was created by Congress and extended the
principle of governmental regulation of business activity to the new radio industry. This
can be seen as an example of the progressive spirit that still survived in the legislative
branch and its effect on society.
Women’s Christian Temperance Movement: Formed in 1874, the Women’s Christian
Temperance movement grew in momentum during the progressive era. This occurred
because the war with Germany fermented wider support for the movement. By 1917 it
successfully established prohibition in 19 states.
Anti-Saloon League: Another organization formed during the progressive era, the AntiSaloon league was spurred by the Women’s Christian Temperance Movement in 1893.
Progressives encouraged the legal abolition of alcohol. The result of the efforts of the
ASL was the 18th amendment passed in 1918.
National Women’s Party, Alice Paul: During the twenties, feminist Alice Paul’s
National Women’s Party lobbied for an equal-rights amendment to the Constitution.
Other feminists, radicals, and labor activists condemned Paul’s stance on this issue.
Unfortunately, the proposed amendment never succeeded through the party.
Garvey, Marcus, Universal Negro Improvement Association: Garvey was a black
nationalist leader who created the "Back to Africa" movement in the U.S. In 1907, he led
a printers’ strike for higher wages at a printing company in Kingston. In 1914 he founded
the UNIA and in 1916, he started a weekly newspaper called the Negro World.
•Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes: Hughes was an American writer known for
the use of jazz and black folk rhythms in his poetry. He used musical rhythms and the
traditions of African American culture in his poetry. In the 1920s he was a prominent
figure during the Harlem Renaissance and was the Poet Laureate of Harlem. The Harlem
Renaissance refers to the black cultural development during the 1920s. However, the
movement depended on the patronage of white people.
de Mille, Cecil B.: He was an American motion picture director and producer who in
1913 joined with Jesse Lasky and Samuel Goldwyn to form the Jesse L. Lasky Feature
Play Company. De Mille produced and directed the first feature film made in Hollywood
called The Squaw Man in 1914.
Valentino, Rudolph, Chaplin, Charlie: Valentino was an actor who was idolized by
female fans of the 1920s. His first silent film was The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
(1921) but his peak was with The Sheik (1921). Charlie Chaplin was a silent film actor
who appeared in 1914 with the Keystone Film Company.
Ford, Henry, the Model T, Sloan, Alfred P.: In 1893, Ford completed the construction
of his first automobile and in 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he
started production of the Model-T. In 1913 Ford began using standardized
interchangeable parts and assembly-lines in his plants.
Johnson, James Weldon: American author, lawyer, and diplomat who reflected his deep
consideration of black life in the United States, James Weldon Johnson served as field
secretary of the NAACP from 1916-1920. In 1920 he became the NAACP’s first black
executive secretary.
Ruth, Babe, Dempsey, Jack: Babe Ruth was the most popular player in the history of
baseball. He began in 1914 on the Baltimore team of the International League. Jack
Dempsey was an American professional boxer who became world heavyweight
champion in 1919 but lost the title in 1926.
Lindbergh, Charles, Spirit of St. Louis: Lindbergh was an American aviator, engineer ,
and Pulitzer Prize winner. On May 20, 1927, he was the first person to make a nonstop
solo flight across the Atlantic. Flying in his single engine plane, Spirit of St. Louis, he
flew from New York City to Paris.
The Jazz Singer: The Jazz Singer was a movie, made in 1927, that started a demand for
dancers who could fulfill the expectations of the 1920s. Fred Astaire was involved with
the choreography in the movie along with other famous dancers such as Berkeley,
Balanchine, and De Mille.
the Jazz Age: The Jazz Age is the general label of what the twenties represented. Such a
title reflects the revolution in music during the time, when jazz music became popular
and in style. This name also refers to the general prosperity and liberation of the people
during the time; those were the "good times."
Freud’s, Sigmund theories: Freud was a Viennese physician whose studies of human
sexuality and human psychology first appeared in the 1890s. However, his ideas became
popular during the 1920s. His lectures in 1909 at Clark University advanced
psychoanalysis in the United States.
Barton, Bruce, The Man Nobody Knows 1925: Barton was an advertising executive that
described Jesus Christ as a managerial genius who "picked up twelve men from the
bottom ranks of business and forged them into an organization that conquered the world."
By this he referred to the public’s admiration of leaders like President Harding.
•"the Lost Generation": This term refers to a group of American writers who lived
primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. Bitter about their World War I experiences
and disillusioned with different aspects of American society, these writers were seen to
be ex-patriots. The writers include: Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and William
Carlos Williams. They never formed a formal literary movement, but individually they
were all influential writers.
Lewis, Sinclair, Main Street, Babbitt: Main Street was written in 1920 and is where
Lewis first developed the theme of the monotony, emotional frustration, and lack of
values in American middle-class life. Babbitt, written in 1922, comments on how people
conform blindly to the standards of their environment.
Mencken, H.L., editor of the magazine, The American Mercury: Mencken founded the
magazine The American Mercury in 1924. Mencken remained the editor until 1933. He
targeted his work at the shortcomings of democracy and the middle-class American
culture.
Eliot, T.S., The Waste Land: Eliot won the Nobel Prize for literature for his poem The
Waste Land. This poem that is one of the most widely discussed literary works. Written
in 1922, The Waste Land expresses Eliot’s conception of the contrast between modern
society and societies of the past.
Fitzgerald, F. Scott, The Great Gatsby: Fitzgerald wrote this book in five months and
completed it in 1925. The plot was a sensitive and satiric story of the pursuit of success
and the collapse of the American dream. Being one of the writers of the Lost Generation,
Fitzgerald was bitter because of the effects of the war.
Dreiser, Theodore, An American Tragedy: In 1925, An American Tragedy had great
success. Dreiser believed in representing life honestly in his fiction and accomplished this
through accurate detail and descriptions of the urban settings of his stories. He also
portrays his characters as victims of social and economic forces.
Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms: In Hemingway’s novels, he usually depicted
the lives of two types of people: men and women deprived of faith in their values by
World War I, and men of simple character and primitive emotions. This was
Hemingway’s second most important novel next to The Sun Also Rises (1926).
New woman: During the 1920s changes in postwar behavior had a liberating effect on
women. Women of the twenties were noticed more for their sex appeal and presented as
thus in the advertising industry. The burden of domestic chores were alleviated with new
technology, while women themselves turned to a more liberated attitude.
Flappers: Called a flapper because they would leave their boot flaps open, the flapper
was the stereotype of a woman in the 1920s. Independent and representing the rebellious
youth of the age, the flapper was usually characterized by her "bobbed" hair, dangling
cigarette, heavy make-up, and her ever shortening skirt length.
Foreign Policy in the 1920s
In relation to the rest of the world, the United States drew into isolation, as reflected
through its foreign policy during the twenties. New restrictions on immigration and a
lack of membership in international organizations, such as the League of Nations and the
World Court, contributed to this isolationist period of America. Focus during this era
was upon domestic affairs more so than foreign affairs.
•Collective Security: The term "collective security" was first mentioned in the inaugural
speech made by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on Oct 5, 1937. In that speech Roosevelt
refereed to the need to quarantine aggressor nations by acting upon them in a collective
measure, thus saying that nations need to stick together in order to combat evil. The
isolationist disposition of the U.S. called for collective security, for Americans sought to
secure their nation after the effects of World War I and maintain prosperity.
World Court: Also named the International Court of Justice, the World Court was
established in 1946 exceeding from a charter that was established by the UN. The
principle is to hear cases that extended from the different participants in the court; not all
cases submitted would be tried; the World Court has the option of choosing cases.
reparations: Reparations is a term applied to the issuing of money from one nation to
another. The money is usually given to a nation that has been damaged by the
destructiveness of war due to the acts from the other county. During the First and Second
World Wars, reparations were a major concern.
Twenty-One Demands: Japan in 1915, at the end of WWI, invaded the city of Shandong
and forced China to hand over the right of Japanese imperialism in the former German
regions plus the city of Shandong. This act prompted the formulating of the Twenty-One
demands written by China. These demands recognized Japan’s rights in Shandong.
Lansing-Ishii Treaty: Signed on Nov 2, 1917, this treaty was a series of notes between
U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing and the Japanese military informer Kikujiro Ishii.
Pertaining to this treaty was the reconciliation of the two countries on the issue of foreign
policy in the Far East. It also helped to reinstate the Open Door Policy.
•Washington Disarmament Conference: Also called the Washington Naval Conference
it convened during 1921-1922. At the conference which was called by the United States
the issue of the arms race and the idea of keeping peace on the Pacific ocean were
discussed. From this conference came the ideal of setting a standard on the desired
tonnage that each nation should have, and the desired amount of battleships that each
nation should have.
Five Power Treaty, Four Power Treaty, Nine Power Treaty: The 4 Power treaty (US,
GB, Fr., and Japan) discussed respect towards Pacific nations. The 5 power treaty (US,
GB, Fr., USSR, and Italy) halted battleship construction for 10 years and developed the
ideal tonnage ratio. The 9 Power Treaty restated the Open Door Policy.
5-5-3-1.75-1.75 ratio: These ratios were conceived on Dec 14, 1920 at the Washington
Arms Conference. The numbers are the allowed amount of tonnage for each nations’
supply of battleships. The ideal tonnage ratio for the countries were 5-US, 5-GB, 3-Japan,
1.75-France, 1.75 Italy.
Dawes Plan, Young Plan: The Dawes Plan, Aug 1924, regarded reparations payments
and consisted of an annual allotment of 2.5 billion gold pieces to the US from Germany.
The Young Plan signed on Jun 7, 1929 was for the final installment of the reparation
payments and reduced the amount due by Germany significantly.
Kellogg-Briand Treaty: This treaty of 1928 denounced war between countries when it
was used for the purpose of handling relations between countries. Signed by Frank
Kellogg of the US and Aristicie Briand from France on Aug 27, 1928, it sought to bring
about a change in the way countries dealt with foreign policy.
Sending troops into Nicaragua, relations, 1927-1928: The United States refused to
recognize the government established in Nicaragua under the regime of Emiliano
Chamorro. Calvin Coolidge, the president at the time felt it necessary to send troops to
Nicaragua. However, by 1933 Hoover expelled the troops for they were no longer
needed.
Hoover Administration
When Herbert Hoover was elected to the presidency in 1928, Americans viewed him as a
man who would further boost the nation’s growing prosperity. During his term of office,
however, came the onset of the Great Depression, and the ensuing struggle of the
government to relieve Americans and recover the economy. Unfortunately for Hoover,
his ideologies and legislation were not as effective in restoring prosperity to the nation.
The Fordney-McCumber Tariff, 1922: This tariff rose the rates on imported goods in
the hopes that domestic manufacturing would prosper. The goal of this tariff was to push
foreign competition out of the way of American markets and after an isolationist
principle was introduced, the U.S. would become self sufficient.
"Rugged Individualism"; American Individualism, 1922: The ideal quality which every
American should possess, "rugged individualism" meant people who were self made
individuals, who could handle the pressures given by a damaged society, and who would
rise above them in order to succeed. These ideas were encompassed in Hoover’s book.
Welfare capitalism: Hoover welcomed this idea and urged further movement in this
direction. Hoover also believed that cutthroat capitalism was unnecessary. He believed
that economic development demanded corporate cooperation in the areas of workers
wages and production regulations.
Voluntarism: Hoover believed that a socially responsible economic order could only be
brought about by the voluntary action of capitalist leaders and not through governmental
persuasion. Hoover saw this as a way to accelerate the decade’s trend towards corporate
consolidation and cooperation.
Federal Reserve Board: The Federal Reserve Board tried to establish an easy credit
policy. To accomplish this they increased the rate on federal reserve notes to decrease
speculation; it also warned member banks not to loan money for the purpose of buying
stocks. Their message went unheard, and the stock market crash of 1929 resulted.
Black Thursday: Black Thursday refers to Oct 29, 1929 when the great stock market
crash occurred. The crash was caused by a number of ailments: the decline of agriculture,
the unregulated trade within the process of buying stocks, and the panic which led to
bank foreclosures all over the United States.
•Causes of the Great Depression: The Great Depression was not solely caused by the
stock market crash in Oct of 1929. On the contrary there were many other factors
involved. The inflation in agriculture, the uncontrolled policies of the stock market, the
overproduction of goods by industries, the loss of enthusiasm directed at the consumer
products that were being produced and a loss of mirth in the economy created a no
buying situation.
Depression as an International Event: Due to the devastating effects that the
Depression had on the American way of life a spiral of depressions sprung up all over
Europe. America could not keep up with international trading thus further deepening the
problem. The areas hardest hit was England for it depended greatly on U.S. exports.
Trickle Down Theory: Applied by Herbert Hoover, the Trickle Down theory was an
economic ideal which held the belief that the government should get involved in the
economy by pumping money into it, and thus creating a surplus supply of money that
would "trickle" down onto the rest of society.
Reconstruction Finance Corp., (RFC): Created under the presidency of Herbert
Hoover, the RFC was designed to give out loans to banks, railroads, and monopolistic
companies in order to pump money back into the economy during the years of the
Depression.
Federal Home Loan Act: Under the presidential term of Hoover in 1931 the Federal
Home Loan Act was created. Within the act a five man Home Loan Board was created
and the creation of banks to handle home mortgages provided money to homeowners that
needed loans.
National Credit Corporation: Created in 1931, the National Credit Corporation under
the persuasion of Herbert Hoover got the largest banks in the country, at that time, to
provide lending agencies that would be able to give banks, on the brink of foreclosure,
money that could be used for loans.
Hoover Dam: Originally called Boulder Dam, it stands 726 feet high and 1244 feet wide.
Located on the Colorado River in Arizona, Hoover Dam provides flood control,
electricity, and irrigation for farms. As part of the New Deal it was constructed between
1931 to 1935 and began operations in 1936.
the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, 1930: Like the Fordney-McCumber Tariff, the HawleySmoot Tariff also rose protective tariffs on the United States. It pushed rates on imported
goods to the highest point they’ve ever been. The isolationist principle also reflect the
isolationist move the US was moving towards in the 1920s..
Emergency Committee for Employment: The Emergency Committee for Employment
was created in 1930 under the presidency of Herbert Hoover. The goal for the committee
was to coordinate efforts between other agencies in order to provide relief for the massive
unemployed during the years of the Great Depression.
Farmers’ Holiday Association: In 1931 farmers from the Midwest got together to
discuss the methods they would use in order to stop the policies that devastated the
agricultural economy. Out of the meeting came the decision to withhold grain and
livestock from the economy.
Hoover Moratorium: The Hoover Moratorium was held in 1931 to discuss the payment
of the allied war debts sustained during WWI. Though the issue was never reconciled due
to the fact that Britain and other European Countries went off the gold standard before
the plan could be implemented.
•Bonus Army: The Bonus Army was a group of WWI veterans who were supposed to be
given economic relief from the government due to their involvement in the war.
However, in 1932 the deadline for the veterans was pushed back by the government to a
latter date thus causing the group to march onto Washington to demand their money.
Excessive force was used to disband these protesters, and because they were veterans and
heroes of this country, Hoover’s popularity plummeted because of it.
"Hooverville": "Hooverville" was a name given to any shanty town that manifested itself
during the period when Herbert Hoover was president. The name was termed due to the
cold, unfriendly disposition that Hoover took on the policy of helping out the poor.
Hoover believed that giving economic aid to the poor would stifle the economy.
Clark Memorandum: The memorandum was called by the U.S. Representative
J.Reuben Clark in Dec of 1928. The purpose of the meeting was to reinstate the
principles of the Monroe Doctrine to the events that were happening in Latin America; it
was contradictory to the ideals of the Roosevelt Corollary.
London Naval Conference: US, GB, Japan, France, and Italy convened in 1930 to come
to a mutual agreement pertaining to the number of battleships that were in existence. The
number of battleships was a great concern to these nations for they wanted to live in
peace with one another, not in a war like situation.
Stimson Doctrine: Based on the principles of the Kellogg-Briand pact, the HooverStimson doctrine was a collection of letters from the U.S. to China and Japan. These
letters written on Jan 7, 1932, concluded that the U.S. did not formally recognize any
change in territory if it was brought about by armed forces.
Mexico’s naturalization of oil: .The president of Mexico in 1938 was a man named
Lazaro Cardenas. Cardenas nationalized many oil companies, from England and the
United States, valued then at 450 million dollars. The conditions were that Mexico had to
give fair compensation to the countries.
Ambassador Morrow: Turned into an ambassador for Mexico, Dwight D. Morrow also
named Ambassador Morrow was a worker for J.P.Morgan and Company. The main issue
that he focused on was the methods he could use to reconcile differences between the
Mexican government and the Church.
Norris-La Guardia (anti-junction) Act, 1932: The Norris-La Guardia Act forbade the
issuing of injunctions to maintain anti-union contracts of employment, the prevention to
perform work, and the restraining of an act committed by either a group or of an
individual striker.
Election of 1932: candidates, issues: The Republican candidate was Hoover and the
Democratic one was Franklin D. Roosevelt. The issue was ending the Great Depression.
Hoover’s platform was to increase the government’s role in the economy; Roosevelt’s
message was "Pay attention to the forgotten man at the bottom of the economy period."
Roosevelt won.
Roosevelt and the New Deal
Declining appeal of Hoover to the public led to the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in
1932. Roosevelt’s extensive program to restore the economy made up the New Deal.
Overall, these legislative measures dealt with assisting people financially, reform other
systems and institutions, and recover the prosperity before the Depression. While not all
were entirely successful, the various programs all contributed to the eventual, though
gradual, recovery of the economy.
Age of the Radio: Radio reached its climax in the 1930s when millions of Americans
listened to network news commentators, musical programs, and comedy shows. Also, the
president and business companies utilized this resource to attract people, sell products, or
to promote a political issue.
Fireside Chats: During the first hundred days of Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office
Roosevelt held informal radio conversations every so often that were dubbed "fireside
chats." The topic discussed was the economy that had been plagued by the depression,
and the means that were going to be taken in order to revive it.
Roosevelt, Eleanor: Eleanor Roosevelt is portrayed as a U.S. humanitarian and
displayed her politics and social issues as a wife of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. She
mostly fought for women and minority groups. Many of her books include the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and This Is My Story and On My Own.
Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor: Being the first woman to be appointed to a
Cabinet position (1933-1945), Perkins was also a social reformer. During her term,
Perkins strengthened the Department of Labor, pushed for a limit on employment age,
and developed the CCC, the Social Security Act, and Fair Labor Standards Act (1938).
Brain Trust: The term brain trust refers to the individual people outside the Franklin
Roosevelt appointed presidential cabinet that helped in the decision making process of
the president. The men most known are: Raymond Moley, Rexford Tugwell, and Adolph
A. Berle. Moley was conservative while Tugwell and Berle were interested in reform.
•Keynesian economics: Keynes looked at the economy in a wider sense:
macroeconomics. He theorized that the relationship between supply and demand was
critical: when the demand doesn’t meet expectations there is unemployment and
depression while if demand surpasses production inflation occurs. The solution is to have
the government spend while maintaining low taxes and when there is demand that a tight
budget should be created.
Pump-priming: Supported by Roosevelt, this theory pumped governmental money to the
poor so they could buy products. This would increase sales and cause a demand for that
product. This demand in turn will produce jobs for the poor. Now that the poor have jobs
they have the necessary income to buy products and this cycle occurs again.
Deficit spending: The manner in which the government spends more than it receives is
refereed to as deficit spending. This is done to stimulate the economy through the rise in
government costs or due to the decrease of taxation. On the other hand, deficit spending
is also seen as inefficiency of government spending.
Monetary policy, fiscal policy: The policy gave government control of the money
supply and created a high economic rate to stabilized prices and wages. Fiscal policy is
regulation of trade between domestic or foreign goods. Import duties are still possible,
but fiscal policy makes an exception because its purpose is to raise revenue.
New Deal: In light of the Great Depression, FDR proposed a series of relief and
emergency measures known collectively as the New Deal. Through these measures, FDR
intended to revive the lost prosperity of the economy by reforming other institutions and
programs, by relieving the plight of the people, and thus recover the nation’s wealth.
Hundred Days: Measures taken during Roosevelt’s first days in office, from Mar 9 to
Jun 16, enabled FDR to pass acts critical to stabilizing the economy. The Hundred Days
symbolized the beginning stages of the New Deal because the measures taken focused on
relief, recovery and reform: key phrases from the New Deal itself.
•Relief, Recovery, and Reform: These three areas, relief, recovery, and reform, are the
categories into which the New Deal was split. The Relief category was defined by the
acts implemented in the area of aid to the unemployment. The Recovery category put
forth measures that would help aid in the speedy recovery of areas hit hardest by the
depression (i.e. agriculture and industry). Reform was a category in which the
government tried to recreate areas that seemed faulty (i.e. banking system).
"Bank Holiday": Franklin Roosevelt in 1932 called for a "bank holiday" which
permitted banks that were hurt from the depression to close down for a few days in order
to regain stability. Further help to relieve the problem of the foreclosing of banks was the
Emergency Banking Act which was passed during the holiday to help open more banks.
Emergency Banking Relief Act, 1933: Implemented during the first hundred days of
Franklin Roosevelt’s first term the Emergency Banking Relief Act allowed the reopening
of healthy banks. The act provided healthy banks with a Treasury Department license and
handled the affairs of the failed banks.
Glass-Steagall Act, 1933: In February of 1933 the Glass-Steagal Act was signed. The act
itself made 750 million dollars that had once been kept in the governments gold reserves
now able to be used in the creation of loans to private businesses and other major
corporations.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. (FDIC): This measure as the second of the banking
acts enacted during Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, passed in Jun of 1933. The
Federal Deposit Insurance Committee allowed all bank deposits up to 5,000 dollars; it
separated deposit banking from investment banking.
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): Placed under the PWA, Jun 1933, the NIRA
focused on the employment of the unemployed and the regulation of unfair business
ethics. The NIRA pumped money into the economy to stimulate the job market and
created codes that businesses were to follow to maintain the ideal of fair competition.
•National Industrial Recovery Administration (NRA): Promoting recovery, the
National Industrial recovery Administration was designed to administer the codes of "fair
competition" brought forth by the NIRA. Such codes established production limits, set
wages and working conditions, and disallowed price cutting and unfair competitive
practices. The main focus of the NRA was to break wage cuts and strikes, both which
stifled the economy.
Section 7a of the NRA: Developed by Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, section
7a allowed the workers to organize and enabled them to bargain collectively. In addition,
Wagner helped organized labor by not allowing employers from discriminating against
union members.
"The Blue Eagle," Johnson, Hugh: Hugh Johnson was the head of the National
Recovery Administration who quickly created the organization and rallied support for the
NRA by throwing parades in all of the main cities across the United States. "The Blue
Eagle" was the symbol of the NRA.
•Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), second AAA 1938: The first AAA was rendered
unconstitutional years after the Act of 1938. It tried to help mend the ailing problems that
had plagued agriculture since the ending of the First World War. In order to stop the
problem of "dust bowls" created by the overuse of soil, the government, under the AAA,
granted subsidies to farms who did not continually use the same plot of soil. The
government also tried to restrict the production of certain commodities.
•Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Created under Franklin Roosevelt, the CCC
aimed at men particularly in the age group from 18-25. This program created jobs that
would try to conserve the nation’s natural resources. The CCC would take these men out
of the workforce and place them on jobs that would reforest certain areas, teach fire
prevention and soil conservation, and help to stop soil erosion. Between 1933-1942 3
million men were put to work under the CCC; each man would work for one year.
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): One of the most powerful social
workers, Harry Hopkins, administered this program directed at local causes. Franklin D.
Roosevelt created the FERA in May 1933 and as a part of the New Deal, this measure
allocated $500 million to relieve cities and states.
Civil Works Administration (CWA): In Nov 1933 relief administrator Harry Hopkins
convinced Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the CWA. The CWA provided temporary
public works that allocated a billion dollars for short-term projects for the jobless during
the winter but was demolished when the spring arrived.
Public Works Administration (PWA): Harold Ickes: Headed by Harold Ickes, the
Secretary of Interior, who was cautious and suspicious, the PWA was a governmental
agency which spent $4 billion on 34,000 public works project which constructed dams,
bridges, and public buildings.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Senator Norris: Pushed for by Senator George
Norris, the TVA was a governmental agency which ruled several federal programs of
building dams, the construction of hydroelectric dams, and controlling floods. Created in
1933, the TVA was eventually curtailed in 1980 when nuclear plants were introduced.
National Youth Administration (NYA): As part of President Roosevelt’s New Deal
plan, he set up the National Youth Administration to provide part time work for high
school and college students. This agency served more than two million people and was
set up because students were the most rebellious due to their exposure to new ideas.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): The SEC, established in 1934, protected
investors, listened to complaints, issued licenses and penalized fraud. The SEC required
the registration of all companies and securities and required disclosure of company
information and registration of all company securities exchanged.
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC): As part of the Hundred Days that
understood the nation’s tragedy of foreclosed mortgages, the HOLC refinanced American
home mortgages. This valiant effort allowed one-fifth of all U.S. mortgages to become
refinanced which would prevent another Great Depression
Farm Credit Administration: During Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, an
important federal agency was established; it was named the Farm Credit Administration.
It was designed to help rural Americans refinance their farmland; it also helped to restore
the livelihood that was missing in agriculture.
Federal Housing Authority (FHA): This agency forced small down payments and lowinterest loans on home sales and thus stimulated the economy. This stimulation allowed a
new market for private homes that accelerated the construction-industry through the
utilization of technology to mass-produce homes.
Gold Clause Act, 1935: The Gold Clause Act stated that private contracts dealing with
certain railroad bonds were unable to interfere in the coining of money. The regulation in
the value of money for those areas defined were specifically the areas given to Congress
when the Constitution was written.
•Works Progress Administration (WPA), Hopkins, Harry, Federal Arts Project:
Directed by Harry Hopkins in 1935, the eight year program employed 8 million people
and provided $11 billion dollars to the economy in which 650,000 miles of roads,
124,000 bridges, and 125,000 schools, hospitals, arts, and post offices were built. The
Federal Arts Project created positions for artists by making positions for art teachers and
decorated posts for offices and courthouses with murals.
Rural Electrification Administration (REA): The REA was an agency that provided
low-interest loans to utility companies and farmers’ cooperatives to reach the 90% of
rural farmers who lacked electrical power. This program was so successful that by 1941
40% of these farms had received electrical power.
Wagner Act, 1935: Supported by R. F. Wagner, the Wagner Act of 1935 established
defined unjust labor practices, secured workers the right to bargain collectively, and
established the National Labor Relations Board. As an integral part of the New Deal, it
catalyzed the force of unionization. (Also known as the National Labor Relation Act)
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB): This agency was assembled by Congress in
1935 and oversaw the National Labor Relation Act (1935). As an independent agency,
the NLRB controlled the secret ballot elections during collective bargaining and managed
the complaints of unfairness by the employers or unions.
Revenue Act, 1935: This act allowed the government to raise a spectrum of tariffs
ranging from personal taxes at higher income levels to rises in corporate taxes to having
heavier levies on gifts and estates. As an expression of the class spirit of the Second New
Deal, there were many loopholes.
Social Security Act: Created by the U.S. Congress on August 14,1935, this act supported
old-age advantages by utilizing a pay roll tax on employers and employees. This
originated from the Townsend clubs which pushed for a $200 pension. Soon the program
was expanded to include dependents, the disabled, and adjusted with the inflation.
Resettlement Administration: As part of the New Deal and led by Rexford Tugwell,
this agency created loans for small farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own farms.
Even though the Resettlement Administration lasted two years, it satisfied the
requirements of the governmental concern of sharecroppers.
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act: As part of the Second New Deal in relation to
the high unemployment rate in April 1935, Congress was forced into passing the
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act in which Roosevelt was granted five billion dollars,
part of which he used to set up the Works Progress Administration.
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, 1936: The Soil Conservation and
Domestic Allotment Act was formulated to replace the Agricultural Adjustment Act. The
act, by providing benefit payments to farmers who practiced soil conservation methods,
helped to stem the overproduction in agriculture thus stabilizing farm prices.
Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenancy Act: The act created the Farm Security Administration
and replaced the Resettlement Administration. This agency created low-interest loans
allowing farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own land. By 1941, they had loaned 1
billion dollars assisting thousands of farmers.
Fair Labors Standards Act: maximum hours and minimum wage: This act was
created by the Roosevelt administration of northerners to undermine the South’s
competitive edge. It established a minimum wage for most workers while it concurrently
created a forty-four hour work week and banned child labor.
Results of the New Deal: Several accomplishments of the New Deal contributed to the
nation’s economy. For the first time, the federal government assumed responsibility in
reviving economic prosperity, vastly increasing the power of the president. The
legislative measures brought reform and reinstated confidence in the people.
Twentieth Amendment: Also known as the Lame-Duck Amendment the Twentieth
Amendment in 1933 called for the ending of the "lame-duck" sessions of Congress from
Dec of the even numbered years until the following Mar. The amendment also set the
date of the President’s inauguration back to Jan 20.
Wikersham Convention: Officially named the National Committee on Law Observation
and Enforcement, the Wikersham Convention in May of 1929 discussed the probing
problems of prohibition, the treatment of juvenile delinquents, the cost of law
enforcement, and other similar problems that faced society during that era.
Twenty-First Amendment: Ratified within the span of 10 months, the Twenty-First
Amendment on Dec 5, 1933 repealed the eighteenth amendment which dealt with the
passing of prohibition. The amendment also permitted states to levy a tax on alcoholic
substances.
Good Neighbor Policy: Stated in 1933 by Roosevelt in his inaugural address, the
ideology was that the U.S. would respect the rights of other nations. This policy was used
on various occasions of armed troops being sent to Latin America to maintain political
stability. Ultimately this resulted in support from Latin America during World War II.
Recognition of the USSR, 1933: The United States didn’t recognize Russia because of
the betrayal when Russia withdrew from WWI due to the Russian Revolution in March of
1917. Also, at the treaty of Versailles, Wilson and the other Allies agreed to weaken
Russia. Only until Roosevelt’s presidency did the U.S. recognize Russia.
Indian Reorganization Act, 1934: Authorized by the U.S. Congress, it allowed the
Indians a form of self-government and thus willingly shrank the authority of the U.S.
government. Enacted on Jun 18, 1934, it provided the Indians direct ownership of their
land, credit, a constitution, and a charter in which Indians could manage their own affairs.
Coalition of the Democratic Party: blacks, unions, intellectuals, big cities machines,
South: Franklin D. Roosevelt relied on state and local Democratic leaders who pushed
beyond the traditional Democratic base. Because blacks, intellectuals, big city machines,
and Southerners favored these relief programs, they merged with the Democratic Party.
"conservative coalition" in Congress: Because of the combination of a majority in
Congress and the agreeableness of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Congress was
viewed as conservative. An example of this is that the Emergency Banking Act passed
through Congress in one day.
American Federation of Labor, AFL: The AFL was led by Samuel Gompers and was
composed of craft unions that excluded unskilled and semiskilled workers. The size of
the union grew as production in the 1900’s grew. By 1935, the dissidents formed the
Committee for Industrial Organization.
United Mine Workers, UMW: This union was created by militant leader John L. Lewis
in 1890; its methods, based on his stands on increases in pay, safer working conditions,
and political stands, reflect Lewis’ military style. In 1935 it had about 250,000 members
out of which Lewis co-founded the CIO.
Steel Workers Organization Committee, SWOC: Led by Philip Murray, SWOC
gained recognition by striking against U.S. Steel. By March 1937, U.S. Steel recognized
the union, gave the workers a wage increase, and accepted a 40-hour week. Because of
this action, many other companies began to do the same.
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), Lewis, John L.: John L. Lewis of the
United Mine Workers and Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers
established the CIO in the November of 1935. This 2 million-member group welcomed
all autoworkers, steelworkers, and electrical workers.
sit down strikes: These strikes were characterized by employees occupying the work
place yet doing nothing. This type of passive resistance allowed the employees to halt
production, thus paralyzing the business. This tactic was utilized in the strike by the
United Automobile Workers against General Motors in 1937.
Liberty League: This group was made of conservative Democrats who were against the
economic and fiscal policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal. It lasted for four years
and was composed of famous members like Alfred E. Smith and John W. Davis. Ending
in 1940, they supported the Republican candidate, Alf Landon.
Long, Huey, Share the Wealth, Smith, Gerald L.K.: Both radical agitators, Long was
known for his Share the Wealth program that painted a picture in which "every man
[was] a king." Smith decried blacks, Catholics, Communists, and labor unions in the
Union Party (1936), America First Party (1944), and the Christian National Crusade
(1947).
Coughlin, Father Charles: Coughlin used his status as a U.S. Roman Catholic "radio
priest" to announce his political and economic views. He asserted reactionary views and
revolved around anti-New Deal and ant-Semitic views. In addition, he created the
magazine Social Justice which attacked Communism, Wall Street, and Jews.
Townsend, Dr. Francis: Townsend developed the Townsend Plan in 1933 which
embraced 5 million supporters. It called for a pension for citizens over 60 years of age to
receive $200 provided by the federal government. Although Congress rejected it,
Townsend’s ideals were an early foundation of the Social Security Act.
Hughes, Chief Justice Charles Evans: Hughes guided the Supreme Court in the attack
against President Roosevelt in his plan to "pack" the Supreme Court in 1937. Also, he
upheld the Wagner Act in which workers had the right of collective bargaining in the
National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel.
Schechter v. United States: This case took place in May 1935 when a New York
company was charged with a violation of an NRA poultry code; these charges resulted in
the Supreme Court declaring the NRA unconstitutional by stating that the NRA was
regulating interstate commerce a violation of federal regulation.
•"court packing" proposal: This proposal was announced by Franklin D. Roosevelt
allowing the president to appoint new Supreme Court members for each one over 70
years of age, totaling six in all. After Chief Justice Evan Hughes’ leadership in expressing
their disapproval in this plan, Congress and the American people disapproved of the
action as well. This resulted in some New Dealers leaving the president’s side and
humiliated President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
New Members of the Supreme Court: Black, Hugo, Reed, Stanley F., Frankfurter,
Felix, Douglass, William O.: These four men were appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt
between 1937 to 1939 to guarantee a foundation for a liberal majority and thus extending
Roosevelt’s New Deal policies after leaving office.
Election of 1936: candidates, issues: The candidates included Franklin D. Roosevelt
from the Democratic Party, Alfred M. Landon from the Republican party, and William
Lemke from the Union Party. The principal issue was how to exploit the New Deal’s
popularity. In the end, FDR won in a landslide victory.
Literacy Digest Poll: The poll was initiated by Franklin D. Roosevelt during his
presidency and involved in a court case: Literacy Digest poll v. Gallop Poll. There, they
debated on the validity of each poll in relation to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal
policies.
•Second New Deal: Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and expressed in his
State of the Union Address in January 1935, the Second New Deal focused on and
enlarged the federal program to incorporate the jobless, to help the unemployed receive
jobs, to give assistance to the rural poor, organized labor, and social welfare. Roosevelt
wanted to levy heavier taxes on the rich, create harder regulations on businesses, and to
incorporate social-welfare benefits.
Robinson-Patman Act, 1936: Originated from a Federal Trade Commission chain store
investigation, this act was an amendment to the Clayton Act; it eliminated unfair business
practices and destroyed monopolies. On Jun 19, 1936, this act was passed and applied to
all buyers or sellers, and merchants large or small.
Miller-Tydings Act, 1937: The purpose of this act was to amend the Sherman Anti-Trust
Act by exempting any contract or agreement ("horizontal agreements") in which a
product would be set at a significantly lower price. A violation of this would be an unfair
method as stated in the Federal Trade Commission Act.
"Roosevelt recession": Although the economy improved in 1936 and early 1937, it once
again fell back in mid 1937, when industrial production and steel output declined, and
unemployment statistics increased. Some of the major factors of this recession were
federal policies that greatly reduced consumer income.
Hatch Act, 1939: Supported by Senator Carl Hatch of New Mexico and passed by
Congress on Aug 2, 1939, the Hatch Act tried to exterminate corruption during elections.
It disallowed bribery of votes, restricted federal employees from political campaigning,
and limited donations from individuals which were to be given to political campaigns.
•dust bowl, Okies, John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath: "Okies" were poor farmers
who moved west to California and Arizona during the 1930s or moved to the crowded
cities. This occurred because after two generations of a melange of drought and poor
farming techniques these areas, also known as "dust bowls," once fertile land, became
waste areas and unusable. The Grapes of Wrath written by Steinbeck in 1939 illustrates
the plight of a dust bowl family.
GATHERING STORM
The two decades prior to the outbreak of hostilities in World War II were a period of
increasing unrest both politically and socially in many areas of the world. Some of the
issues were related to unresolved conflicts left over from World War I. Depression and
out of control inflation totally destabilized Germany’s government and allowed the rise to
power of the Nazis, who were able to capitalize on a German sense of injustice and
nationalistic frustration.
Montevideo Conference: This conference was held in 1933. A U.S. delegation to the
conference endorsed a document that declared "no state has the right to intervene in the
internal affairs of another. Secretary of State furthered the interests of Latin American
States when he asked for a reduction of trade barriers.
Rio de Janeiro Conference, 1933: Meeting of 19 American republics, in which the
American treaty of reciprocal Assistance was signed, committing each republic to assist
another in times of any attack or if an American republic were threatened by a situation
not involving an armed attack, members would meet and decide necessary actions to be
taken
Buenos Aires Conference, 1936: It was opened by Roosevelt when he stated in a speech
that any non-American state seeking "to commit acts of aggression against us will face a
Hemisphere wholly prepared to consult together for our mutual safety and our mutual
good." Also a pact was adopted promising consultation if war was imminent
Lima Conference, 1938: Another conference before WWII, the Lima Conference
adopted the Declaration of Lima, and also restated the sovereignty of the American
states; Additionally, it expressed the U.S. determination to resist "all foreign intervention
or activities that may threaten them."
Declaration of Panama, 1939: Adopted at Panama city by the foreign ministers of the
American Republics, sixteen resolutions were passed to deal with the outbreak of war in
Europe. Resolution no. XIV entitled "Declaration of Panama," stated that American
waters should be free of hostilities from non-belligerent nations.
Act of Havana, 1940: The act was created to prevent the transfer to European colonies to
Germany in the western hemisphere. It stated that the American Republics would take
over and administer any European possession in the New World endangered by
aggression. It was unanimously approved by the Pan American Nations.
Jones Act, 1916: This act provided for the government of the Philippines and committed
the U.S. to the future independence of the Philippines. Descendants of Spanish subjects in
1899 were designated citizens. Voting rights were given to all literate male citizens over
21, the Philippine Congress was made elective, and Supreme Court justices were to be
appointed by the president.
Tydings-McDuffie Act, 1934, Philippines: The act eliminated certain objectionable
provisions of a previous act known as the Hawes-Cutting Act, which provided for the
independence of the Philippine Islands after 12 years; It also provided for trade relations
with the U.S. effective 10 years after the inauguration of an authorized government.
Nye Committee: Instituted due to public concern over the issue that the U.S. was
dragged into WW I, this committee was headed by Senator Gerald Nye. The Committee
held hearings between 1934 and 1936 and compiled evidence of involvement of U.S.
banks and corporations financing WWI and supplying arms and loans to the Allied
nations.
"merchants of death": This term refers to the business corporations and banks who
were blamed for dragging the U.S. into the war because they were desperate to protect
the millions of dollars invested in loans and weapon sales to Britain and France. All these
allegations were investigated by the Nye committee.
•neutrality legislation: A series of Neutrality Acts were passed in 1935, 1936, and 1937,
these laws placed an embargo on exports of war materials to belligerents. It also warned
U.S. citizens not to travel on belligerent vessels, prohibited loans to belligerent nations,
and instituted the cash and carry policy which meant that nations that were seeking to
trade with the U.S. had to purchase the goods they wanted as well as provide their own
vessels in which they could be shipped out to their country.
Popular Front: In order to gain the support of the Allies, Russia’s Commissar of Foreign
Affairs MaksimM. Litvinov asked for action against fascist governments. Russia sought a
formation of united-front governments in foreign countries. This united or popular front
formed in 1938, called for a collaboration of Communist Socialist to fight fascism.
Spanish Civil War, Franco: This war lasted from 1936-1939. In July of 1936, fascist
Franco led the Spanish army units to overthrow the elected government in Spain. The
revolution was supported by Spanish conservatives, monarchists, landowners,
industrialists, and Roman Catholic hierarchy.
Ethiopia: Mussolini was intent on building an African empire comparable to those of the
European nations. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia which did not have a way of
stopping him from invading because Ethiopia was such a weak nation without a strong
army and a supply of ammunition.
Mussolini: Mussolini founded the Fasci de Combitimmento after being kicked out of the
Socialist party in 1919. He came into power in the 1920s, and by 1926, Mussolini had
transformed Italy into a single-party totalitarian regime. He also pursued an aggressive
policy which won him support in every sector of the population.
Japan Attacks China, Chiang Kai-shek: Japan was taken over by a militaristic
government that had expansionist dreams. In 1931, Japan attacked the Chinese province
of Manchuria and installed a puppet government. In 1937, Japan declared war against
China; China’s leader, Chiang Kai-shek, was powerless to stop it.
Panay Incident, 1937: Japanese bombers engaged in war with China bombed and sank
the marked U.S. gunboat Panay and three Standard Oil ships, which were evacuating
American officials from China. Japan accepted responsibilities of bombing the ships,
made a formal apology and promised indemnities later set at $2 million.
"Quarantine speech," 1937: Roosevelt recognized the power of the antiwar feelings
demonstrated at home; not one to push ahead of public opinion, he assured a visiting
Australian leader in 1935 that America would never enter a war. In a 1937 speech, he
suggested the possibility of a "quarantine" of aggressor nations.
Hitler, Nazism: Adolf Hitler’s Nazi party came into power in 1933 and clamped a
dictatorship on Germany. His racist views targeted all non-white Christians who
expressed anti-German ideas. He pursued a militaristic and expansionist foreign policy,
evident in his plan to raise a half million man army and expand German borders to
Russia.
Kristallnacht: Meaning "The Night of Broken Glass," this rampage was carried out by
Nazis all over Germany and Austria to destroy Jewish homes and structures. Thousands
of homes were vandalized and synagogues were burned to the ground. Jewish businesses
and schools were wrecked and looted. Nothing was spared.
•Munich Conference, appeasement, Neville Chamberlain: This conference was held
in 1938 between England and Germany. Chamberlain, representing England, gave in to
Hitler’s demands on territory that Germany had lost after the end of WWI. Chamberlain
was very much blamed for the oncoming of WWII due to his actions toward Hitler. Many
people in Britain were very disappointed in Chamberlain and how easily he had appeased
to the demands of Hitler. He was replaced soon after by Winston Churchill.
Austria Annexed: Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 and expanded the German borders.
Nazi sympathizers in Austria welcomed Hitler’s annexation of Austria. He proclaimed an
Anschluss between Austria and Germany and German troops rolled into the capital city
Vienna. Hitler’s actions here furthered his plans to expand German borders and his rule.
nonaggression pact between Germany and USSR: Stalin, who advocated a popular
front against fascism, signed a pact with Nazi Germany on August 24, 1939 agreeing not
to make war on each other and divided up Poland between the two nations: the USSR and
Germany. This was a severe blow to the Popular Front.
Gathering Storm 1940-1941
As World War Two began in Europe, the United States attempted to maintain a distance.
However, as hostilities escalated in both the East and West, the United States was fenced in
and forced to choose a side. Supporting the Allied forces, the United States, though not
officially in the war, was considered a legitimate target by the Axis. After France fell to
Germany, pressure increased on the United States. Finally, the Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor pulled the United States into the global conflict.
Invasion of Poland, Blitzkrieg: When Poland refused to restore the German city of Danzig
lost after WWI, Hitler’s troops attacked Poland on Sept.1, 1939. April 1940, Hitler
unleashed his Blitzkrieg, or "lightening war," and quickly occupied many western European
nations.
Axis Powers: Group of countries opposed to the Allied powers. Originated in the RomeBerlin Axis with the 1936 Hitler-Mussolini Accord and their alliance in 1939. In Sept. 1940,
it was extended when Japan was incorporated into the Axis by the signing of the Tripartite
pact. The Axis powers were Japan, Italy and Germany.
"cash and carry": A precautionary move by the U.S. to make sure they stayed isolationist.
Nations who wanted to trade had to purchase the materials from the U.S. and carry them on
their own vessels. This meant that the allied countries had to only pay for the goods and the
United States would ship them.
fall of France: Hitler’s launched his blitzkrieg on France in 1938. The British were already
being driven back when Hitler attacked Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. England
evacuated 338,000 men from the English channel. Mussolini attacked from the South at the
same time, and on Jun. 22 France capitulated.
America First Committee: When FDR expressed a desire for American intervention in
WWII, he was faced with stiff resistance by the America First Committee in 1940. The
committee was compromised of many pro-isolationist who thought that the allied powers
could do nothing to stop the war.
Isolationism, Lindbergh, Charles: Isolationism was the foreign policy practiced by
America after WWI, as most citizens did not want to be involved in many international
affairs. Charles Lindbergh was a big supporter of this policy, and even joined the America
First Committee to demonstrate his antiwar sentiment.
Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies: Instituted by Roosevelt to oversee
loans and other such financial activities occurring while Germany attacked Britain. The
Committee, oversaw lend lease policy implemented by Roosevelt for purposes of protecting
America and also to help stop Germany in Europe.
Smith Act: The Smith Act was created in 1940 and outlawed any conspiracy to overthrow
the government. It was largely used in the later years of communist hysteria, and imprisoned
individuals not because of any acts of violence or espionage, but rather for their rhetoric and
their views on the American government..
Tojo: Japanese leader during WWII. An extreme militarist, advocated total war. Became
Army Chief of Staff in 1937. Led the Japanese army against Manchuria, and in 1940 made
Minister of War. In 1941, appointed Prime Minister, and controlled government and military
operations during WWII. Resigned 1944.
destroyers-for-bases deal: In exchange for fifty old WWI American destroyers which had
in been recommissioned in 1939 and 1940 and were serving on neutrality patrol, Britain
gave the United States 99 year leases to establish military bases on British possessions in the
Western hemisphere.
election of 1940: candidates, issues: Roosevelt was nominated by the Democrats for a third
term, and the Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie. The major issues were WWII and
military spending. Roosevelt endorsed the nation’s 1st peacetime draft and advocated a
military spending increase.
•"Lend Lease," March 1941: Program set up to loan the Allied nations arms and other
materials to wage war against the Axis powers. The Lend-lease bill was approved by
Congress in 1941, which originally authorized $7 billion. Thirty-five other nations besides
Great Britain, USSR, France, and China received loans from the lend lease. By August
1945, the amount totaled $48 billion, of which the United States received $6 billion in
repayment by these nations.
Tripartite Pact: The Tripartite Pact was a 10 year military and economic alliance also
known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Japan signed this alliance in September, 1940, with
the previously allied Italy and Germany. Each of the signatories pledged to help the others in
the event of an attack by the U. S.
Atlantic Charter, August 1941: FDR met Churchill to discuss joint military strategy. Their
public statement expressed their ideas of a postwar world, and frowned upon aggression,
affirmed national self-determination, and endorsed the principles of collective security and
disarmament.
•Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941: On the morning of December 7, scores of Japanese
dive-bombers and torpedo planes flew across Oahu to bomb the ships that were anchored in
Peal Harbor, and to strafe the planes parked side by side at nearby air bases. In less that 3
hours, over 300 aircraft were destroyed or damaged, and 8 battleships, 3 light cruisers, and 3
destroyers were sunk or crippled. Worst loss of U.S. arms in history.
Homefront
Though World War Two was not fought on U.S. soil, the entire country pitched in to help the
war effort. Housewives grew Liberty Gardens and went to work in place of the drafted men.
The United States government established many wartime organizations to monitor supplies
and food as well control propaganda. Families were encouraged to help fathers and
brothers by not buying tin or rationing sugar or buying war bonds. Everyone on the
homefront was expected to do his or her part in the war as well.
•Japanese Relocation: Japanese-born Americans and immigrants from Japan were sent to
concentration camps in the early 1940’s because of a fear that they would leak out
information about the U.S. to Japan. Most of these people were suspected of being spies for
the Japanese, though there was no solid evidence to support such accusations. The captured
Japanese were released in 1942, and FDR apologized to them.
Revenue Act of 1942: Because of the expenditure on the war, Roosevelt wanted to pay for
as much as possible through taxes. Although Congress refused to grant him a progressive
tax, in 1942, the Revenue Act raised the top income-tax rate from 60% to 90% and added
middle class and lower income groups to the tax bracket as well.
bond drives: In order to finance the war and give people a sense of involvement in the war
effort, bond drives were held. The treasury department sold about $40 billion "E" bonds to
investors, and nearly twice the amount in higher denomination. The bonds raised half the
money for WWII.
War Production Board: In 1942, FDR announced a plan for massive war production. In
order to get the necessary amount of raw materials, FDR established the War Production
Board. It allocated scarce materials, limited or stopped the production of civil goods, and
distributed contracts among competing manufacturers.
Office of Price Administration (OPA): Instituted in 1942, this agency was in charge of
stabilizing prices and rents and preventing speculation, profiteering, hoarding and price
administration. The OPA froze wages and prices and initiated a rationing program for items
such as gas, oil, butter, meat, sugar, coffee and shoes.
War Labor Board: Established in 1942, the War Labor Board was instituted to mediate
disputes between management and labor, and sought to prevent strikes and out of control
wage increases. The War Labor Board acted as the mediator to prevent massive strikes and
wage increases that occurred with the demand for workers.
War Refugee Board (WRB): FDR established the War Refugee Board in 1943 to help
rescue and assist the many people who were condemned to death camps. It relocated many
refugees in need, although it was late in inception. Although it saved 200,000 Jews and
20,000 non-Jews, 1 million still died.
War Manpower Commission (WMC): FDR established the War Manpower Commission
in 1942 to help supervise the mobilization of males and females in the military, and the war
industry, and also to study how profit can be gained through the production of weapons and
supplies.
Office of Censorship, Office of War Information: Roosevelt wanted public opinion to be
positive during the war, and in 1941, he established the Office of Censorship. It examined
all written documents, including works of publishers and broadcasters, as well as all letters
going overseas, in order to maintain the positive public opinion in America.
Office of Strategic Services: FDR and the Joint Chief of Staffs formed the Office of
Strategic Services which served as an intelligence agency during WWII and was a
predecessor of the CIA. It began on June 13,1942 to conduct espionage, gather intelligence
information required for planning, and to analyze the enemy. Discontinued by Truman in
1945.
Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD): Formed in 1941 to contract out
the development of new medicines and ordinances. It spent $1 billion dollars to produce
sonar, radar devices, rockets, tanks, advanced jets, and the development of DDT and other
pesticides.
•African-Americans in World War II: Many civil rights groups used the need of the
government for the cooperation of all its citizens in the war effort to push a new militancy in
redressing discrimination. Blacks moved into service in all areas of the military, although
most in segregated units until 1948. A large migration of blacks from the South to Northern
industrial areas made civil rights a national rather than regional concern and broadened the
political effects of black votes.
•Women in World War II: Women served in significant numbers during World War II,
both as civilian support personnel and in the uniformed services in the Woman’s Army
Corps (WAC) and Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service in the Navy
(WAVES). Women pilots ferried planes from station to station, freeing men for combat pilot
positions. Women moved into the civilian workforce, including heavy industry, replacing
those men who had entered the military.
The U.S. and the Second World War
The United States was involved in two major areas of conflict, the struggle in Europe and
the battle in the Pacific Theater. Opting to first prevent the complete takeover of Europe, the
United States hoped that after Germany was defeated, the Allies would concentrate on the
Japanese threat. From bases in England and Africa, the Allied forces hammered at the
Italian and German lines. Island hopping proved to be the only way the United States could
retake the Pacific from the Japanese.
Eisenhower, General; MacArthur, General: Eisenhower led the D-Day invasion with
great success, and was highly respected by his peers in the armed forces. General MacArthur
was credited for the great successes that the Americans had in the Pacific wars. He was the
strategist behind the Pacific Wars.
Marshall, George Catlett: An American military commander who was Army Chief of
Staff during World War II. He became Secretary of State for President Truman, and as such
played an important role in aiding the postwar economic recovery of Europe with the
Marshall Plan, which provided assistance to war-torn Western Europe.
Operation Torch: Undertaken in November 1942, it employed an allied army of more than
100,000 troops. Led by General Eisenhower, the troops landed in Morocco and Algeria and
pressed eastward to entrap the German forces being pushed by British forces in Libya.
Surrounded, the Germans surrendered in May 1943.
Invasion of Sicily: Stalin pleaded for a second front in Russia, but Churchill objected and
Roosevelt agreed for a plan to invade Sicily in the summer on 1943. In roughly a month,
allied forces seized control of Sicily. Italian military leaders surrendered to the allied forces
on September 8 1943.
Battle of Midway: In 1942, the Japanese were determined to wipe out any remaining ships
of the decimated American fleet when they sailed toward Midway. But, Japanese codes were
decoded and Admiral Nimitz knew the exact plans and location of the Japanese ships. In a
clever move, he ordered dive-bombers to destroy the ships.
Genocide, "Final solution": Hitler persecuted Jews in Germany and sought to rid Germany
of them. During WWII, he set up many concentration camps, where Jews were methodically
executed by means of poisonous gas or other forms. By the end, 6 million perished.
second front: The plan that was going to be used to aid the Soviet Union in fighting the
Germans. Roosevelt was convinced by Churchill to delay the second front from 1942 to a
later date, when the allies were better equipped to fight, and have forces in Africa to protect
English colonies since Germany was attacking Africa.
D-Day, June 6, 1944: In the first 24 hours, 150,000 allied troops landed on the beach of
Normandy. An additional million waded ashore in the following weeks, and allies reached
inland in July, arriving in Paris by August. By summer’s end British secured Belgium and
the Americans recovered France and Luxembourg.
Stalingrad: The site of one of the bloodiest battles during WWII. Thousands of soldiers
died at the hands of German and Russian armies during the battle of Stalingrad.. The
Russians were victorious at the battle, and thus were able to launch a counter-offensive
against Germany and drive the Nazis from Russia.
Churchill, Winston: British Prime Minister during WWII, member of the Big Three. The
Big Three was compromised of Stalin, FDR and him and were the major parties involved in
allied conferences. When Germany first began attacking Britain, he asked for assistance
from the U.S. in the form of equipment and arms.
Casablanca Conference, 1943: In the middle of the North African campaign, Roosevelt
and Churchill met at Casablanca and resolved to attack Italy before invading France. They
also vowed to pursue the war until the unconditional surrender of the Axis power, and tried
to reduce Soviet mistrust of the west.
Cairo Conference, 1943: FDR met with Churchill and Chiang Kai-shek, the head of the
Chinese government. FDR promised Chiang that Manchuria and Taiwan would be returned
to China and that Korea would be free with the hope that Chiang would fight until Japan
surrendered unconditionally.
Teheran Conference, 1943: FDR met with Stalin and Churchill and set the date for the
invasion of France for May or June 1944, to coincide with the Russian offensive from the
east. They agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones, to impose reparations on the
Reich, and Stalin promised to fight Japan after Hitler’s defeat.
"unconditional surrender": Term used by the allied powers to describe what kind of
surrender they wanted from Japan-one without negotiations. After the A-bomb fell on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan surrendered, but with the explosion of the A-bomb,
the Cold War Era had just begun.
Okinawa: The island of Okinawa was secured by the Americans after the battle of Iwo
Jima. Okinawa was 350 miles from Japan and a key area for staging the invasion of Japan
by the American troops. The assault forces suffered nearly fifty thousand casualties in the
battle before being able to subdue Japanese resistance.
Battle of the Bulge: As the allies prepared for an attack on Germany after penetrating up to
Germany’s border, Hitler threw the last of his reserves to fight against the allied troops in
December of 1944. On Dec. 25, the allies stopped the last German counter-attack and within
a month, drove the Nazis back to Rhine.
V-E day: As Russia pushed the Germans back into Germany and reached the suburbs of
Berlin, the new German government surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1943,
Americans celebrated this Victory in Europe day with ticker tape parades and dancing in the
streets. Afterward, U.S. turned its full attention to the War in the Pacific
Manhattan Project: Because Nazi scientists were seeking to use atomic physics in a
harmful manner, in 1941 FDR launched a secret program to produce an A-bomb before the
Germans. In 1943 and 1944, the Manhattan Engineering district worked to stockpile U-235
and in 1945 attempted to use it in a bomb.
Oppenheimer, J. Robert: The scientific director of the Manhattan project, which the U.S.
had undertaken to build the atomic bomb before Germany, and did was by relying on Nazi
scientists. Oppenheimer was later employed by Harry Truman to work on building a more
destructive weapon known as the Hydrogen bomb.
•Atomic bomb: The atomic bomb was successfully built in 1944 and was employed in
bombing the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bomb unleashed terrible fury on the two
cities, killing hundreds of thousands of people through the incinerating heat and radiation
poisoning. There was also debate on whether such a potent and powerful weapon should
have been unleashed before proper tests were conducted on the long-term effects.
Hiroshima, Nagasaki: The 1st A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima by the U.S. in 1945 after
Japan refused unconditional surrender. Some 80,000 people died immediately and 1000s
more died of radiation poisoning in later years. The next day a second bomb was dropped on
Nagasaki killing, which obliterated the city.
Origins of the Cold War
Although relations with the Soviet Union were already strained, Roosevelt’s death and the
beginning of Truman’s presidency brought new tensions to the relationship. Russia’s
traditional paranoia led to the establishment of a communist satellite buffer zone around the
USSR. The spread of communism into Asian and South American countries exacerbated
anticommunist feelings in the United States and contributed to the pressure for increased
buildup of defensive forces.
•YALTA CONFERENCE: Conference of Russia, Great Britain and US in Feb.1945 with
leaders FDR, Stalin and Churchill in Crimea. The result was statement of Soviet intent on
entering the Pacific War two to three months after the end of the European war, Churchill
and FDR promise for Soviet concessions in Manchurian and return of lost territories. Stalin
recognized Chiang as China's ruler, agreed to drop demands for reparations from Germany,
approved plans for a UN Conference and promised free elections in Poland.
•POTSDAM CONFERENCE: Truman, Stalin and Churchill met in Potsdam Germany
from July 16-Aug. 2 to decide on postwar arrangements begun at Yalta. A Council of
Foreign Ministers was established to draft treaties concerning conquered European nations,
and to make provisions for the trials of war criminals. The Soviet Union agreed to drop
demands for reparations and Germany was decentralized into British, Russian, French and
US zones.
partitioning of Korea, Vietnam, Germany: As decided by the Potsdam by the Council of
Foreign minister, Germany, Vietnam and Korea were divided into zones to be held by US,
France, Britain and the Soviet Union and then reorganized through self-determination.
de Gaulle, Charles: The French President during WWII, he was also active in several treaty
conferences.
Churchill, Winston, "Iron Curtain" speech: Asked for Anglo-American cooperation to
combat an "Iron Curtain" that cut across Europe from the Baltic to Adriatic. The iron curtain
was the satellites and territories held by the communist Soviet Union. An early theory for
Soviet containment.
Stalin: Ruler of Russia from 1929-1953. In 1935 Stalin endorsed a "Popular Front" to
oppose fascism. Stalin also had considerable influence in the Yalta agreement as well as
being a leader of one of the world's superpowers. After WWII, the primary focus of Amer.
was to curb Stalin's and communist influence.
Bretton Woods Conference: Meeting of Allied governments in 1944. From the Bretton
Woods Agreement, foreign currencies would be valued in relation to the dollar and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and
World Bank were created.
Dumbarton Oaks Conference: An international conference held August-October 1944 at
Dumbarton Oaks Washington D.C. to discuss plans for an international organization to be
named the United Nations. 39 delegates from US, Great Britain and Russia gathered.
San Francisco Conference, 1945, and UN Charter: A meeting of world nations to
establish a international organization for collective security. The conference established
committees; General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, the International Court of
Justice, Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat.
UN: Security Council, General Assembly, Secretary-General: January 10, 1946 was the
first UN General Assembly, electing Trygve H. Lie of Norway as Secretary General. The
UN represented a worldwide attempt for a peaceful world after the hidden treaties and chaos
caused by WWII.
Atomic Energy Commission: To oversee the control and development of nuclear weapons.
The "Barouch Plan" set up the International Atomic Development whose goal was for use of
peaceful potentials for atomic energy and to provide nations with security against surprise
attacks.
superpowers: The world powers after WWII created a new balance of power. These
superpowers consisting of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain began
proceedings such as the Yalta and Potsdam. Conferences represented the superpowers and
their importance in postwar reconstruction.
socialism, communism: Two forms of governing, socialism and communism became
fearful subjects after WWII as fears of war led to hatred against socialist and communist
American troops. Fear and hatred against communism and Socialism continued throughout
the Cold War.
satellites: The countries surrounding the Soviet Union created a buffer zone between Russia
and the rest of Europe. These "satellites" were nations conquered by the Soviet Union during
the counteroffensive attack of the Russians against the Germans during WWII.
Nuremberg trials: Thirteen trials held accusing leaders of Nazi Germany of crimes against
international law from 1945-1949. Accusations included murder, enslavement, looting and
atrocities against soldiers and citizens of occupied countries.
Department of Defense created: The Department of Defense was created in 1947 by the
National Security Act. Reforming the Departments of War and Navy they became the
Departments of Army, Navy and the new Department of the Air Force. Result of need for a
consolidated department.
Voice of America, CARE: A part of the US Information Agency, Voice of America was a
US government radio station sent to Eastern Europe nations.
Yugoslavia, Tito, Marshall: Marshall Tito is the name used by Josip Bronz since 1934.
Tito was the communist dictator of Yugoslavia until proclaiming himself president in
January 1953. Through his rule he kept Yugoslavia independent of Soviet control and was
recognized as the only lawful authority in Yugoslavia.
Czechoslovakian coup: On February 25, 1948, a communist coup led by Klement Gottwald
took control of the Czechoslovakian government after the October 5 announcement of
Moscow's plan to block the Marshall Plan in Europe. Czechoslovakia became a communist
satellite of the Soviet Union.
•CONTAINMENT, Kennan, George F.: An advocate for tough foreign policy against the
Soviets, Kennan was the American charge d'affaires in Moscow through WWII. He was also
the anonymous Mr. X who wrote "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in the magazine Foreign
Affairs advising a policy of restricting Soviet expansion to protect western institutions. The
theory of containment was accepted by the U.S. government and seen through the domino
theory and US actions in Vietnam and Korea.
•TRUMAN DOCTRINE: From Truman’s address to Congress on March 12, 1947, the
president announced that the United States would assist free people resisting "armed
minorities or...outside pressure." Meant as a offer for aid against communism the Truman
Doctrine established the United States as a global policeman, a title proved by US actions in
the UN, Vietnam, Korea and Egypt. The Truman Doctrine became a major portion of Cold
War ideology, a feeling of personal responsibility for the containment of communism.
•MARSHALL PLAN: Truman's secretary of state George C. Marshall proposed massive
economic aid to Greece and Turkey on Feb. 27, 1947 after the British told the US they could
not afford to continue assistance to the governments of Greece and Turkey against Soviet
pressure for access to the Mediterranean. The Marshall Plan was expanded to mass
economic aid to the nations of Europe for recovery from WWII. Aid was rejected by
communist nations. The Marshall Plan also hope to minimize suffering to be exploited by
communist nations.
Point Four: A post-WWII foreign aid treaty devised from the fourth point of President
Truman's inaugural address in 1950. Plan would make provisions to supply US investment
capital and personnel to agricultural and industrial development as well as development in
other national interests.
Gandhi: Spiritual and political leader of India. 1920 led nonviolent disobedience movement
for independence for India. During 1924 led another civil disobedience movement for
India's freedom in exchange for India's help against Japan Assassinated.
Israel created, 1948: From the UN General Assembly on April 28, 1947, the Palestine
partition of Arab and Jewish states. On May 14, 1948 Israel proclaimed independence and
US recognized the new state but the Arabs rejected the proclamation and declared war
against Israel. Admitted in U.N in 1949.
•BERLIN BLOCKADE: On March 20, 1948 the Soviet withdrew representation from the
Allied Control Council and refused to allow US, British, and France to gain access to Berlin.
June 24, the Western Powers began Berlin Airlift to supply residents of Berlin. After 321
days in 1949 Russia agreed to end blockade if the Council of Foreign Ministers would agree
to discuss Berlin. The airlift provided food and supplies to the blockaded people and
intensified antagonism against Stalin.
•NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO): Following the Vanderberg
Resolutions on April 4, on October 1948, Denmark, Italy, Norway, and Portland joined the
Canadian-US negotiations for mutual defense and mutual aid. The North Atlantic Treaty
was signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
The organization considered an attack against one member of the alliance, an attack on all.
Warsaw Pact: Treaty unifying communist nations of Europe signed May 1955 by: Russia,
Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia. East Germany. Hungary, Poland, and Romania after the
signing of the NATO treaty in 1949. Communist China dedicated support but did not sign
the treaty.
Southeast Asia Treaty organization (SEATO), Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
and the Australia, New Zealand US (ANZUS): All these treaties were formed post WWII
as mutual defense pledges in an attempt to halt the spread of communism through Europe
and Asia.
•NSC-68: In the 1950's President Truman called for a top secret investigation from the CIA
to review national defense policy. The NSA-68 called for a massive military buildup and
increase in defense spending through raising of taxes in fear of Soviet aggressive intentions
and military strength. The NSC-68 became of major importance throughout the Cold War as
it spoke of the need to remain a step ahead of the Soviet Union to protect its own security.
fall of China, Tse-tung, Mao, "lost China": Mao Tse-tung, head of the Chinese
Communists demanded US halt military aid and for US forces to leave China in January
1945. In 1949, the communists controlled major cities and to avoid a full scale war with
China, and the U.S. complied with Communist demands.
State Department "White Paper," 1949: The United States Relations With China; With
Special Reference to the Period 1944-1946 warned that the Nationalists were on the verge of
collapse because of political, military, and economic deficiencies, and US interference
would lead to outbreak of war.
Chiang Kai-shek, Formosa: Chiang Kai-shek was the Nationalist leader in China whom
the United States supported during the Chinese civil wars. After losing major cities, the
Nationalist government moved their headquarters to the city of Formosa. Chiang Kai-shek
was opposed by the communist leader Mao Tse-tung who opposed US involvement in the
war.
Quemoy, Matsu: On September 3, the Communist army attacked the Nationalist held
islands of Quemoy and Matsu. These attacks led to the Formosa Revolution which
Eisenhower issued, giving the president power to defend Formosa without committing to
defense of islands.
•KOREAN WAR, limited war: After Japan's defeat in 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th
parallel between Soviet troops to the north and the People's Democratic Republic and US
troops to the south. June 24, 1950 North Korean troops attacked the Republic of Korea,
provoking war. US gained UN approval to stop the considered communist domino. The
"limited" war was to hold the 38th parallel without beginning WWIII. A cease fire was
installed on July 26, 1953.
Truman-MacArthur controversy: During WWII, MacArthur was general in the Pacific
Wars. At the beginning of the Korean War, he became the United Nations Commander in
Korea. He was recalled from duty after expressing unpopular opinions about the US policy
in Korea.
Truman and Domestic Issues
With the return of large amounts of soldiers from the Second World War, the population in
the United States increased rapidly with the baby boom. Also, women were forced to return
to their homes as former soldiers reclaimed the workplace. This exodus of working women
promoted the idea that the proper place for the women was in the home, but laid the seeds
for the later women’s movement. At this point in time, all the citizens in the United States
wanted was a return to normalcy.
G.I. Bill of Rights, 1944: Congress enacted the bill to provide living allowances, tuition
fees, supplies, medical treatment, and loans for homes and businesses. It was accepted June,
1944 and helped to stimulate economic growth and the accumulation of wartime profits,
new factories and equipment.
Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion: A 1943 organization that controlled all
aspects of the economy. Needed to facilitate cooperation in the war effort between the
government and representatives of industry and the military, the O.W.M. increased war
production 33% in May 1943.
extension of the OPA vetoed: Congress instituted a ration program to conserve materials
and battle inflation. Because of opposition from food producers, manufacturers, and
retailers, Truman vetoed Congress’ 1946 bill that would have extended O.P.A.’s life, and
thus ended price controls.
postwar inflation: Two years after the war, consumer prices rose only 8% while the total
cost of living rose 28% between 1940-1945. The National War Labor Board tried to contain
restriction by limiting wage increases and Congress gave the president the power in 1942 to
freeze wages to help combat inflation.
baby boom: The number of babies being born between 1950-1963 rose substantially and
the mortality rate dramatically dropped allowing for a 19% increase in the population. This
generation was able to fuel the economy and widen the realm of education.
Employment Act of 1946: Truman promised economic growth and established the Council
of Economic Advisors to assist the president in maximizing employment, production, and
purchasing power. Wary of federal deficit spending and increased presidential powers,
Congress cut the goal of full employment.
Taft-Hartley Act: Congress modified the Wagner Act in 1947 to outlaw the practices of
delaying a strike, closed shop, and permitting the president to call an eighty-day cooling
period. Because it proved detrimental to certain unions, Truman vetoed the measure,
although Congress overrode it.
Taft, Sen. Robert A.: Representing a small group of Republican senators, he warned that
entering into NATO would provoke an arms race with Russia and force the United States to
provide military aid to Europe. He supported that tax measures favorable to the wealthy and
no minimum wage increase.
"right to work" laws: An area across TX and southern CA called the Sunbelt outlawed
unionized shops which were to prevent non-unionized workers to benefit, low taxes and
energy costs, plants moving their corporate headquarters here, transformed through
technology, and brought green lawn and suburbs.
1948 election; candidates, issues: Truman ran against Dewey, a republican devoted to
National unity and Strom Thurmond, who represented the Dixiecrats. representing states
rights. Truman wins with 24 million votes and the platform of the some of the New Deal and
bipartisan foreign policy.
Dixiecrats, J. Strom Thurmond: They helped Truman win by showing how the
communists in the Wallace campaign forced liberals back into the mainstream Democratic
Party. Strom Thurmond was able to collect 1.2 million votes and ran under the Democratic
party symbol.
Progressive Party, Henry Wallace: He was nominated for President after being fired by
Truman for questioning action taken towards Russia. Considered the true New Deal liberal,
supported social-welfare programs and justice and equality for minorities. Wallace’s’
campaign forced liberals back into the Democratic party.
•FAIR DEAL: Truman proposed a social and economic program during his State of the
Union message in 1949. It enlarged the New Deal by adding housing, conservation,
economic security, health insurance, federal aid to education, agricultural subsidies,
increased the minimum wage, expanded social securities, flood control, slum clearance,
expanded public power, reclamation, soil conservation, building of low income housing
units.
Americans for Democratic Action (ADA): Founded in 1947 to initiate the development
and promotion of a national liberal agenda of public policy. Citizen participation was
essential through direct democracy which was equal in only one way : all can exercise the
right to vote.
Twenty-second Amendment: adopted in 1951, this bill proclaims that "No person shall be
elected to the office of the President more than twice." It resulted from the agitation
following FDR’s running for and being elected to a third or fourth term of office of
president.
McCarthyism
As a result of the recent escalation of the Cold War and the spread of communism
throughout the world, domestic paranoia concerning communist infiltration increased. This
laid the foundation for the investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee.
Taking advantage of this "Red Scare" was Senator Joseph McCarthy who utilized the fear
and panic of United States citizens to advance his own interests. Though many Americans
believed the investigations were wrong, few said anything.
National Securities Act of 1947, 1949: The CIA was enacted to pursue and conduct
espionage and analyze information and facts concerning the actions of foreign countries. It
also became involved in undercover operations to destroy operations made to be hostile
toward the U.S.
•HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE (HUAC) : FDR established
this organization to serve as a platform to the denunciation of the New Deal and
communism growth in the U.S. Used to investigate and expose communist influence in
America and blurred the line between dissent and disloyalty. It also brought about hysteria
and caused blacklisting to occur so that people considered to be "communists" never found
work.
•MCCARTHYISM, McCarthy, Senator Joseph: He started the hysteria that occurred
after the second Red Scare and accused U.S. citizens of being communists. These
accusations appealed to Midwestern Americans who found that anti-communism was to
fight against liberals and internationalists. It took over the U.S. as a means of fighting
communism without realizing that the U.S. was in danger of losing what it was fighting for,
Freedom and the Constitution.
McCarthy, Senator Joseph: Republicans support and political power was given to senator
McCarthy to instill fear within the Democratic Party. He was supported by the GOP party
and many resented that he accused many people of being Communists without having proof
of their disloyalty. By accusing many of communism, McCarthyism arose.
Hiss, Alger: Identified as a member of the communist party by and initially denied claims.
Proof was given that Hiss was involved in espionage in the 1930s with the transmitting of
information to the Soviet Union through microfilm. Indicted for perjury and sentenced to
five years in prison, 1950
McCarran Internal Security Act, 1950: Required all organizations that were believed to
be communist by the attorney general to submit a roster of the members and financial
statements to the Department of Justice. It also excluded communists from working in
defense plants, passports to communists and deported aliens suspected of subversion.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg:. In March of 1951, based primarily on the testimony of their
alleged accomplices, Henry Greengrass and Harry Gold, the Rosenbergs were found guilty
of conspiring to commit espionage. Their electrocution in 1953 represented the antiCommunist fever that gripped the U.S.
Hollywood 10: The 10 people from the entertainment industry called before the House UnAmerican Activities Committee as "unfriendly" witnesses in October 1947 became known
as the Hollywood Ten. All refused to state whether they were communists, served prison
sentences, and were blacklisted in the film industry.
Fuchs, Klaus: He was a German physicist who was a British citizen from 1942-1950 and an
atomic scientist in the United Kingdom and the United States from 1942 on. He was
sentenced to prison in England in 1950 for having given atomic secrets to the USSR. After
he was freed in 1959, he went to East Germany.
"Pink Lady" - Douglas, Helen Gahagan: When Richard Nixon ran against the liberal
Democratic Jerry Voorhis for a California congressional seat in 1946, he won easily by
suggesting that Voorhis had left-wing tendencies. When Nixon ran for the Senate in 1950,
he used similar charges to defeat the Democratic candidate, Congresswoman Douglas.
•ANTI-COMMUNIST VOCABULARY: Red, pink or pinko, left-wing, and commie were
some of the slurs thrown around during the McCarthy years to brand people with a
communist "taint." These campaigns were known as witch-hunts by those who opposed
HUAC tactics, and like the Salem witch-hunts, accusations alone, without any proof of
wrong-doing, could be enough to ruin someone and get them "blacklisted" and unable to
find employment.
Eisenhower and the 1950s
Hailing Eisenhower as someone whom one might have as a regular neighbor, the country
overwhelmingly elected the former and celebrated World War Two Allied forces
commander. Although a former military leader, Eisenhower strongly believed in the
ascendancy of civilian control over the military and condemned what he termed the
"military-industrial complex." During Eisenhower’s administration, the USSR made several
advances in the space race pushing the United States to catch up.
1952 election: candidates, issues: Truman would not seek reelection. The Democrats
drafted Adlai Stevenson, who was unsuccessful. The Republicans decided to back the war
hero Dwight D. Eisenhower who chose Nixon as his running mate. The GOP controlled both
houses.
•IKE AND MODERN REPUBLICANISM: He provided Americans with the stability
they craved, and labeled his credo "Modern Republicanism." In general, he was conservative
on monetary issues and liberal "when it came to human beings." During his term as
president, he backed the most extensive public-works program in U.S. history: the Interstate
Highway Act and also extended social security benefits and raised the minimum wage.
"fiscal management": Large scale labor organizations and social welfare were used to deal
with powerful pressure groups. It rejected an extreme step to the right side of politics and a
return to the pre-New Deal policies. Also, it abandoned the goal of a balanced budget in
favor of increased spending to restore prosperity.
Niebuhr, Reinhold, Rand, Ayn, The Fountainhead: Niebuhr was a theologian who
expressed neo-Orthodox Protestant views and liberal social thoughts. Ayn Rand was a U.S.
novelist who became a citizen in 1931 and wrote about the struggles of poverty. Her work
was important in expressing life’s hardships and was published in 1928.
McCarran-Walter Immigration Act, 1952: Passed over the presidents’ veto, it validated
the quota system firmly based on the idea that national origin restrained immigration from
southern and Eastern Europe. This act also empowered the attorney general to exclude and
deport aliens suspected of being communists.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW): Eisenhower transformed the
Federal Securities Agency into the H.E.W. and gave it cabinet rank in 1953. This agency
allowed for the reorganization of government in order to achieve greater efficiency and a
better economy.
Interstate Highway Act: Passed by Eisenhower, this was the largest and most expensive
public-works system in American history that allowed for the building of 41,000 miles of
expressways in 1956. Allowed for suburban growth, the decay of central cities, and
increased America’s reliance on cars.
St. Lawrence Seaway: Approved by Eisenhower, this seaway linked the Great Lakes and
the Atlantic Ocean in 1954. It was built to accelerate suburban growth, expand trade to
promote economic prosperity, and allowed boats greater access to transport goods. It
connected Montreal and Lake Ontario promoting good relations with Canada.
Landrum-Griffin Act: Passed in 1959 to regulate the government of unions, guarantee
members’ rights, provisions for anti-corruption, and fair elections. Enacted due to the
concern of financial misconduct on the part of union officials and connected to
gangsters and organized crime.
Hoffa, Jimmy: He became president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters in 1957.
Jury tampering was found after he was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for the
fraudulent use of the union pension fund. After losing his appeals, he was sentenced in 1967
but only served about four years and nine months in prison.
AFL-CIO merger: In 1955, this brought 85% of all union members into a single
administrative unit, which promised aggressive unionism under the leadership of AFL’s
George Meany as president and CIO’s Walter Reuther as vice-president. However, the
movement was unable to achieve its old level of success.
Alaska, Hawaii: Congress approved Alaska as the forty-ninth state of the Union in June and
Eisenhower signed the Alaska statehood bill on July 7, 1958 . Congress approved of giving
Hawaii statehood in March of 1959 and it was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959.
•FIRST INDOCHINA WAR: After WWII, Ho Chi Minh of the Vietminh declared himself
leader of the Republic of Vietnam and began a war to drive the France imperialists out of
Vietnam in Dec of 1946. After a 55 day siege, the French surrendered at the fortress of Diem
Bien Phu and July 21, 1954 a truce agreement was signed with France surrendering North
Vietnam and granting independence to Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam.
Bricker Amendment: On January 7, 1954, Senator John W. Bricker proposed a
constitutional amendment to limit the executive power of the president. His proposal called
for a limit on the power of the president to negotiate treaties and executive agreements.
Rejected February 26, 1954.
Dulles, John Foster: Became Secretary of State under Eisenhower in 1953. Cold Warrior
who supported "massive retaliation," brinksmanship, and preemptive strike. In 1951 he was
author of Japanese peace treaty. Politically influential during WWII, from 1949-1959.
"massive retaliation": January, 1940s. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles signed the
Strategic Air Command as the primary deterrent for Soviet attack. Great Britain, Turkey,
and Italy stationed intermediate-range nuclear weapons in their countries to provide for a
capacity for "massive retaliation."
brinksmanship: This is another of the policies of John Foster Dulles that caused
considerable controversy during the Cold War. Dulles declared that the United States must
be prepared to "go to the brink" of war in order to attain its objectives. This stance was
labeled brinksmanship.
preemptive strike: A plan of acting first with nuclear or conventional weapons as a
defensive action. A preemptive strike would solve the problem before it became an issue by
acting first and swiftly. A preemptive strike is another Cold War term that generated fear for
the beginning of a nuclear war.
Khrushchev, 1955 Geneva Summit: The meeting of "Four Powers," US, Great Britain,
France and the Soviet Union. Also present was Khrushchev, the 1st Secretary of the
Communist Party. Decided to reunify Germany, and on disarmament, and how to improve
relations between east and west.
Hungarian revolt, 1956: Antigovernment demonstrations in Budapest on Oct. 23, 1956 as
revolutionaries demanded the denunciation of the Warsaw Pact and liberation from Soviet
troops. On Oct. 21, U.S. announced it wouldn’t give military aid to the revolutionaries. On
Nov. 4, Soviets attacked Hungary.
Nasser Suez Canal crisis: Dec 17, 1955, the U.S. offered Egypt a loan to build the Aswan
High Dam, withdrawing its offer after Egypt accepted Soviet Union aid and Pres. Nasser
nationalized the Suez canal to use tolls to build the dam. On Oct 31, Israel invaded Egypt
with French and British aircraft.
•PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE: A term applied to the actions of the US under Eisenhower
and USSR under Khrushchev for maintaining peace and reducing the possibility of war
between the two nations. The implementation of the phrase is seen in the Geneva Summit
where the "spirit of Geneva" was one of peace and collaboration to create a secure and
peaceful world. March 1959 the USSR and the U.S agreed to suspend atomic testing.
Eisenhower Doctrine: January 5, 1957, Eisenhower made a speech to the joint House of
Congress to limit communist expansion. Authorized March 7, the Eisenhower Doctrine
allowed the president to extend economic and military aid to certain nations as well as use of
$200 million mutual security funds.
Common Market: Established 1958 by the Treaty of Rome to set up a wide customs union
in 1968 and was joined by Great Britain in 1972. The EEC developed world wide trading
relations between European nations providing for a more solidified Europe, another symbol
of rearrangement of power after WWII.
Organization of American States (OAS): From the Charter of Bogotá regional association
was established with US and Latin America states and formed a Inter-American conference,
a Consultative Conference of Foreign Ministers, a Council with a delegate from each state,
and a Secretariat and Commissions.
U-2 incident: May 3, 1960, the USSR announced an American U-2 plane was shot down in
Soviet territory. May 5, NASA released a cover story of a lost weather research plane. May
7, pilot Francis Gary Powers confessed to being a CIA spy. May 11 Eisenhower admitted to
authorization of U-2 flights.
ICBM: Intercontinental Ballistic missiles were developed in the 1950's in America. The
ICBM's with one or two nuclear warheads had the potential to destroy the USSR and the
US. ICBM's were one of the many factors that gave the American people the sense that war
was imminent.
•SPUTNIK: The Soviet Union launched this first satellite into orbit on October 4, 1957.
Humiliated at being upstaged by the Russians, the U.S. reshaped the educational system in
efforts to produce the large numbers of scientists and engineers that Russia had. In addition,
to better make scientific advancements, NASA was created in 1958. Created by Congress, it
brought a national aeronautics agency to administer nonmilitary space research and
exploration.
National Defense Education Act (NDEA Act) : Passed in 1958 to provide $300 million in
loans to students of undergraduate and graduate status, funds for training teachers, and for
the development of new instructional material to ensure a higher level of national security.
"military-industrial complex": The demands of national security had produced the
symbiotic relationship of immense military establishment and industry. These intertwined
interests helped lead to leverage in government and threatened subordination of the military.
Civil Rights to 1960
After the army became desegregated in 1948, the position of African-Americans in civilian
society came under increasing scrutiny. There was widespread recognition that the
integration of society had not progressed as it was supposed to and that it was time for the
African-American citizens to take a stand. Landmark decisions in the Supreme Court as well
as civil rights laws foreshadowed the changes and upheaval that would come in this and
following decades.
Randolph, A. Philip: President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters who worked to
build his March-on-Washington Committee into an all-black protest movement. The
Committee also engaged in civil disobedience to protest racial discrimination in all aspects
of American life.
Fair Employment Practices Committee: Roosevelt issued this committee in 1941 to
enforce the policy of prohibiting employment-related discrimination practices by federal
agencies, unions, and companies involved in war-related work for the purpose of enforcing
an Executive Order and made possible the employment of 2 million blacks.
Detroit race riots, 1966: Erupted because of constant conflict between black citizens and
white cops, resulting in the bloodiest riot in this half-century. Forty-three were found dead,
thousands were wounded, and over $50 million in property was destroyed.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): The Congress of Racial Equality was formed in
1942 to help combat discrimination through nonviolent, direct action. Led by James Farmer,
it organized Freedom Rides that rode throughout the south to try to force desegregation of
public facilities.
Drew, Dr. Charles: As an African-American physician, he developed techniques for the
storing and processing of blood for transfusion in 1944. He also conducted research on the
preservation of blood and during WWII, he developed blood-transfusion programs for the
British and French.
Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: A Swedish economist, Gunnar wrote about
anticipated changes in race relations, as well as the problems between the races in 1944. He
specifically noted that Black veterans returned with very high expectations from civilian life
due to war.
rural and Southern to urban and Northern : Eisenhower sought to give low income
farmers increased training and trade as well as to improve industry and the health of citizens
of the rural South . In the urban North, a great emphasis was put upon renovation and the
rehabilitation of the cities opposed to clearance and reconstruction.
To Secure These Rights: The 1946 Committee on Civil Rights dramatized the inequities of
life in the South and under the Jim Crow laws. It called for an end to racial discrimination
and segregation, and was called "an American charter of human freedom," by President
Truman.
desegregation of the armed forces, 1948: Truman ended segregation in the army to
provide support during World War II to ensure victory. He was the first president to deal
with the legislative civil rights since the implementation of Reconstruction and fought for
many other civil rights acts but was denied.
Korean War: Seen as a Soviet-directed aggression to test American containment policy. On
June 27, 1950, Truman ordered American troops to invade South Korea. General Douglas
MacArthur sought total victory, and in 1953 a cease fire was issued after a truce agreement
was signed by the U.N. and Communists.
"separate but equal": Enacted because of the inferiority complex given to blacks, it set
forth an attempt to liberalize without losing control. The Supreme Court said that it had no
place in schools, so it ordered the desegregation of schools, navy yards and veteran
hospitals.
•BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA: The Supreme Court reversed
Plessy v. Ferguson in 1954 by ruling in favor of the desegregation of schools. The court
held that "separate but equal" violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment and was unconstitutional. Refusing to force the white south to accept the ruling,
defiance toward the law sprang up. Many southerners saw it as "an abuse of judiciary
power."
Marshall, Thurgood: 1st African American justice of the Supreme Court, famous for his
fight against discrimination, the death penalty, and his support of civil liberties and free
speech. Previously a lawyer with such key victories as in Brown v. Board of Education,
founder of the NAACP Legal Defense.
•MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, Rosa Parks: In December of 1955, Parks refused to
get up from her seat on the bus to give it to a white man, and was therefore arrested. This led
to massive bus boycotts in Montgomery, Alabama. Because of her actions she is known as
the "mother" of civil rights. Resistance to desegregation of buses was finally overcome by
the Supreme Court ruling that it was unconstitutional to segregate public transportation in
November, 1956.
King Jr., Rev. Martin Luther: An African-American leader who was the voice of his
people. His philosophy emphasized need for direct action by getting every AfricanAmerican involved in the pursuit of equality and to build a community of brotherhood in his
"I have a dream" speech. On April 4,1968 he was assassinated.
•LITTLE ROCK, ARK. CRISIS: Governor Orval E. Faubus sent the National Guard to
bar nine black students from entering Central High School in Arkansas in 1957. Eisenhower
then enforced a new court order that forced the men to withdraw, and a mob of whites
reacted by preventing the students from entering the school. Then The National Guard was
sent to protect the students from the violence for the rest of the school year. The school was
then shut down in 1958-59.
Civil Rights Act,1957: Eisenhower passed this bill to establish a permanent commission on
civil rights with investigative powers but it did not guarantee a ballot for blacks. It was the
first civil-rights bill to be enacted after Reconstruction which was supported by most nonsouthern whites.
Civil Rights Act, 1960: Eisenhower passed this bill to appease strong southern resistance
and only slightly strengthened the first measures provisions. Neither act was able to
empower federal officials to register the right to vote for African-Americans and was not
effective.
literacy tests, poll tax: Literacy tests were given to blacks with the idea that they would be
denied the right to vote since most could not read. The poll tax prevented AfricanAmericans from voting by requiring all voters to pay a tax, which blacks could not afford. In
1966, the poll tax was outlawed in all elections.
grandfather clause, white primaries: The grandfather clause was a provision used to
exclude people who served in the war and their descendants from taking suffrage tests. It
was declared unconstitutional in 1915. White primaries were used to control everything even
with disenfranchisement and was declared unconstitutional in 1944.
• ROBINSON, JACKIE: He was the first African-American baseball player to play
professionally in 1947. He was able to break the color barrier and seemed to successfully
overcome the racism so prevalent in his sport. Robinson was also was able to contribute to
the winning of the pennant and Rookie of the Year in his first year of playing.
Civil Rights to 1965
Frustrated by black disenfranchisement in the south and the blatant racism epitomized by
segregated schools, black militancy grew. Sit-ins, freedom rides, and other signs of the
explosive discontent ravaged the nation, especially in the south where such actions were
met by fierce resistance. Destroying the public’s complacency, nonviolent protest met by
vicious dogs, blasting water hoses, and sneering racists shocked the nation. Black Power
and the cry that "Black is Beautiful" resounded in the hearts of many African Americans.
Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: The Warren court decided
in 1954 that the separate but equal concept that legalized segregation was
unconstitutional. Angered by the court decision, white southerners refused to comply; the
president refused to enforce it and blacks continued to attend segregated schools.
Montgomery bus boycott: After refusing to give up her seat for a white man in the front
of a Montgomery bus in Dec. 1955, Rosa Park was arrested. Black leaders, including
King, organized a massive boycott of the buses and took the case to a lower court where
it was decided that bus seating would be based on a first-come-first-serve basis.
King Jr. Rev. Martin Luther.: One of the most prominent black civil rights leaders,
King called for black assertiveness and nonviolent resistance to oppression. He is famous
for his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" which promotes the doctrine of civil disobedience,
a method of protests that urges blacks to ignore all laws that they believe are unjust.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference: In protest to Jim Crow, King organized
the SCLC in 1957. It was made up of a group of ministers that supported the
Montgomery bus boycott. This organization coordinated future protests and preached the
need for civil rights activists.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The
NAACP was created in 1909 in New York to raise the quality of living for inner city
blacks. It became a powerful legal force and argued cases in the Supreme Court which
led to the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Urban League: Some southern blacks were not satisfied by the Brown v. Board of
Education and formed the Urban League. Rejecting the courtroom strategy utilized by the
NAACP, the League advocated more militant tactics. They sought direct confrontation
and violence with local governments.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): CORE was a group of black rights protesters
created in 1942. It organized freedom rides through the south to expose the violations of
the 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on interstate buses and trains.
CORE also registered blacks to vote throughout the South.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Stokely Carmicheal, H. Rap
Brown: SNCC was a organization of college students that utilized nonviolent forms of
protest until Carmicheal and Brown rallied the members in favor of Black Power. The
group became more militant, pushing for direct armed confrontation with the police.
•SIT-INS, FREEDOM RIDES: Utilized in the spring of 1961, sit-ins and freedom rides
were forms of protest organized by CORE and utilized in the spring of 1961. Protestors
sat in a segregated section on a bus or restaurant until they were forced to move by
racists. When this happened another protestor took the place that had just been vacated.
This type of action was used to expose the violations of the court decision to outlaw
segregation in public areas and transit.
"I have a dream" speech: King gave this speech during the historic civil rights March
on Washington on August 28, 1963. The speech was said to be inspiring and reaffirmed
the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protesting. The speech reiterated the
American ideals of democracy and equality.
March on Washington: King organized this massive civil protest march in Washington
in August of 1963 as a result of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The march
reaffirmed the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protest. It was also the site
where King made the "I have a dream" speech.
Evers, Medgar: Evers was an American civil rights leader who conducted campaigns to
register black voters and organized boycotts of firms that practiced racial discrimination.
He also was one of the early recruiters for the NAACP and was the first field secretary
for the state of Mississippi.
Powell, Adam Clayton: Powell was a Black civil rights leader serving as a Democratic
Congressman of New York and the Chairman of the House Committee on Education and
Labor in 1960-1967. Under his direction the House Committee on Education and Labor
passed the Minimum Wage Bill and Anti-Poverty Bill.
Weaver, Robert: Weaver was the first black cabinet member appointed by President
Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. He served as the Secretary of Housing and Department of
Urban Development, a new office created to address the needs of those living in the inner
city areas.
Marshall, Thurgood: Marshall was the first black residing under the
Warren Court
during the 1960s. Marshall was famous for pursuing cases that dealt with controversial
issues of civil rights and the status of racism in America. His presence in Supreme Court
drew more attention to the area of civil and individual rights.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was an influential black leader who called for unity between
blacks to combat oppressive forces in the United States. He was a part of the Nation of
Islam, but broke with them to form a black nationalist group, the Organization of AfroAmerican Unity (OAAU). He advocated Black Power.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers was a black rights political organization created in
Oakland, California in 1966 by Bobby G. Seale and Huey P. Newton. It was originally a
small community action group for defense against racism but later it began to urge black
armament and direct confrontation with the police.
Black Muslims: Formally called the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims was a religious
organization of the Islamic faith that was also called the American Muslim Mission,
World Community of Al-Islam in the West. The group was known for its strict adherence
to Islam, and was a root for black militancy in America.
Davis, Angela: Angela Davis was an influential black leader and activist. In 1970, she
went into hiding after being accused of aiding an attempted courtroom escape that killed
four persons. Tried in 1972 and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate of
the Communist party in 1980.
•BLACK POWER: Black power was a slogan created by Malcolm X and widely used
by Stokely Carmichael, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality. The slogan called for
all blacks to organize together and overthrow the oppressive forces of racism in America.
Black power became the basis for black militancy in the civil rights movement. The
slogan was used by a number of new civil rights activist groups such as the Black
Panthers.
Twenty-fourth Amendment: The 24th Amendment, adopted in 1964, gave voting rights
to every American citizen, regardless of their race or religion. It also prohibited the use of
the poll tax or any tax that denied the vote. The amendment gave Congress the power to
enforce it with legislation.
Watts, Detroit race riots: A confrontation between police and blacks in Watts and
Detroit took place after the voting rights bill was passed in 1965. It sparked a huge riot
that lasted six days. The National Guard was called to put down both riots. This violent
growth of civil discontent was given the name "The Long Hot Summers."
Kerner Commission on Civil Disorders: Created to investigate reasons for the massive
outbreaks of riots in 1965, the commission concluded that white racism caused mounting
violence, poverty, poor education and police brutality and recommended creating 2
million jobs and 6 million housing units to lower tensions. The suggestion was ignored.
de facto, de jure segregation: De facto referred to the use of power and authority in the
absence of an actual government or legal authority. In the 1960s, this meant that
segregation was accepted as long as it was not outlawed. De jure segregation referred to
the system of segregation that was legal in the North such as New York and Chicago.
•WHITE BACKLASH: White backlash referred to white reaction against the massive
ghetto riots of thousands of young blacks across the nation. The reaction slowed the civil
rights movement because whites in power feared passing legislation and creating civil
discontent and riots.
•CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964, public accommodations section of the act: Passed
under the Johnson administration, this act outlawed segregation in public areas and
granted the federal government power to fight black disfranchisement. The act also
created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to prevent
discrimination in the work place. This act was the strongest civil rights legislation since
Reconstruction and invalidated the Southern Caste System.
•VOTING RIGHTS ACT, 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed as a Great
Society program under the Johnson administration. It prohibited the use of literacy tests
as a part of the voter registration process which were initially used as a method to control
immigration to the United States during the 1920s. The act enabled federal examiners to
register anyone who qualified in the South, giving the power of the vote to
underrepresented minorities.
Civil Rights Act, 1968: The Civil Rights Act of 1968 barred discrimination in housing
sales or rentals. This act was a part of a series of new legislation that encouraged
desegregation of blacks in America. The act was a key piece of legislation which ensured
blacks more equal rights.
New Frontier
Innovative, charming, self-confident, and energetic, JFK vigorously called on the
American people to support his programs of domestic reform and foreign policy. He
hoped for "more sacrifice instead of more security" in a nation on "the frontier of
unknown opportunities and perils."
election of 1960: candidates, "missile gap": The election of 1960 was a race between
Kennedy, who promised a new and better future for the nation, and the "middle way"
Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon. The issues included which path of action to
take against Russia to ensure an advantage of arms, thus closing the missile gap.
•"Impeach Earl Warren": The ultra-reactionary John Birch Society created the phrase,
"impeach Earl Warren" in 1954 as a result of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s rulings which
affirmed the rights of alleged communists and the desegregation of schools and public
areas. Warren was branded a communist sympathizer by his enemies. As a result, he lost
the respect and admiration of the American public, his political friends in congress, and
the government.
Miranda Decision, Escobedo decision: The Miranda Decision referred to the 1966 case
of Miranda v. Arizona which required police to read a suspect their constitutional right
which included remaining silent and having legal council present during police
questioning. The Escobedo decision labeled the Warren Court as an intrusive presence.
Gideon v. Wainwright: The Warren Court ruled in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright that
the state was required to provide attorneys for defendants in felony cases at the public’s
expense. This ruling was a part of the effort to reform the criminal justice system and
enable poor people legal council.
Baker v. Carr: In 1962, the Warren court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote"
needed to be maintained in all elections. The ruling reaffirmed the requirement that
representation in legislative bodies would be based on the people’s vote. Also, this
decision would prevent later voting frauds.
Kennedy and the steel price rollback: In his attempt to lower business taxes and solve
wage problems, JFK was faced with a crisis when U.S. Steel raised their prices to $6 after
JFK worked with the steel union for noninflationary contracts and minimal wage
increases for workers. He threatened to file antitrust suits and the prices fell.
Peacecorps, VISTA: The Peacecorps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA)
were created by the Office of Economic Opportunity to work in poverty areas. This was a
part of President Johnson’s training programs and support services created during the
1960s.
Berlin Wall: The Berlin Wall was a concrete wire wall which divided East and West
Germany after World War II. It was erected by the government of East Germany in order
to prevent a brain drain, in which the skilled artisans of the population immigrated to
West Germany. The wall was dismantled in August of 1989.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963: The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was negotiated
by Harriman Averell, a diplomat to the Soviet Union after World War II. The treaty was
the first treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union that called for a ban on
atmospheric testing of nuclear devices.
Castro Revolution: Fidel Castro led a nationalist uprising against the former despotic
Cuban government. He initially asked for U.S. assistance, but American businesses
feared the nationalization of their industries. When the U.S. refused to help, he turned to
Soviet communism.
"flexible response": JFK’s policy of "flexible response" called for the preparation of
more conventional weapons versus atomic weapons. Kennedy felt that U.S, needed both
a strong military program and atomic weapons to combat the forces of communism. He
reasoned conventional weapons were essential, for atomic weapons were never used.
•Bay of Pigs: On Apr. 17, 1961, a group of Cuban exiles invaded the Bay of Pigs, in an
attempt to overthrow the Communist government and capture Fidel Castro. The Cuban
soldiers were secretly trained by the CIA and supplied by the U.S. government. The
Cuban exiles were captured and traded back to the U.S. for food. Their return
embarrassed the United States and the nation acquired a reputation as a belligerent
imperial country.
UN in the Congo: During the 1950s the United Nations was called upon to act as a peace
keeping force throughout the world such as in Kuwait and the Middle East. In the 1950s
the United Nations sent a peace keeping force to the Congo, which is located in Africa.
•Cuban missile crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation between the
U.S and Russia in 1962 following the discovery of nuclear missile sites in Cuba.
Kennedy placed a blockade on the island and Russia agreed to remove the missiles rather
than provoke a nuclear war. It was the most imminent threat of nuclear annihilation and
thereafter, a hot line was established between the White House and the Kremlin to
prevent accidental missile launches. The U.S. removed nuclear weapons from Turkey.
Alliance for Progress: This was an economic assistance program proposed by President
Kennedy in 1961. It was to settle disputes between member nations and discourage
foreign intervention in their internal affairs. The program to give Latin America $20
million in aid was protested after the fall of the democratic government in Haiti.
Dominican Republic, 1965: A civil war broke out in the Dominican Republic between
the Bosch forces, the current government regime, and the people. The United States
intervened with military forces and the Organization of American States restored peace
by conducting elections where Joaquín Balaguer defeated Bosch.
Allende, Salvador: In 1933, Allende founded the Chilean Socialist party and was elected
president of Chile in 1970. He became the first elected Marxist leader in the Americas.
His socialist program led to inflation and strikes which resulted a military coup that
overthrew his regime in 1973.
Panama Canal treaties: After gaining its independence in 1903, Panama gave the rights
to use the Panama Canal to the United States. Another treaty was signed between the
United States and Panama stating that control over the canal was to be returned to the
Panamanian government on December 31, 1999.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): As frustrations concerning government
policies grew, this organization was created in 1962. The SDS became a focal point for
activist students. The SDS organized massive Vietnam Protests. They issued the Port
Huron Statement which called for support of liberalism.
Flower children: Flower children referred to the counterculture of the 1960s. This social
category consisted mainly of student protestors who envisioned a life of freedom and
harmony. They led pilgrimages to San Francisco and New York, but the counterculture
rise was stemmed as the idealism turned into thievery, rape, and drugs.
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring: Rachel Carson was a marine biologist that wrote and
published Silent Spring. It addressed her concerns on the environmental hazards of
pesticides. Her writings coincided with many other novels which brought social issues to
the surface such as Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique.
Reich, Charles, The Greening of America: In his critical novel of the New Deal, Reich
expressed his desire for courts to expand individual rights to protect nonconformists from
social standards in 1971. He stated that it was impossible to mix individual interests in
large general tax bills.
Oswald, Lee Harvey, Warren Commission: On Nov. 22, 1963 in Texas, John F.
Kennedy was shot and killed by Lee Havery Oswald. As a result, the Warren
Commission was created to investigate the controversial issues concerning a possible
conspiracy. Oswald was later killed by Jack Ruby on his way to a court hearing.
Great Society
An idealistic call for improved environmental, conservation, racial, educational, and
health programs, the Great Society was inspired by JFK and prompted by LBJ’s insecure
need to win over the American people. Largely successful in the first two years of the
Johnson administration, the idealism would later give way to virulent conservatism and a
return to traditional values.
•Election of 1964: LBJ, Goldwater: In the election of 1964 Lyndon Johnson, the elected
Democratic party majority leader, defeated Barry Goldwater, the elected Republican
majority leader. Main issues of the election of 1964 included serious debates over the
continuation of Johnson’s Great Society plan, future civil rights legislation and the status
of the war in Vietnam. Lyndon Johnson attempted to continue his Great Society program
after the election with small social legislation.
Office of Economic Opportunity: The Office of Economic Opportunity was created as a
part of President Johnson’s Great Society. Established by the Economic Opportunity Act
of 1964, the office funded the Job Corps to train young people to work, VISTA, and
Project Headstart.
War on Poverty: The term, War on Poverty, referred to Lyndon Johnson’s statement
describing his goal to create a better America. It was used to describe Johnson’s Great
Society package that created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the
Economic Opportunity Office, which began the first funding for education.
Elementary and Secondary Act: As a part of his Great Society vision, President
Lyndon Johnson rallied for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 which
gave federal aid to education. The law gave over one billion dollars to public and
parochial schools for books and special education programs.
Medicare: A program of national health insurance created by the Social Security
Amendments of 1965, this program gave health insurance for persons who were over the
age of 65 or seriously disabled. Although some states refused to administer the insurance
the Kerr-Mills Act of 1960 provided federal support for state medical programs.
Abolition of immigration quotas: President Lyndon Johnson’s program of liberalism,
which included social legislation in 1965, led to the liberalization of immigration laws.
These laws abolished the restrictions and the quota based system previously used by the
U.S. to determine the amount of immigration from a certain area.
Department of Housing and Urban Development: Created in 1966 to give aid to needy
families located in poor inner city areas, the Department of Housing and Urban
Development passed bills allocating funds to housing development projects under the
leadership of Robert Weaver.
New Left: The New Left encompassed the liberalism of college students during the
1960s. They held idealistic views of civil rights movements, supported the election of
John F. Kennedy, and heralded the campaign against nuclear testing that created the
nuclear test ban treaty of 1963. It was also the root of protest over Vietnam.
Kennedy, Robert: Kennedy was the attorney general of the U.S. in 1968 and senator
from New York. He stressed that voting was the key to racial equality and pushed for the
Civil Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy gained the Democratic presidential nomination in
1968, but was assassinated in California during a campaign.
Election of the 1968: Lyndon Johnson did not run for reelection in 1968 due to his
dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War and public discontent. Richard Nixon captured the
presidency for the Republican party after he defeated George C. Wallace, the American
Independent and Hubert H. Humphrey, the Democratic candidate.
Czechoslovakia invaded: In Aug. of 1968, with the installation of reformers Alexander
Dubcek as party leader and Ludvik Svoboda as president, the USSR and its Warsaw Pact
allies invaded Czechoslovakia, forcing the repeal of most of the reforms. The Soviet
Union replaced Dubcek with the staunchly pro-Soviet Communist regime.
Chicago, Democratic Party Convention riot: In August 1968, the Chicago convention
was disrupted by violence due to the party split over the nomination of the majority
leader. Tensions rose as young SDS protestors against the Vietnam war arrived to voice
their discontent. The riot destroyed Democratic unity and resulted in a loss of support.
Nixon, Richard’s Southern strategy: In 1965, Nixon began his attack on radicalism in
America, focusing on the failure of southern white efforts to destroy racial equality.
Nixon went on television to condemn the court that enforced bus desegregation. He also
appointed W. Burger to counter liberalism in the Warren Court.
Wallace, Governor: George Wallace was an American politician and three-time
governor of Alabama. He first came to national attention as an outspoken segregationist.
Wallace ran for the presidency in 1968 and 1972 and was shot and killed during a 1972
election campaign stop in Maryland.
•MOON RACE, Armstrong, Neil: Frightened out of complacency by the Soviet
launching of Sputnik, a satellite, Kennedy promised the American people to put a man on
the moon before the end of the decade. Pouring vast amounts of money into the space
program, Kennedy was determined not to allow Russia to win. On July 21, 1969, Neil
Armstrong walked on the moon’s surface. Americans put fears of Soviet technological
superiority to rest for the United States had been the first to launch a human out into
space.
Sunbelt verses Rustbelt: The leading work industries, the Rustbelt and Sunbelt, reeled
under the triple blow of slumping exports, aggressive foreign competition, and
technological obsolescence. About 11.5 million American workers lost jobs as a result of
plant closings or lack of work.
Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique: The Feminine Mystique elucidated to readers
that they were not alone in their unhappiness. Friedan’s personal demand for "something
more than my husband, my children, and my home" rang true to a growing number of
middle class American women who found joys in motherhood.
National Organization for Women (NOW): The National Organization for Women
was formed in 1966. Defining themselves as a civil-rights group for women, NOW
lobbied for equal opportunity; they filed lawsuits against gender discrimination and
rallied public opinion "to bring American women to full participation."
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): By 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights
Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution. This amendment stated that "Equality of rights
under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on the
basis of sex."
National Women’s Political Caucus: The National Women’s Political Caucus (1971)
endorsed candidates that promoted a feminist agenda in Washington and many other
State capitals. By 1972, many states had liberalized their abortion laws and banned sex
discrimination in job hiring.
Nader, Ralph, Unsafe at Any Speed: Ralph Nader, a graduate of Harvard Law School,
exposed the danger of automobiles that were "unsafe at any speed"; he brought forth the
movement of environmental concerns which would later launch major campaigns for
federal regulations.
Vietnam to 1968
As the French pulled out of an increasingly helpless situation, the United States became
more involved to fill the power vacuum. Though many liberal college students mounted
large protests against the conflict, the majority of the nation supported the war. Not until
the Têt offensive did massive opposition arise.
Gulf of Tonkin: The Gulf of Tonkin is the northwestern arm of the South China Sea.
China and the island of Hainan border it on the west by Vietnam. It is the site for the
famous battle that led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which committed the U.S. in
Vietnam.
North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia: The French empire
condensed North and South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia into one colony
called Indochina. The separate regions resented this and nationalist stirrings caused
widespread discontent among the people of each nation.
•Ho Chi Minh: Ho was the Vietnamese Communist leader and the principal force behind
the Vietnamese struggle against French colonial rule. Hoping for U.S. assistance in
Vietnam’s struggle for independence, Ho later turned to the Soviet Union when the U.S.
aided the French. He was a nationalist at heart and wanted Vietnamese independence far
more than a communist government. He led the Vietminh, a group of guerrillas. In 1954,
they defeated the French garrison at the battle of Dien Bien Phu.
First Indochina War: The French wanted Indochina back after losing control over the
colony during the Vichy era of the Second World War. Ho Chi Minh refused to give up
sovereignty which resulted in the First Indochina War; it drew the U.S. into the fight
against communism, but Vietnam became more staunchly communist after the war.
•Domino theory: Eisenhower’s domino theory claimed that once one nation fell to
communism, bordering countries would follow like falling dominoes. The theory was
used in context of the monolithic view of communism, which claimed that all communist
countries were in a conspiracy to destroy democracy in the world. Applied to Asia, the
U.S. could not let Vietnam fall after "losing" China to communism. Fearful of Soviet
expansion, Eisenhower increased American involvement in Vietnam.
Dien Bien Phu: On May 7, 1954, the Vietminh surrounded and laid siege to the French
garrison, forcing them to surrender. The U.S. refused to give aid to the French for fear of
condoning imperialism. Facing this humiliating defeat, the French decided to give up
their futile attempt to fight nationalist stirrings in Vietnam.
•GENEVA CONFERENCE, 1954: After the fall of the French garrison at Dien Bien
Phu, an international conference was called in Geneva in 1954 to discuss the status of the
war in Vietnam. The delegates of the conference decided that Vietnam should be divided
into North and South at the seventeenth parallel until national elections took place in
1954. The elections were never held. The conference also created an area known as the
demilitarized zone.
•VIET CONG, National Liberation Front: The Viet Cong was the name given to the
Vietnamese communist army; the National Liberation Front was a part of this group. In
support of Ho Chi Minh, the group pushed to overthrow the South Vietnamese President
Ngo Dinh Diem. The National Liberation Front was partly responsible for the fall of
Dinh Bien Phu and organization of the Têt Offensive. The National Liberation Front
consisted mainly of guerilla fighters.
•GULF OF TONKIN RESOLUTION, 1964: After North Vietnamese gun boats
assaulted American ships that were organizing air strikes and military moves, Johnson
and his advisers drafted the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that committed the United States
in Vietnam. It was passed by Congress and gave Johnson a "blank check," granting him
full authority against North Vietnamese forces. This led to the increased U.S.
involvement in Vietnam.
Demilitarized zone: A demilitarized zone (DMZ) refers to areas in which military
weapons and other installations are prohibited. The demilitarized zone during the
Vietnam War was surrounded the seventeenth parallel. The parallel and the DMZ were
created as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions.
•Têt Offensive: The NLF and the North Vietnamese arm mounted a massive offensive
against the South Vietnamese and American armies on January 31, 1968, which was also
the first day of the Vietnamese New Year known as Têt. The nationalists successfully
penetrated Saigon and took the United States embassy. After being told that the enemy
was virtually defeated, the offensive showed that the nationalists were still capable of
fighting and that the government had lied. Popularity for the war vastly declined.
Vietnamization and Détente
Skilled in foreign politics, Nixon gracefully pulled the United States out of Vietnam by
turning over the conflict to the South Vietnamese. With a major Cold War conflict over,
the president proceeded to lessen American-Soviet tensions through a call for "peaceful
coexistence."
Bombing of Laos and Cambodia: As Nixon began to withdraw American forces in
Vietnam in 1972, he sent Henry Kissinger to negotiate with the communists’ foreign
minister, Le Duc Tho. In order to force a compromise, the president ordered massive
bombings of Cambodia and Laos, the locations of communist supply lines.
Kent State and Jackson State incidents: In 1972, the invasion of Cambodia spread the
war throughout Indochina which sparked massive American protests on college
campuses. The Kent and Jackson State universities were sites of protest in which student
protesters were killed.
Daniel Ellsberg, Pentagon Papers: Daniel Ellsberg was a analyst for the Department of
Defense, who in 1971 released to the press the Pentagon Papers, an account of American
involvement in Vietnam created by the department during the Johnson administration.
The papers revealed government lies to Congress and the American people.
My Lai, Lt. Calley: Lt. Calley was an inexperienced commander of an American army
unit massacred 347 defenseless women, children, and old men in 1968. The horrors of the
massacre were revealed to the public and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, an
organization of returning soldiers that renounced their war medals as a result.
Hanoi, Haipong: Hanoi was the capital of Vietnam before the war. It was located in the
northern part of the country. During the war it was heavily bombed in an attempt to force
the North Vietnamese to negotiate a peace treaty. Haiphong was located 10 miles from
the Gulf of Tonkin. It was the largest port in Southeast Asia and site of the Indochina
naval base.
Fulbright, Senator: Senator Fulbright was an American senator of Arkansas, who
proposed the Fulbright Act of 1964. This act established the exchange program for
American and foreign educators and students. Senator Fulbright also served as the
chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the war.
•Vietnamization: Popular discontent forced Nixon to pull out of the Vietnam war, but he
could not allow the United States to lose face. Leaving Vietnam without honor would
endanger U.S. global dominance and give a considerable advantage the Soviet Union.
Vietnamization, the process of replacing the American armed forces with South
Vietnamese troops trained by American advisors, allowed the U.S. to save its reputation
and satisfy an American public weary with a futile struggle.
Paris Accords, 1973: In 1973, after Lyndon Johnson died of a heart attack, Nixon
declared that a peace had been reached in Vietnam. The Paris Accords ended the war
between the North Vietnamese government and Thieu government of South Vietnam. It
was also agreed that the future of North Vietnam would not be determined by war.
SALT I Agreement: At a meeting in Vladivostok, Siberia, in 1974, the SALT I
agreement allowed Ford and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to make enormous progress
towards the new arms-control treaty. This agreement was to limit each side to 2,400
nuclear missiles which would reduce the rate of war to a mere fraction.
Détente: The evacuation of American troops from Vietnam helped Nixon and Kissinger
reduce Chinese-American tensions and achieve détente with the communist superpowers.
This dramatic development marked a significant change in American foreign policy by
developing a cordial attitude towards the communists.
China visit, 1972; recognition of China: On February 22, 1972, the President’s plane
landed in China. Part of his policy of détente, Nixon took advantage of the Sino-Soviet
split to pit the former allies against each other by recognizing China. The China visit
sealed the new Chinese-American friendship, leaving Russia more isolated.
War Powers Act, 1973: As an act passed by Congress, the president was given
unprecedented authority. Thousands of special wartime agencies suddenly regulated
almost every of American life. After the war, 15 million men had been trained and
equipped with armed forces ready for battle.
Six Day War, 1967: Israel’s decisive triumph in the Six Day War had left the Arabs
humiliated and eager to reclaim the militarily strategic Golan Heights which was taken
from Syria. Aided by massive U.S. shipments of highly sophisticated weaponry, the
Israelis stopped the assault and counterattacked.
Yom Kippur War: Syria and Egypt, backed by Russia, led an all out attack on Israel in
1973 on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. This war between the Israelis and their
neighboring countries spanned several years. There were frequent bombings and raids
amongst the countries for oil.
• KISSINGER, HENRY, "shuttle diplomacy": Henry Kissinger flew from capital to
capital and bargained with the Israelis and the Egyptian people. He organized a cease-fire
in November of 1973. Kissinger negotiated the peace agreement with the aid of the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to end the Yom Kippur war. His "shuttle
diplomacy" ameliorated the hostility between the Middle Eastern countries and the
United States.
Nixon to Watergate
Basing his support on the conservative New Right coalition, Nixon actually broke from
Republican tradition in environmental protection, welfare reform, and finding solutions
to economic problems such as the severe inflation. Yet Nixon’s insecurity as president
and his abuse of executive power led to his downfall.
Nixon, "New Federalism," The Imperial Presidency: Nixon’s "New Federalism"
promised to bring back law and order to the United States by promoting conservatism and
executive authority. The term Imperial Presidency referred to Nixon’s efforts to acquire
absolute control over his Presidency.
Agnew, Spiro T., his resignation: Vice President Agnew was charged with income-tax
evasion and accepting bribes. He pleaded no contest which was "the full equivalent to a
plea of guilty," according to the trial judge. Dishonored and distrusted, Agnew left the
government service with a three-year suspended sentence.
"revenue sharing": As part of Nixon’s "New Federalism," "revenue sharing" was a five
year plan to distribute $30 billion of federal revenues to the states. Congress passed it in
1972 in response to the failing economy caused by the inflation, trade deficit, and
massive spending during the 1960s.
wage and price controls: In response to the troubled American economy, Nixon
declared a ninety-day freeze on wages, prices, and rents which would be followed by
federally imposed controls setting maximum annual increases of 5.5% for wages and
2.5% for prices and rents.
Nixon verses Congress: On July 27th, the House Judiciary Committee took in the first
article of impeachment. 6 out of 17 Republicans voted with the 21 Democrats to charge
Nixon with interruption of justice for controlling the Watergate investigation. The
president had abused his power.
Committee for the Reelection of the President (CREEP): Nixon created CREEP to
ensure every vote for the election of 1972. Appointing attorney general John Mitchell as
the head, CREEP financed many "dirty tricks" to spread dissension within Democratic
ranks and paid for a special internal espionage unit to spy on the opposition.
Watergate: The scandal exposed the connection between the White House and the
accused Watergate burglars who had raided the Democrats’ headquarters during the 1972
campaign. The election federal judge, Sirica, refused to accept the claim of those on trial
that they had behaved on their own terms.
election of 1972: Nixon’s reelection was assured. He relied on his diplomatic successes
with China and Russia and his strategy towards the winding down of the war in Vietnam
to attract moderate voters. He expected his southern strategy and law-and-order posture
to attract the conservative Democrats.
White House "plumbers": Led by Liddy and Hunt, this Republican undercover team
obtained approval by Mitchell to wire telephones at the Democractic National Committee
headquarters in the Watergate apartment/office complex. The operation was thwarted on
June 17, 1992 by a security guard; it would bring about the downfall of Nixon.
Watergate Tapes: Another Presidential rumor shocked the committee and the nation by
revealing that Nixon had put in a secret taping system in the White House that recorded
all the conversations between his enemies in the Oval Office. Both the Ervin committee
and prosecutor Cox insisted to hear the tapes, but Nixon refused.
McGovern, Sen. George: George McGovern of South Dakota rose to fame on the
energetic support of antiwar activists rushing to the Democratic primaries. He was seen
as inept and radical, but Nixon was insecure about McGovern’s popularity; the senator
contributed to Nixon’s downfall.
Muskie, Sen. Edmund: The campaign of Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine collapsed
when he started to cry in public while trying to respond to an accusation of prejudice
against Canadian-Americans. Muskie’s campaign was never a threat to Nixon’s
reelection, but Nixon still feared him.
Haldeman, H.R., Ehrlichman, John, John Dean, John Mitchell: All were involved in
the Watergate scandal. Dean refused to cover up Nixon’s involvement in Watergate.
Nixon fired Dean and Haldeman and Erlichman who headed the White House Staff
resigned. All three and former Attorney General Mitchell were indicted on March 1974.
Impeachment proceeding: The most damaging to the President was when the hearings
exposed the White House’s active involvement in the Watergate cover-up. But the Senate
still lacked concrete evidence on the president’s criminality. Thus they could not impeach
Nixon.
Twenty-fifth Amendment: Ratified in 1967, this amendment detailed the procedure by
which the vice president was to take over the presidency if the current president could not
uphold his status in office. It also limited the power given to the vice president from the
incapacitated president.
Twenty-sixth Amendment: This amendment guaranteed the rights of those who were 18
years of age or older to vote as citizens of the United States. It gave the power to
Congress to enforce and protect by appropriate legislation. The amendment allowed the
politicians to listen to the voices of younger people as voters.
Chicanos: Chicanos were segregated Mexican-Americans and also included Puerto
Ricans. Assumed as inferiors, they lacked all the civil liberties of citizenship. They
typically worked in the agricultural field as menial laborers and were unpaid and
overcharged.
Cesar Chavez: As a Roman Catholic and a follower of King, Chavez worked to win
rights for migrant farmers. He is famous for a strike he organized with the help of grape
pickers in California in 1965. Chavez’s leadership brought guarantees of rights for the
farmers. He was an important figure in the Brown Power movement.
Burger, William appointed, 1969: Appointed in 1969, Warren Burger was to replace
the old and retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He was young and a new addition to the
Nixon court; Nixon appointed him to moderate the liberalism of the Warren court and its
controversial decisions.
American Indian Movement (AIM), Wounded Knee: Native-Americans occupied
Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay in 1969, and Wounded Knee was their trading post
site. The reason they defiantly occupied Alcatraz Island was to protest their low status in
America. They advocated Red Power and demanded justice for past wrongs.
The Middle East Crisis
With a virtual monopoly on petroleum, OPEC drove up oil prices which caused severe
economic problems for the United States. Yet more turbulent conflicts existed in the
Middle East: religious issues and territorial disputes inflamed tensions between Israel
and the Palestinians.
Multinational Corporations: In the modern era, where transportation allows rapid
communication and exportation of products, corporations could span several nations.
Many took advantage of inexpensive labor in one country and depreciated taxes in
another.
Arab oil embargo: Furious at American intervention in the Middle Eastern conflicts, the
Arab nations began to downsize the exportation of petroleum products to western nations.
Consequently, the western world which relied heavily on petroleum was forced to seek
other resources of fuel and energy.
•ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC): In the
1970s, Middle Eastern petroleum exporting countries formed a monopoly and agreed to
raise the price of oil. As a result, the economy in the western world fell into inflation and
unemployment; a nation-wide recession resulted which forced Jimmy Carter to seek new
economic programs at the end of his term in office. However, he could only do little to
dispel the effects of the rising prices of oil.
Palestinian Liberation Front, (PLO), Yasser Arafat: In June 1982, there was great
violence in the Middle East when Israel invaded Lebanon to extinguish the Palestinian
Liberation Front from its headquarters. The chaos and confusion escalated in Lebanon
which was already plagued by its own Civil War.
The Energy Crisis and Carter
Trying desperately to cope with the economic predicament spawned by OPEC, both Ford
and Carter dismally failed. In foreign affairs, Cold War tensions mounted as the Soviet
Union became increasingly annoyed with Carter’s rigorous standard of human rights.
Balance of trade, trade deficits: A U.S. economic report during the 1970s revealed that
the nation imported more than it exported; the balance of trade was thrown off and the
economic experts worried that the U.S. economy would not survive. As a result, Nixon
began such programs as "revenue sharing" and wage and price controls for regulation.
Ford, Gerald, Nixon Pardon: On Aug. 9, 1974, Ford became the first vice president to
inherit leadership of the nation after the president resigned. To put the nation forward,
General Ford granted pardon for ex-President Nixon. As a result, many people were
angry that the government could easily forgive corruption and dishonesty.
•"STAGFLATION": As a combination of business stagnation and inflation,
"stagflation" severely worsened the American economy. When the government borrowed
money to offset the drastic loss of tax revenue, interest rates still increased. The federal
government could not repay the loan, and it was forced to find other methods to collect
revenue. There was no simple solution to "stagflation;" to lower interest rates to prevent
stagnation would worsen the ongoing inflation.
SALT II: In June 1979, Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev agreed and signed the SALT
II treaty. Carter presented it to the Senate and they ratified it. Due to the invasion of
Afghanistan by Russia, the Cold War thaw slowed. The U.S.-Soviet relationship grew
sour, and the U.S. boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Election of 1976: Jimmy Carter was elected President of the United States in 1976.
Climaxing a remarkable rise to national fame, Carter had been governor of Georgia from
1971 to 1975 and was little known elsewhere at the beginning of 1976. Carter defeated
Gerald Ford in the 1976 election.
Carter, Jimmy, Amnesty: Elected to the Presidency in 1976, Carter was an advocate of
human rights. He granted amnesty to countries who followed his foreign policy. They
excluded nations which violated Carter’s humane standards through cruel business
practices.
Panama Canal Treaty: The Carter administration put together bargains on a number of
treaties to transfer the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone to the Panamanians by 1999.
This treaty was met with staunch opposition by Republicans who felt that they "stole it
fair and square."
Camp David Accords: Camp David was a place where the Egyptian leader Anwar elSadat and the Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin came together with Jimmy Carter.
They discussed certain negotiations and tried to hammer out a framework for a peace
treaty for the Middle East. It represented peace and harmony in the modern world.
WIN: To compensate for the economic predicament caused by OPEC and the crisis of
energy conservation, Jimmy Carter proposed a innovative economic program. WIN was
to provide methods for conserving energy by creating the Department of Energy and
regulating consumption of gas by automobiles.
Department of Energy: Carter created the Department of Energy and created an energy
bill including taxation on oil and gasoline, tax credits for those who found methods on
saving money and alternative-energy resources. It went well and the bill for energy
consumption came down in 1978.
Reagan Revolution
Reagan promulgated a program to restore U.S. prominence and honor globally, and fight
economic problems. He advocated a more laissez faire policy through a lessening of
government activism, taxes, spending, and restrictions on business.
•ELECTION OF 1980: The election of 1980 included candidates such as Republican
Ronald Reagan, Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter, and John B. Anderson as the
Independent candidate. The biggest issue at the time was American foreign policy, and
Ronald Reagan had a greater hand in that issue. Ronald Reagan became the President of
the United States in 1980 with the promise of ameliorating the American economy
against the forces of "stagflation."
Anderson, John: He was a Republican congressman from Illinois, and his running mate
was Patrick J. Lucey from Wisconsin. When he announced his candidacy, he was serving
his 10th term in the U.S. House of Representatives. He was known for his strong liberal
statements and spoke well on complex issues.
Economy Recovery Tax Act, 1981: Following his promise of bettering the U.S.
economy, Reagan proposed a 30% tax cut allowing the money supply to circulate. He
liberalized business taxes and decreased capital gains, gifts, inheritance taxes to
encourage investments in a plunging economy.
•REAGANOMICS: Also known as voodoo economics, George Bush named this new
economic strategy Reaganomics in the 1980 primary campaign. President Reagan
believed that the government should leave the economy alone. He hoped that it would run
by itself. It was a return to the laissez faire theory of Adam Smith, yet Reagan expanded
his theory by advocating supply-side economics as a method to solve the economic
hardships.
Supply side economics: In contrast to Adam Smith’s belief in supply-and-demand,
Reagan assumed that if the economy provided the products and services, the public
would purchase them. Consequently, Reagan lowered income taxes to stimulate the
economy by expanding the money supply.
O’Connor, Sandra Day: She was a feminist who generally deplored Reagan’s
programs. However, she was delighted when he nominated her as the first woman justice
on the U.S. Supreme Court. Many people supported Reagan’s decisions in favor of
women’s rights.
Three Mile Island: In 1979, a near catastrophe occurred at Three Mile Island when there
was an accident involving a nuclear power plant. Safety measures were taken so that a
future incident would not occur. The plants were placed far away to reduce the hazards of
near fatal accidents.
Watt, James Secretary of Interior: James Watt received more than $400,000 for
making several calls to the Department of Housing and Urban Development officials.
The people who had interceded with the Department of Housing and Urban Development
were paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for federal subsides.
Love Canal, Niagara Falls, NY: In the 1970s and early 1980s, chemical wastes that had
leaked from a former disposal site threatened the health of residents in that area. Both the
New York state government and the federal government provided financial aid to help
move families from the Love Canal to other areas.
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, OHSA: It was created in 1969 by President
Nixon to enforce government standards for water and the air quality for work safety. The
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was also created to enforce the
hygiene.
"New Federalism" proposals, 1982: New Federalism proposed to reverse the flow of
power and resources from the states and communities to the state capital. The president
proposed a revenue sharing bill that transferred some federal revenues to the states and
prominent cities.
Deregulation-AT&T, airlines, trucking: To reverse the flow of federal power, Reagan
began to deregulate governmental controls over such companies as AT&T, airlines, and
trucking companies. He reasoned government must take its "hands off" from the
economy to encourage investments and free enterprise.
NEH, National Endowment for Humanities: The National Endowment for Humanities
was created to further promote artistic and cultural development in the United States.
This was targeted to foreigners. The project revealed the full cultural spectrum of
America.
Friedan, Betty The Second Stage, 1981: In her novel The Second Stage, Friedan stresses
the need to add family matters to the cause of women’s rights. She reasons no person
should ignore such a significant issue while focusing on female independence and
advancement in society.
Defeat of the ERA: As the argument over the ERA and abortion went on more women
got jobs in the working industry. In the 1960s, 35% of women held jobs, but in 1988,
60% of women worked. Even though women had children, 51% of them were working
from day to day.
Election of 1984: Former Vice President Walter Mondale got the Democratic nomination
over Jesse Jackson, backed by minority groups, and Gary Hart, who appealed to the
young. Reagan’s campaign revolved around the optimistic slogan "It’s Morning in
America" and he rode the tide of prosperity to a decisive victory.
Ferraro, Geraldine: The first woman ever to be on the ticket of a major party, Ferraro
was chosen by Walter Mondale to be his Vice-Presidential candidate in 1984. However,
her presence failed to win Mondale the election, as a higher percentage of women voted
republican in 1984 than in 1980.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome): First diagnosed in 1981, 97,000 cases
were reported in 1989. Originally concentrated among homosexual men, needle-sharing
drug users, and sex partners of high risk groups, the disease soon spread. AIDS prompted
a change from the "free love" attitude of the 1970s, to a "safe sex" attitude of the 1990s.
•"MORAL MAJORITY": The Moral Majority was Jerry Falwell’s pro-Reagan
followers who embraced the new evangelical revival of the late seventies. The Moral
Majority was politically active in targeting such issues as abortion, homosexuality,
pornography, and school prayer. They was strongly conservative, anticommunist, and
influential. The Moral Majority was started in 1979 as a secular political group, and were
finished as a political force by the late 1980s.
Vietnam Veterans’s Memorial, 1982: Constructed in 1982, the memorial is a black
marble wall sunken below ground level in Washington D.C.’s National Mall. On it are
inscribed the names of all Americans who died or were missing in action. It also includes
a statue of three soldiers, located nearby.
Agent Orange: Agent Orange was a chemical sprayed by U.S. planes on the jungles of
Vietnam during the war which caused the defoliation of trees and shrubs and made
enemy positions more visible. In the 1970s it was found that Agent Orange was harmful
to humans. In 1984, manufacturers agreed to pay veterans injured by the chemical.
The Challenger Disaster, 1986: The space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds into
flight, killing all aboard. The explosion was caused by a faulty seal in the fuel tank. The
shuttle program was halted while investigators and officials drew up new safety
regulations, but was resumed in 1988 with the flight of the Discovery.
Tax Reform Act, 1986: In 1986, with the federal deficit exceeding $200 billion, Reagan
proposed a new, simplified tax system that lowered the taxes of individuals and corporate
incomes. The tax reform helped reduce the deficit by 1987, but the stock market crash in
October 1987 made higher taxes a necessity.
The "Teflon Presidency": Ronald Reagan’s popularity never seemed to change much
despite the scandals and failures of his presidency. He was called the Teflon president by
some because nothing would stick to him. Even with all the criticism, Reagan remained
very popular and charismatic.
HUD scandals: In 1989, revelations surfaced that during Reagan’s administration,
prominent Republicans had been paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for interceding
with the Department of Housing and Development on behalf of developers seeking
federal subsidies. Once again, Reagan’s popularity was unaffected.
Heating and Cooling of the Cold War
Ambiguous in his position towards the Soviet Union, Reagan verbally attacked the USSR
as an "evil empire" yet his actions were friendly. Anti-Soviet rhetoric proved to be only
rhetoric and the two nations resolved many of their differences. By the end of Reagan’s
administration, the Cold War was unofficially over.
Afghanistan, 1979-1989: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an effort to acquire
more land for Russia’s use. In Moscow’s attempt to take over Afghanistan, Russia
wanted to setup some sort of pro-Soviet Afghan regime. Not only did Russia try to take
over Afghanistan, but they wanted them to change religiously.
Olympic boycott, 1980: When Carter and Brezhnev could not agree on the rules and
regulations of the SALT II agreement, the United States picked up an anti-Soviet
relationship towards everything that had to do with Russia, which unfortunately included
the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Walesa, Lech, Solidarity: He became the leader of Poland’s government in 1980.
Walesa’s negotiations with Poland’s government that year led to the government’s
recognition of Solidarity. Solidarity was a organization composed of about 50 Polish
trade unions.
Falkland Island War: In April 1982, Argentine troops invaded and occupied the islands.
Britain also responded by sending troops, ships, and planes. Air, sea and land battles
broke out between Argentina and Britain. Due to severe losses the Argentine forces
surrendered in June 1982.
Civil war in Lebanon, Israel moves into Southern Lebanon: President Reagan sent
2,000 Marines to Lebanon in 1982 in order to gain control over the crippled PLO, insure
that they got out of Tunisia, and help restore order to the war damaged country. It proved
difficult as fire broke out upon the U.S. Marine soldiers.
Grenada, 1983: On October 23, 1983, 2,000 U.S. Marine soldiers invaded the island of
Grenada, and overthrew the disruptive radical government, and put in a U.S.-friendly
regime. The new government that the United States had just installed was collaborating
well with the local Grenadians.
El Salvador, Duarte: Fear of Soviet expansion helped shape policy towards third world
revolutions. In El Salvador, the U.S. backed the military rulers in suppressing insurgents
(leftists backed by Cuba). The moderate Jose Napoleon Duarte was elected in 1984 with
U.S. support, but his ineffective government was voted out in 1989.
•NICARAGUA—Somoza Family, Sandinistas, Contras, Ortega: First, Carter backed
the Sandinista revolutionaries in overthrowing dictator Anastasio Somoza in 1979, who
was replaced by Daniel Ortega. Reagan later reversed the policy thinking that the
Sandinistas were procommunist. The CIA organized an army of "contras" to oppose the
Sandinistas. Fear of another Vietnam-like war prompted Congress in 1982 to halt aid to
the contras. Reagan secretly began sending illegal aid to the contras, but was never held
accountable.
Arias Peace Plan in Central America: Oscar Arias Sánchez, the president of Costa
Rica, was very influential in pushing for peace in Central America which was stalled
because of civil wars in the region and the tensions between Nicaragua’s Sandinista
government and the U.S. In 1986, the warring nations signed a peace agreement.
•SDI (STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE), "Star Wars": SDI was a proposed
system of space based lasers and other high-tech defenses against nuclear attack,
popularly dubbed "Star Wars." It was proposed by Reagan in 1983 in an effort to ward
off the perceived threat of a Soviet strike as U.S.-Soviet relations worsened. Many argued
it would escalate the conflict. The system carried a huge price tag, and was fiercely
debated until the end of the Reagan administration. The system was never used.
nuclear freeze movement: The movement was a popular reaction to the military and
nuclear buildup under Reagan. Protests, rallies, and resolutions against nukes were
passed. It was the first popular challenge to Reaganism. Responding to pressure, the U.S.
began talks on strategic-arms reductions with the Soviets.
Iranian crisis, the Shah, Ayatollah Khomeini: The Iranian crisis started when a Beirut
newspaper reported that in 1985 the United States shipped 508 antitank missiles to the
government of Iran. This exposure of U.S. intervention led to the American hostage
situation held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian radical groups.
Iran-Iraq War: The war began in 1980 over territorial disputes. Fighting spread
throughout the gulf region and the U.S. was dragged into the conflict several times, either
being attacked or attacking hostile targets. The war ended in 1988, as Iraq began
preparing to invade Kuwait. The area remained a volatile region.
•IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, (or Irangate): Caught selling arms to the anti-American
government of Iran, Reagan admitted it and stated his aim had been to encourage
"moderate elements" in Tehran and gain the release of American hostages. Key players
included Oliver North, who sent millions of dollars from these sales to contras in
Nicaragua when Congress had forbidden such aid, and John Poindexter, who hid the
affair from the president. Criminal charges were filed against only North.
Panama, Gen. Noriega, drug-trafficking indictment, conviction: In 1987 the U.S.
realized that the U.S.-supported ruler of Panama, Manuel Noriega, was profiting on the
flow of drugs through his country. A U.S. grand jury indicted Noriega on various drug
charges. He ignored the actions. Marines were sent in and he was caught and convicted.
South Africa, apartheid, Nelson Mandela, F.W. De Klerk: When opposition to South
Africa’s racist government grew in the U.S., Congress voted to boycott South Africa in
1986. President De Klerk worked with Mandela, who had been jailed for 27 years, to end
apartheid. Free elections were held in 1994 and Mandela became president.
Marcos, Philippines, Corazon Aquino: Resistance to the corrupt government of Pres.
Ferdinand Marcos intensified after the 1983 assassination of opposition leader Benito
Aquino. His wife, Corazon led the surge after Marco’s fraudulent 1986 reelection and
took control. She was backed by the U.S. and the country was to face turbulent times.
Duvalier, Haiti: Jean-Claude Duvalier, dictator of Haiti from 1971-1986, used
oppressive measures and a violent secret police force to control Haitian citizens. Many
sought refuge in the United States. In 1986, Haitians staged a revolt against Duvalier and
he fled the country. This was followed by years of violent political turmoil in Haiti.
•GORBACHEV, glasnost, perestroika: Mikhail Gorbachev welded influence in
transforming the Soviet Union into a less rigidly communist regime. His program of
economic and political reform was called perestroika or restructuring. Gorbachev’s call
for more openness in government was given the name glasnost. Relations between the
United States and the Soviet Union continued to improve which furthered the thaw in the
Cold War.
Col. Qaddafi, Libya: Colonel Muammar Qaddafi was a pro-terrorist and anti-American
leader of Libya. In 1986, Libya fired missiles at U.S. military planes and after an
explosion at a German nightclub popular with American GI’s, U.S. planes bombed five
Libyan sites. Hostilities continue in the region.
INF Treaty, 1987 (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty): The treaty was a
1987 agreement between Reagan and Gorbachev which banned INF’s but did little to end
the nuclear threat as 95% of the world’s nuclear arsenal remained. It is an example of the
warming Soviet-American relations and renewed the arms control process.
Bush and the Post Cold War Era
With the disintegration of the Soviet empire, the Cold War which shaped U.S. policy for
nearly a half-century finally died. The threat of nuclear annihilation subsided and the
American public breathed a sigh of relief.
Black Monday, 1987, Stock Market crashes: The market had enjoyed incredible
success for the past five years and had tripled in size. On October 19, 1987, it fell 508
points in the largest single day drop in history. Though it soon regained the loss and
surged to new heights, the volatility and uncertainty remained.
Jackson, Rev. Jesse, Rainbow Coalition: Jackson, once an associate of King, tried to
build a "rainbow coalition" of blacks, Hispanics, displaced workers, and other political
outsiders to try to gain nomination and election in 1984. Jackson ran several times for the
presidency, but was not moderate enough to gain popular approval.
Election of 1988--candidates, issues: Bush got the Republican nomination while
Michael Dukakis won the Democratic nomination over Jesse Jackson. Bush chose Quayle
as his running mate for his good looks. Taxes, crime, and personal appearance were the
main issues in 1988. Bush won fairly decisively on a negative campaign.
• BUSH, GEORGE: Bush was Vice President under Reagan, and was president from
1989 to 1993. As president, Bush was successful in areas of foreign relations. He eased
relations with Russia, resisted the Russian military’s attempted coup in 1991, and fought
Saddam Hussein in the Persian gulf. He was not as successful in domestic affairs as the
economy dwindled and the deficit rose; the effects of the era of Reaganomics. Bush was
defeated by Bill Clinton and Al Gore in the 1992 election.
holes in the "Iron Curtain": Due to Gorbachev’s more liberalized policies, Moscow
began losing direct control over Eastern Europe. The USSR reduced its military force in
its eastern satellites and allowed more freedom of expression. Non-Communist political
movements soon developed in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
Berlin Wall falls, Germany reunited: The dismantling of the Berlin Wall began in
1989. Germany, having been divided into East and West Germany since World War II,
unified in October 1990. The wall which separated the two countries fell, and citizens
were once again permitted to travel between East and West Germany.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act: Passed in 1986, the bill required the automatic
unilateral slashing of many budget items. These included many domestic and defense
programs. The goal of the bill was to reduce the enormous debt of the Reagan years and
to have a balanced budget by the year 1991.
national debt triples from 1980 to 1989, 908 billion to 2.9 trillion: In an effort to restimulate the economy, Reagan’s administration increased defense spending drastically
while lowering taxes. The debt skyrocketed during his term. His philosophy of supplyside economics, or heavy spending in the corporate sector, was a contributing factor.
Clean Air Act, 1990 (also one in 1970): President Bush sponsored the bill, which set
stricter regulations on many airborne pollutants. The act was aimed at reducing the
chemicals which cause acid rain, smog, ozone damage and many airborne carcinogens.
The act was a cornerstone in pollution regulation legislation.
Bennett, William J., "drug czar"--Office of National Drug Control Policy: Bennett
was chosen as "drug czar" by Bush in response to national concerns about drugs. His job
was to coordinate federal programs against drugs, and his first target was the violent drug
lords of Washington, D.C.
Tiananmen Square, Beijing: 400-800 students were massacred by government troops
during a pro-democracy demonstration in Beijing’s central square. A wave of repression
and executions followed. The U.S. responded with outrage and cut everything but
diplomatic relations.
Nicaragua, Pres. Ortega defeated in free election: President Daniel Ortega, the leader
of the Sandinista regime, was defeated in 1990 by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in
national elections. Chamorro’s election signaled a more moderate turn for the
Nicaraguans, though the transition has met resistance. The U.S. supports Chamorro.
August 1991, attempted coup in Moscow, Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin: In 1991, hardline communists seized power from Gorbachev, who wished to give more power to the
states. The coup failed, but the political turmoil led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union
into independent states. Yeltsin, the president-elect, called for Russians to resist the coup.
•END OF THE COLD WAR, Commonwealth of Independent States, 1991: After the
failed coup in August of 1991, the 15 Russian states declared independence. Fearful of
centralized power but mindful of the economic pitfalls of independence, 12 of the states
formed the Commonwealth of Independent States and severed all ties to the old Soviet
regime. The Commonwealth was a loose economic union, though it is still considered a
single country.
difficulties between Russia and the new republics: The new republics were wary of
losing power to Russia, by far the largest and most endowed state, which hampered
political unity. Violence erupted in some states. The economy was in shambles after the
lifting of economic restraints and a severe drought. The commonwealth was very weak.
Hussein, Saddam, Iraq invades Kuwait: On August 2, 1990, Iraqi president Hussein
ordered the invasion of Kuwait after oil negotiations between the two broke down. Iraq
had complained that Kuwait was exceeding its oil production quota and flooding the
world market, driving prices down. This was the direct cause of the Persian Gulf War.
UN Security Council Resolution 661 (trade embargo on Iraq): On Aug. 6, 1990, the
resolution imposed an embargo on Iraqi trade effectively halting oil shipments from Iraq
and Kuwait. Hussein responded by increasing his forces in Kuwait. The embargo had
severe economic effects on surrounding countries who depended on Iraqi trade and oil.
Desert Shield, Gen. Collin Powell: In August 1990, President Bush ordered a buildup of
troops into Saudi Arabia called Desert Shield. It was led by General Collin Powell, who
became so popular as to later contemplate a 1996 presidential run. Desert Shield became
Desert Storm on January 17 with the beginning of the allied air assault.
UN Security Council Resolution 678: The allied operation shifted to a potentially
offensive nature with this resolution, issued November 29, 1990. It authorized the use of
force by the allies if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15. The resolution
was evoked early on January 17 when Allied planes began the air offensive.
•GULF WAR, Operation Desert Storm, Gen. Schwarzkopf: Beginning with a
bombing raid on January 17, 1991, Desert Storm was directed by Gen. Schwarzkopf. The
air raid utilized the most advanced missile technology such as smart bombs and cruise
missiles to weaken the Iraqi defenses. Iraqi forces, though more numerous than the Allied
force, were far behind technologically. The short ground war began on February 24 and
ended two days later. An estimated 110,000 Iraqi soldiers died with about 300 U.S.
deaths.
SCUD missiles, Patriot Missiles: SCUD’s were Soviet-made surface to surface missiles
used by Iraq to bomb Israel during Desert Shield and Desert Storm. They were aimed at
provoking Israelite retaliation to fracture the Allied-Arab alliance but were countered
effectively by the U.S. Patriots launched to destroy SCUD’s while still airborne.
revolts in Iraq--Shi’ites in South, Kurds in North: Postwar uprisings by Shi’ite
Muslims in southern Iraq and Kurds in the North were crushed by Hussein’s army. The
fighting claimed nearly 25,000 lives and created massive refuge problems for bordering
nations. The U.S. used force to protect the Kurds. The UN created a safe zone for them.
Family Support Act, 1988, "work fare": This Act tried to reform the welfare system. It
contained strict work and child support guidelines. Some of its provisions required
women on welfare to work if they have no children under 3 years old, and parents
without custody could have child support payments withheld from their paychecks.
MTV: MTV was part of the "cable revolution." Cable TV became a fixture in many U.S.
households, leading to the rise of smaller networks. Once was dominated by ABC, NBC,
and CBS, now stations like CNN, FOX, and MTV were legitimate contenders. MTV
specifically became an important marketing tool for music and politics.
1991 Civil Rights Act: The act allowed women, people with handicaps, and religious
minorities to collect punitive damages for intentional on-the-job discrimination.
Previously, only racial minorities could claim damages. It widened the definition of
discrimination and forced businesses to respect citizens rights of equality.
Thomas, Clarence, Supreme Court, Anita Hill: Thomas, the second black justice on
the Court, was nominated and seated in 1991. His nomination was plagued with
controversy due to sexual harassment allegations by Anita Hill, a former associate. The
charges were dismissed in a series of highly public congressional hearings.
baby-boom generation hits middle age: Once called the "Me Generation," people of the
1980s were interested with personal over public concerns. The "yuppie" was a person
preoccupied with physical fitness, money, and materialism. TV’s, VCRs, and personal
computers were common.
gentrification: Reversing the trend of the middle-class exodus from urban centers,
yuppies bought run-down apartments and town houses in poorer districts and fixed them
up. The process often came at the expense of poorer and older residents, including a great
number of elderly citizens.
increased Asian, Hispanic immigration: 45% of immigrants since 1960 have been from
the Western Hemisphere, and 30% have come from Asia, signaling a new pattern of
immigration. The issue of illegal immigration became a hot topic politically, especially in
the south west and west. Many bills were passed in an attempt to limit immigration.
"gridlock," Congress vs. the President: Because a Democratic President and a
Republican Congress were elected in 1992, both had the power to obstruct the other. This
"gridlock" occurred midway through Clinton’s term. Unable to resolve a dispute, many
government projects and parks were closed down for several weeks.
•ELECTION OF 1992—candidates, issues, Ross Perot: The election of 1992 was
primarily between the Democrat Bill Clinton and the Republican incumbent George
Bush. Ross Perot, of the Independent party, did well in early polls, dropped out of the
running, then returned near November with much less support. The major issues were the
state of the economy, which had taken a turn for the worse at the end of the Bush
administration, the state of medical insurance, and Bush’s record of foreign diplomacy.
bombing of World Trade Center: In 1993, a bomb in a parking structure of the World
Trade Center Building in New York killed six and injured nearly 1000 people. Officials
later arrested militant Muslim extremists who condemned American actions towards
Israel and the U.S. involvement in the Persian Gulf War.
European Economic Area, Jan. 1, 1993: The 7 nations of the European Free Trade
Association (except Switzerland) and the 12 European Community nations signed an
accord to create an enlarged free-trade zone, the EEA. Some nations have loosened
border and currency restrictions to make political unity easier.
GATT, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: An international plan to reduce
tariffs and establish laws governing trade of services, investments, and other economic
issues, was approved by the 117 members of GATT. The plan also established an agency
to deal with international trade disputes, called the World Trade Organization.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): After a fierce political struggle,
NAFTA was approved by Congress in 1993. It eliminated trade barriers between Canada,
the U.S., and Mexico, making the flow of commerce more efficient. The NAFTA victory
for free trade set the stage for the GATT treaty.
disintegration of Yugoslavia: In 1991-1992, Yugoslavia split into Croatia, Slovenia,
Macedonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Violence erupted in Bosnia as Serbs and Croatians
fought, killing tens of thousands. Many of Bosnia’s Muslims were victims of "ethnic
cleansing," mass expulsions to promote a Serbian ethnic partition of Bosnia.
PLO-Israel Peace Treaty (1993), Arafat, Rabin: A historic treaty was signed between
Yasir Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin which would allow Palestinian self-rule in parts of Israel,
protect Israelis in Palestinian areas, and a recognition of Israel and the PLO as legitimate
entities. Radical Israelis and Palestinians denounced the treaty and violence ensued.
Somalia: A massive famine caused by warring factions of the government prompted
George Bush to send troops (along with the UN) to protect relief efforts in December
1992. The effort succeeded in ending the famine, but not the violence. Soon, the U.S. was
sustaining casualties, and by 1994 the U.S. left leaving the UN in charge.
Whitewater: A scandal which has plagued Bill and Hillary Clinton while in the White
House, the Whitewater affair revolves around the question if the Clinton’s benefitted
improperly from their involvement in a real estate venture, the Whitewater Development
Corp. Investigators began searching for incriminating evidence.
Clinton’s health plan: Clinton’s dream of universal health care package died as the bill
could not get approval by resistant Republicans. The bill would have required employers
to pay 80% of their employees’ medical costs, among other major changes. Several
compromises were attempted by Clinton, but the issue was dead by September 1994.
"greenhouse effect": The large amount of fossil fuels burned by cars, homes, and
factories has led to a rise in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide traps heat near the surface of the planet, raising its temperature. The problem is
made worse by tropical deforestation, and has become a major environmental concern.
1994 Congressional election: The Republican Party, capitalizing on Clinton’s perceived
inactivity, gained a majority in Congress. More than 300 GOP candidates signed a
"Contract with America" pledging support of several popular initiates. Gingrich authored
the contract and became Speaker of the House. Dole became the Senate majority leader.
intervention in Haiti: The term referred to Operation Restore Democracy. Supported by
the Clinton administration, the plan was designed to restore President Jean-Bertrand
Aristide to power. The mission was successful, but Aristide did little towards turning
Haiti into a democracy. Clinton later withdrew his support.
Oklahoma City bombing, 1995: On April 19, 1995 a 2½ ton bomb exploded in front of
the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. The blast destroyed the front
section of the building, killing 68; of whom 19 were children. Officials Terry Nicoles and
Timothy McVeigh were right wing militant extremists angry at the government.
Million Man March, 1995, Farrakhan: Led by the radical Nation of Islam leader Louis
Farrakhan, a major rally for African-Americans was held in Washington DC. Farrakhan
preached the need for blacks to become active family and community members. Officials
estimated 400,000-837,000 black men came. Women were discouraged from attending.
Rabin assassinated, 1995: Israeli Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin was shot and killed by a
Jewish settler just after speaking at a mass peace rally. The man who shot him was
arrested on the scene. He acted in protest to the signing of the PLO-Israeli Peace Accord
of 1993. The future is uncertain under newly elected P. Minister Netehayu.
budget showdown between Congress and the President: Negotiations between
President Clinton and Congress regarding balancing the budget wrapped up in May 1997.
Republicans had originally wanted a constitutional amendment specifying a balanced
budget, but Clinton resisted. The agreed upon plan is a moderate compromise.