Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
1 AP United States History Outline Notes Unit 1: The American Colonial and Revolutionary Experience (Beginnings to 1783) Lesson 1: - The earliest discovery and settlement of America was a result of revolutionary developments which alters the course of mankind I. The Pre-Columbian, Native American civilizations, included a variety of cultures and diverse geographic influences The first American settlers probably came from Asia 25,000-30,000 years ago, during the last of the four great ice ages, across a land bridge that now lies beneath the Bering Strait in pursuit of large game animals (bison, mastodons). These early immigrants to America used simple stone and wooden tools, woven baskets, fishing nets and fire. As big game diminished, they began cultivating wild plants (about 7000 B.C.). Permanent settlements emerged as they learned to farm and extended families live together in small bands. The Native American tribes of Central and South America displayed complex architecture and scientific knowledge, and were more advanced than the North American tribes. Mayas The Mayas who populated Central America and the Yucatan Peninsula peaked around 900 A.D., about 500 years prior to the arrival of Columbus (1492). The last Mayan dynasty was eliminated in the 1697 in Flores, Guatemala. They developed a highly advanced civilization with a system of hieroglyphic-type writing, an accurate calendar more precise than those 2 used in Europe, a mathematical system with a zero and a system of astronomy which could predict solar eclipses. Their cities, complete with pyramids, religious temples and plazas were largely ceremonial centers for religious rather than military fortresses or administrative centers. Incas The Incas settled in the Andes Mountains of Peru, with their capitol located at Cuzco. They were a wealthy empire and their engineering skills rank them among the greatest builders in world history. The city of Machu Picchu , undiscovered until found by American Hiram Bingham in 1911, covered five square miles. Incans created fortified cities, a highway system, terraced fields, an irrigation system and intricately-designed cloth. The Incan state was totalitarian. Their pyramids social structure placed Inca, the sun god, at the top, followed by nobles (priests, military and government rulers) and laborers. Land was publicly-owned by the state. Aztecs The Aztecs ruled Central America by 1500 through a powerful empire centered at Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), an island fortress complete with drawbridges. Their well-trained armies conquered the Toltecs and other neighbors. They implemented military rule under harsh leaders. 3 The Aztecs traded gems, gold and silver with other, distant tribes and became very wealthy. They tracked farming cycles with accurate calendars. The North American tribes were scattered in small, nomadic settlements across very limited portions of the continent and were less developed than their neighbors in the south. The Artic/sub-Artic tribes of Canada and Alaska (Eskimos, Aleuts) survived by hunting and fishing in the harsh Northern environment. The Northwest tribes (Haida, Kwakiut, Tlingit, and Tsimshian) carved 10 to 60 foot red cedar totem poles which displayed family information. The Nootka tribe became great whalers in their cedar, oceangoing dugouts. The Pacific Coast, Plateau and Great Basin tribes (including Shoshone, Pima and Nez Perce) gathered seeds and were basket weavers. Fresh water, fish, game and wild vegetables were so abundant in the mild climate of the Pacific coast that farming was unnecessary. The coastal tribes lived in large log houses and were monotheistic. The Southwest tribes included, by 3000 B.C., the Hohkam (the ancestors of the Pima and Papago) and Anasazi, the cliff-dwelling, apartment-building ancestors of the Pueblo. As the earliest farmers in America. They grew squash, beans and corn. The Navahos and Apaches invaded the region from Canada as hunters, traders and gatherers. All of the Southwestern tribes were skilled weavers (baskets, cloth) and potters the borrowed much of their culture form the Mayas and Aztecs. Pueblos lived in multi-story, adobe (sun-dried brick) apartment houses. Pueblo society was democratic, peaceful and agrarian. “Pueblo” is Spanish for “Town. “ Navajos were farmers and skilled weavers who made intricately-designed rugs and blankets and who lived in hogans constructed of adobe and logs. 4 Apaches were war like nomads who lived in wickiups (temporary brush huts) and who hunted deer and buffalo. “Apache” means “enemy” in Pueblo and they were known for their ferocity. The Great Plains tribes traveled in bullboats, made of wood and buffalo hides, on the rivers and carried items in “travois” slings (as they had no wheel). Some of the tribes including the Lakota (Sioux), Kiowas, Dakotas, Pawnees, Osages and Comanches raised corn in agrarian villages along the Missouri and other rivers and hunted after the harvest. Democratic councils made important decisions. Following the introduction of horses to the New World by the Spanish, the Plains Indians turned away from farming to hunting buffalo in the 16th amd 17th centuries from which they obtained food, clothing, cone-shaped tepee shelters (buffalo skins draped over poles), tools and fuel. Families were characterized by matriarchal descent. The sun was an important part of their religion. The Eastern Woodlands tribes were known for their ceremonial mounds (often shaped like animals). They lived in agricultural villages along rivers and creeks, often burning thousands of acres of forest to clear land for farming, hunted with bows and arrows and traded along rivers in dugout canoes. The woodlands tribes are divided into three groups by historians, according to language. The Algonkian tribes lived along the coast from Canada to North Carolina iThe Iroquian tribes migrated from the Mississippi River into the Eastern Great Lakes reion (The Northeast) The Muskogean tribes were located in the South, although the Cherokees, 5 who closely resembled Muskogean tribes in lifestyle, spoke an Iroquoian dialect. The Algonquin tribes of the Northeast, who lived in wigwams and tepees constructed of wood frames and covered in bark, were known for using wampum (clamshells) as money and for making the first contact with the European settlers along the Atlantic Coast. The Iroquois Confederation (League of Five Nations) consisting of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga and Seneca, was a powerful alliance founded in the 1500’s by Dekanawidah and his follower, Hiawatha, to prevent fighting among the members through oaths, who also made agreements to enter into warfare only with the unanimous consent of the 50 chiefs (sachems) from various tribes whose council ruled the confederation with an oral constitution of traditions. The Iroquois lived in “longhouses,” often 200 feet long, which contained several families. The Northeastern tribes raised corn and many other crops, made maple sugar, fished the rivers, hunted whales and seals along the coast and gathered shellfish. The Northeastern tribes were monotheistic and also matriarchal, with women controlling property, goods and the choice of the clan’s sachem. The more northern hunting tribes were male-dominated. The Tuscarora joined the Iroquois after 1700. The confederation suffered as a result of their support for the British during the American Revolution, although they were soon renewed as a people by the teachings of Handsome Lake. d. The Southeastern Indians borrowed much of their culture from the Mayan and Aztec civilizations of Mexico, including pyramids and large towns with open courtyards. The “Five Civilized Tribes” (Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Chocktaw, Seminole), which ultimately emerged from the Southeastern tribes in the 6 late 17th Century, would be democratically-ruled and, thus, referred to by the Europeans as “civilized” while the Natchez and other southeastern tribes who were influenced by the Aztecs lived in an authoritarian system ruled by the chief who was also seen as a god. Like the Iroquois, the Southeastern Indians were monotheistic, as well as matriarchal in descent, though the wife’s brother was seen as the head of the family. Native Americans lived in harmony with the natural world through their social, economic and religious practices but came into conflict with the Europeans upon their arrival. 1Native American Indians believed that the land was a sacred trust and should be left unspoiled for later generations. Native Americans did not own land; rather, they were simply part of the land and nature. Conflict would emerge with the Europeans who felt that they had the right to own and tame “the wild frontier” and to tuse it exclusively for their own benefit. Native Americans enjoyed some benefits from early contacts with Europeans. The Indians traded for clothing, weapons and tools. The horse, introduced to the Americas by the Spanish, changed the nature of buffalo hunting on the Great Plains, producing the horse culture of the region and making the Plains Indians more nomadic. The Cherokees borrowed the idea of a written constitution (1820) and alphabet (Sequoya’s syllabary) from the Europeans. Europeans brought the wheel to the New World. 7 The Europeans benefited from contact with the Indians. Native Americans introduced the Europeans to corn, squash, peanuts, beans, potatoes and the valuable cash crop of tobacco. French, British and Dutch fur traders lived and traded with the Indians, creating a brisk fur trade. Europeans formed alliances with the Indians in their efforts to control the New World. The Indians taught wilderness survival techniques to the Europeans 4. Conflict between the Native Americans and the European immigrants emerged as a result of a) the depletion of antural resources by the Europeans, b) the concept of private land ownership, c) language barriers, and d) the multitude of treaties broken by the whites. 5. As a result of the European immigration, 90% of the Native American population would be destroyed within a century of Columbus’s journey, primarily from disease including smallpox, yellow fever and malaria. However, Europeans suffered from contact also, as the Native Americans introduced syphilis into the European population, Native Americans proved to be more geographically exploitable than Africans. 6. By 1500 A.D., Native Americans had only reached a level of civilization comparable to the Egyptians in 250 B.C. Lesson 2: Europe discovered America due to dramatic changes on the European landscape and, as a result, migrated to the New World during the Age of Exploration. 1. According to Lewis Muford, “the settlement of America had its origins in the unsettlement of Europe,” as Europe “reawakened” from 500 years of cultural decline that began with the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. 8 From 1096 until 1272, European Christians tried to conquer the Muslims, the world’s most advanced society, in the Middle East (the Holy Land – Palestine) through a series of crusades. As soldiers returned to Europe with Middle Eastern silk, spices, drugs, draperies, perfumes and gems, brisk trade developed between Europe and the East. European explorers went to Asia to learn more about the Mongols (Tartars) who had pushed to the Danube River in Europe in the mid-thirteenth century, as well as to find Prester (Priest) John, a legendary Christian ruler. Venetian merchants Maffeo and Nicolo Polo reached China (Cathay) and Kubai, khan (ruler) of the Mongols around 1260. In 1295, Nicolo’s son, romance novelist, stating that the products of the East could be reached by sea and that Europeans would be welcomed by the Khan and Prester John (who he had never seen). Europeans were amazed by The Travels of Marco Polo – or description of the World (1477) and would reach China two centuries later, after being delayed by navigational and financial limitations. “Marco Polo discovered China in the thirteenth century, when he was alive, and in the fifteenth century, when he was dead, he discovered America.” (Eileen Power) By the fourteenth century, Europe was stirring with new ideas during the Renaissance, a period of “rebirth.” Despite the Renaissance, the feudal manorial system and non-competitive craft guilds continued to prevent change, promote unity and regulate the individual. The Church, which owned a third of France and Germany, stifled individual instincts by preaching that anyone who challenged the established order should face God’s wrath. When medieval people began to insist on “rights,” the foundations for American colonial developments were established. The authority of the Catholic Church diminished in the fourteenth century as England and France began taxing church property. New European monarchs like Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France would rule without regard for the church’s moral authority. 9 In 1303, the French invaded the Vatican and removed the pope to France (in the Babylonian Captivity – 1305 to 1378), producing the Great Schism (13781415) with one pope in France and one in Rome. John Wycliffe and John Huss attacked the church’s wealth and possessions. Poverty ceased to be a virtue as wealth emerged. Merchants began to compete against the craft guilds through “cottage industries.” The shift of values led Europeans, who were confined to the religious, social and economic parameters of the medieval world, to explore new worlds. Reasons for European exploration Europeans searched for new trade routes to the East, launching the Commercial Revolution. The old land-based trade routes to the Eastern lands of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) China and India were difficult, dangerous, expensive, and dominated by Moslem middlemen as well as monopolists in Genoa and Venice. Portugal was the first European nation to launch voyages of exploration. Prince Henry the Navigator founded a school of navigation at Sagres and, as a result, improved the science of navigation and mapmaking. He employing the cartographic principles of Ptolemy, asserting that the earth is round, that distances can be measured in degrees and that celestial bodies can be used in determining location north and south of the equator (latitude) and east and west (longitude). Using swift caravel ships with lateen sails which enabled them to sail into the wind, the Portuguese explored the African coast in 1420, searching for Moslem gold, ivory and Prester John. 10 After being blown off course by a storm, Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and was followed by Vasco de Gama who proceeded across the Indian Ocean to India. As a result, Portugal established flourishing trading posts in India, Asia and Africa and broke the Italian monopoly as prices on Asian goods fell. Portugal was the first nation to take African slaves into Europe. The search for new lands led to the Geographic Revolution as Europe discovered America. Christopher Columbus of Genoa, Italy believed that the world was round and that the East could be reached by sailing westward. Sailors had found carved wood and dark-skinned corpses floating at sea (probably Eskimos) and he was also inspired by Marco Polo. After initially being rejected by Spain, Portugal, England, and France, Columbus sailed on behalf of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain and set out in 1492 with the Nina, the Pinta (both of which were caravel ships) and the Santa Maria. The Spanish rulers wanted Columbus to find a route to the silk, spices, perfumes, jewels, and gold of the controlled the land trade and the merchants of Genoa and Venice. Columbus sighted land in the Bahamas (San Salvador) on October 12, 1492 and mistakenly identified the inhabitants as “Indians” while the region became known as the West Indies. When he died in 1506, he remained convinced that he had found the Indies. He discovered Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba, found gold, and was introduced to Indian maize (Corn), hammocks, sweet potatoes, tobacco, cinnamon, and coconuts. In later expeditions, he discovered the Lesser Antilles, Dominica, Guadalupe, St. Croix (the first future U.S. territory he found), Puerto Rico and Jamaica. 11 Spain encouraged other explorations of the “New World” in order to convert the inhabitants to Christianity and to seize the new land’s wealth. America was later named (by a German geography) in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian who explored from Mexico to Brazil on behalf of Portugal in 1501 during what he claimed was four trips to the New World. Columbus was not the first European to explore North America but he is credited with “discovery “ because his exploration led to the European migration to America. Leif Ericson (a Viking) landed on the northeast coast of “Vinland” around 1000 A.D. from the Viking settlement earlier founded by his father, Eric the Red, in Greenland but no mass migration came as a result. As a result of early European exploration, the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) gave all territory west of the Demarcation Line (between the Azores and the new land Approximately 1100 miles west of Cape Verde) to Spain and all lands east of the line to Portugal. Neither nation was aware that Brazil extended into the Portuguese territory and, in 1500, after being blow off course while sailing around Africa, Pedro Alvarez Cabral would claim Brazil for Portugal. Geography significantly influenced the exploration of the New World as rivers, oceans and mountain ranges marked the boundaries of exploration. Colonies would later be located on good harbors and become culturally diverse due to geography. American culture did not emerge homogeneously but, rather, become an assimilation of various radical, ethic and religious groups. Although the United States emerged from English colonies in North America, earlier settlements and colonies in the New World were non-English in origin. Spanish explorations led to an empire in America which would have a profound impact upon America culture, Spanish first settled Central America before spreading into South and North America. 12 Ponce de Leon (1513) discovered and explored Florida, searching for the legendary “fountain of youth” after conquering Puerto Rico. He was killed by Indians. Vasco de Balboa (1513) discovered the Pacific Ocean (the “South Sea”) after crossing Panama with Indian guides and African labor. Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1522) a Portuguese sailing under the flag of Spain, led the expedition that first circumvented the globe, definitely proving that the world is round. He confirmed Balboa’s discovery of a new, calm sea which he named the Pacific Ocean. Magellan died in the Philippines but 18 of his 237 men reached Spain in the “Victoria”. Hernando Cortes (1519-1521), after burning his ships in order to instill motivation in his men, conquered the Aztec empire of Montezuma with armor, gunpowder, horses and by scaring enemies of the Aztecs into an alliance with his small army of 550 men. He siezed vast amounts of gold and silver and added Mexico to the Spanish Empire. Many Aztecs welcomed Cortes as Quetzalcoatl, the legendary Aztec god who had promised to return to Mexico one day. Cortez conquered the Aztecs with ease because he brutally fought to win, while the Aztecs believed that wars were only fought to produce prisoners for ceremonial scarifies Panfilo de Narvaez (1527-28) explored the Gulf of Mexico before his expedition was destroyed by a hurricane Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico (1528-1536) explored the Southwest after being among the four survivors of Narvaez’s ill-fated expedition to reach Mexico City. De Vaca later wrote a book in Spanish about Narvaez’s expedition and Estevanico, an African slave, was later killed by Indians while on a treasure hunt. Francisco Pizarro (1531-1535) defeated the Incas, after murdering Inca, their leader, seized gold and added Peru to the Spanish Empire. Like Cortez, Pizarro was seen as a god fulfilling an ancient prophesy. 13 Hernando de Soto (1542) discovered and explored the Mississippi River, claimed the Gulf coast region and explored North America, perhaps as far north as North Carolina. He was buried in the river, the “father of waters.” Francisco Coronado (1540- 1542) explored the southwest and discovered the Grand Canyon while searching for the fabled “Seven Cities of Cibola” (the Cities of Gold). Juan Cabrillo (1542) explored the coast of California. The Spanish empire in the New World was the largest empire that Europe had ever seen and included South America (except Brazil), the West Indies, Central America, Mexico, Florida, California, and southwestern United States. The Spanish conquistadors came to the New World for “God, Glory, and Gold,” hoping to Christianize the Native Americans, to grow rich and to add to Spain’s conquests. 200,000 Spaniards migrated to the New World, founded 200 settlements and established colonies (land settled and controlled by a country) with churches, schools and missions. The Spanish colonial population was diverse. Only Catholics were permitted to move to the colonies. European-born Spaniards were the upper class that controlled the governmental positions. Native-born Americans of Spanish descent (Creoles) were pioneers who ownes and managed plantations, mines and other commercial enterprises. Mestizos (with Spanish/Indian ancestry) served as laborers, farmers and tradesmen. Native Indians were terribly treated, even though laws decreed humane treatment. 14 Although the Spanish government ultimately abolished Indian slavery in the 1540’s, forced labor continued with the encomienda system, in which the Spanish served as trustees over land and its inhabitants, and the repartimiento system in which Indian laborers were paid meager wages from which taxes were taken. Catholic missionaries converted and educated the Indians, taught then to trade and tried to protect their interests. Friar Bartolome’ de Las Casas, the most famous Spanish missionary, sought justice and fair treatment for Indians. Junipero Serra built missions in San Diego (1769) and along the California coast. Eusebio Francisco Kino was a Jesuit Priest who mapped Arozonia while establishing missions. The Spanish colonies ultimately destroyed over 90% of the Native American population with diseases (smallpox and measles), resulting, for the first time, in the importation of African slaves to the New World. By the 1600’s, African slaves outnumdered the Spanish population in New Spain. In 1680, Pueblos, led by Pope’, drove the Spanish out of New Mexico but the Spanish soon returned to the region. Negro slaves form Africa Mulattoes- Black/Spanish ancestry Zambos- Indians/Black ancestry Concerned about French and English exploration in North America, the Spanish built a fort (presidio) at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565. It would be followed by other forts which would extend as far north as South Carolina, where Spanish slavery was known to exist long before the British introduced slavery into the region. Spanish colonies were diverted into two large provinces, including New Spain (Caribbean, Central America, North America and part of South America) and the colonies of South America. They were governed by the king’s viceroys who ruled completely in collecting taxes, enforcing laws, controlling finances 15 and presiding over the Indians. The Spanish empire in the New World had no representative government. Commercial activities were regulated in New Spain. a. No competition with Spanish manufacturers was allowed. b. Colonists traded only with the mother country. c. The Spanish practiced mercantilism, an economic system in which colonies existed to enrich and serve the mother county. Huge quantities of gold and silver were shipped to Spain, mostly from Potosi in Bolivia, producing the richest and most powerful nation in the world. Spanish wealth was also extended during King Phillip II’s reign through unity with Portugal. d. Spanish ranchers raised cattle while farmers operated haciendas (plantations) Spain’s Legacy To America a. The Spaniards introduced Christianity into the New World, converting thousands of Indians to Roman Catholicism. b. Spanish is the official language in Latin America (except Brazil and Haiti) and is widely spoken in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. c. Fruit and Animals: Oranges, lemons, olives, sugar cane, wheat, rice, horses, cattle, donkeys, pigs, and sheep. d. Education: Universities (1500’s) in Mexico City and Lima (preceding Harvard University in the English colonies by almost a century) and the printing press. e. Architecture: Rounded arches, arched doorways, domed roofs, rectangular bell towers, stone or adobe walls, open courts, high ceilings and tiled roofs. 16 f. Cowboy culture. g. Slavery and plantation society. Spain’s empire in the New World differed from the French and British empires. a. North America did not produce the quantity of precious metals (gold/silver) that was found in New Spain. b. The wealthy Spanish empire produced a strong, homogenous culture. c. The Spanish used torture and other means in successfully controlling the native popultion. Similarities emerged in the Spanish and British empires. a. Each empire imported African slaves to address a labor shortage. b. Both empires economically depended on agriculture. c. Each was an outpost on a vast frontier. France in the New World The French explored the New World in order to a. find a passage to the Indies. b. build an overseas empire of her own. c. gain control of fishing banks off Newfoundland. d. tap into North America’s huge supply of furs (beaver). 17 e. convert the Indians to Catholicism. f. trade; the French Primarily came to the New World to trade. Giovanni de Verrazano (1524), an Italian sailing for France, explored the eastern coast of North America from North Carolina to Nova Scotia and discovered New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay Jacques Cartier (1534-1535) discovered the St. Lawrence River and the site on which Montreal is located. Samuel de Champlain (1608-1609), the “Father of New France,” founded the first permanent French colony at Quebec, discovered Lake Champlain and explored northern New York State. Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet (1673) explored the central portion of the Mississippi River. Robert Cavalier de la Salle (1682) sailed down the Mississippi River and claimed the entire territory to the Gulf of Mexico for France, naming it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV; previously explored western New York and the Ohio Valley, erected trading posts and forts in the Great Lakes region and built the first sailing vessel to navigate the Great Lakes. He was ultimately murdered in a mutiny of his men. As a result of her exploration, France claimed Canada, the Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi Valley. France gained a natural highway to the interior of North America by controlling the St. Lawrence River, the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. The French settlers built trading posts and forts at strategic points along waterways like the Ohio River to serve as centers for fur trade with the Indians. The French also built forts like New Orleans (1718) in order to prevent Spanish settlements in the region. Large estates were granted to lords, who rented small farms to settlers. 18 80,000 settlers came to New France over a 150-year period. Government: Each of the two provinces, Canada and Louisiana, were administered by the king’s royal governor who controlled the colonists completely. The French empire in the New World had no representative government. Religious restrictions only permitted Catholics to immigrate to New France, unlike the English colonies, where French Protestants (Huguenots) and other religious dissenters settled. The French maintained better relations with the Indians, because, with the fur trade, they found no need to clear the forsts, destroy the wildlife or confiscate Indian lands for homes and farms. Priests, known as Black Robes, set up missions in order to Christianize the Hurons and other wilderness tribes. France’s Legacy to America a. Religion: French missionaries and priests established the Catholic Church in the Mississippi River Valley and eastern Canada. b. Language: Many people in Louisiana, New York, New England and the Canadian province of Quebec today speak French and observe French customs. c. Many U.S. geographic names are of French origin (Baton Rouge, Detroit, St. Louis, Vermont, Lake Champlain). The Netherlands in the New World Henry Hudson (1609), an English navigator, was hired by Dutch merchants to find a new water route to the Indies. He explored the coast of North America from Maine to Carolina, discovering Delaware Bay and the Hudson Bay. The Dutch Empire in America, known as New Netherland, extended from the Hudson River Valley to Delaware Bay. 19 In 1614 Dutch merchants established a trading post near present-day Albany. The Dutch West India Company, holding a grant from the Dutch government for exclusive trading and colonizing rights in the New World, sent settlers to New Netherland who founded Fort Orange and New Amsterdam (New York City – Manhattan Island) which soon became the capital, port and trading center of New Netherland. The patron system was adopted by the company to encourage settlement. The title of patron and a large estate along the Hudson River was offered to any company member who would provide passage and land for fifty adult settlers. Consequently, the Hudson River Valley became a region of large estates but the patron system failed because the colonists found greater freedom in the English colonies. New Netherland was administered by a governor who was appointed by the Dutch West India Company. The Colony had no representative government. Peter Minuit, the first governor, bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24.00 worth of trinkets, beads and knives. The Netherlands Legacy to America a. Architecture: Steeply pitched roofs, stepped gables, entrance stoops, two-section doors. b. Easter eggs, waffles, New York cities, Santa Claus. c. Sports: Bowling, ice-skating and golf. d. Three Presidents were Dutch descendants: Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt. Lesson 3: The English exploration of the New World led to the establishment of settlements a long the Atlantic Seaboard. England explored the North American continent in the New World. When Protestant Queen Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, she challenged Catholic Spain’s commercial and naval supremacy. England honored her “sea dogs” (pirates) like Sir John Hawkins, who smuggled slaves and British goods into Spanish colonies, and Sir Francis Drake, who looted Spanish treasure ships and settlements in the Caribbean. 20 When Drake was “knighted,” King Phillip II’s Spanish forces attacked England in an effort to return England to Catholicism and to prevent the English from further aiding the Dutch in their struggle for independence from Spain. In a decisive sea battle, small, quick English ships, employing greater maneuverability and long-range firepower, outmaneuvered and destroyed the cumbersome Spanish Armada which was also battered by a storm in the English channel while escaping from ships set ablaze by the British on the French coast. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked a turning point in history as Spain began to decline in power. England lagged behind Spain and Portugal in colonizing the New World because her rulers were more concerned with conquering Wales and Ireland prior to 1600. England sent explorers to the New World to seek a passage to the Indies, an outlet for surplus population, a source of raw materials and a market for her manufactured goods. John Cabot(1497-1498) established the English foothold in the New World as he explored the eastern coast of North America and was the first explorer to reach the North American mainland. Sir Marin Frobisher discovered Baffin Island and Frobisher Bay in Northern Canada (1576). Sir Frances Drake was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (1577-1580) and to explore the western coastline of North America. John Davis (1585-87) explored the North American Arctic. England’s empire in the New World claimed a large part of the Atlantic Seaboard. Richard Hakluyt’s Discourse Concerning Western Planting encouraged English colonization of the New World by asserting that England a) should try to humble the king of Spain, thereby extending English power; b) should use the New World as and outlet for her thieves, beggars and criminals; c) should 21 convert the Native Americans to Anglicanism and d) could extract precious minerals from the colonies. Hakluyt believed that the colonies would become consumers of finished British goods but would not become centers of manufacturing in the British mercantilist model. English colonies were initially formed by joint stock companies who received a charter (an official grant) from King James I in 1606 to colonize America. Stockholders invested money in these forerunners of modern corporations, hoping to share in potential profits. The London (Virginia) Company received all territory south of the Potomac River, in addition to New York City, while the Plymouth Company was granted all territory north of the Potomac. The King promised that all people who served in either company in the English colonies would retain their rights and privileges as English subjects, “as if abiding and born within this our realm of England.” Early modern Europe was a mobile society and the migrations from England and other nations to the New World must be viewed in the context of domestic patterns of migration. Two migration patterns emerged in England. Metropolitan migrants, overwhelmingly from London, were usually young, single, male tenant farmers, displaced by English landowners, who came to the New World as indentured servants, exchanging two to seven year of labor for free passage to America’s economic opportunity. Most indentured servants were restricted in how they lived, worked and married and typically remained impoverished or returned to England. Redemptioners only had to work off part of the cost of their passage and were seen as passengers rather than cargo on the journey. Provincial migrants from the outlying English provinces were typically farm families who liquidated their possessions to raise enough money to avoid servitude. They ultimately became the colonial frontier families who contributed enormously to the colonial economy with initiative, consumption and frontier settlements. 22 Early English settlements Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1578-1583) unsuccessfully tried to colonize Newfoundland. Sir Walter Raleigh (1585-1590) briefly settled Roanoke Island. Raleigh received, from Queen Elizabeth I, a patent granted earlier to his half-brother Gilbert and sent Captains Philip Armadas and Arthur Barlowe to the New World to find a site for a settlement in 1587. Portuguese Simon Fernandez served as pilot. They entered the Pamlico Sound in North Carolina at Ocracoke Inlet and proceeded to Roanoke Island, where they traded with local Indians. Accompanied by Indians Wachese and Manteo, they returned to England and made a glowing report of their exploration. Raleigh was knighted and the new land was christened “Virginia” for unmarried “Virgin Queen” Elizabeth. In 1585, Raleigh dispatched 108 men (no women or children) to Roanoke under the command of Sir Richard Greenville. The first English colony in the New World (the “Ralph Lane colony,” named after its governor) constructed Fort Raleigh> Besieged by poor leadership, scarce food and rumors of impending Indian raids, the colonists returned to England in 1586 after Sir Francis Drake arrived and offered to accompany the settlers back to England. Eighteen men remained behind in the colony. As a result of his experience, Richard Hariot wrote the first book in English about and eyewitness account of the New World, entitled “A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia” (1588). Sir Walter Raleigh sent a new expedition, with John White as governor. 23 The “John White colony” consisted of 110 settlers, including 17 women and nine children. They found Fort Raleigh but no sign of Lane’s 18 men. Manteo was baptized and Virginia Dare, granddaughter of Governor White, became the first English child born in America. Governor White returned to England for supplies in 1587 but was delayed in returning to the colony due to the war with Spain. He returned to Roanoke Island in 1590 but their was no sigh of the Lost Colony, except for the word “Croatoan” carved on a tree and a few remnants of supplies. The unknown fate of the “Lost Colony” may be explained by one of the following theories: 1.The colonists were wiped out by the Spanish expedition sent from Florida. Evidence has been found that the Spanish were planning such an attack and there were Spanish ships in the region at the time of the disappearance. 2.The colonists were killed by the Indians. 3.The colonists, after giving up on the return of Governor White, joined the Indians and, for reasons unknown (perhaps a storm), moved inland. The present-day Lumbees of Robeson County, once known as “Croatans,” may be their descendents. 4. The colonists may have tried to return to England in ships left behind by Governor White and were lost at sea. Sir Walter Raleigh, who never accompanied an expedition to Roanoke, was later beheaded for treason after angering Queen Elizabeth. A colony founded by Sir Fernando Gorge’s Plymouth Company at Sagadohoc (Maine) failed after one winter. Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement in America. 24 The settlement, founded by the London Company in1607 on the James River in the Chesapeake Bay region, suffered early hardships as settlers searched for gold rather than food and shelter and faced Indian stacks and disease in the swampland site. England’s full employment policy had fostered a poor attitude towards work among the young men that populated the settlement because it restricted the work day per worker to 4-5 hours in order to have everyone employed. After half of the settlers, none of whom were farmers, died, Captain John Smith took control, demanding work and home construction in exchange for the food he acquired from local Indians. The colony nearly perished when he returned to England in 1609. Jamestown succeeded due to private ownership of land (which stimulated agriculture), the cultivation tobacco by John Rolfe, peace with the Indians as a result of Rolfe’s marriage to Pocahontas, a chief’s daughter, and the arrival of skilled workers (masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, and farmers). In 1619 the Virginia House of Burgesses established the idea of representative government in the new world, just as parliament governed back home in England. The House convened on June 30th with two burgesses (delegates) from each settlement attending. 1619 also witnessed the arrival of the first African slaves and women into Jamestown. The Plymouth settlement emerged as a result of religious and political dissension in the 16th Century England. England broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 when King Henry VIII formed the Anglican Church in order to divorce his wife and to marry Ann Bolyn. Everyone was required to support the new church but opposition arose from Roman Catholics, Puritans, who wanted to “purify,” the Anglican Church of its remaining Catholic tendencies, and separatists, who established independent churches. Many people fled to the New World to escape political persecution. King James I (1603-1624), the first Stuart king, embraced the “divine right of kings,” the belief that the king was only accountable to God. The conflict between King James I and Parliament over taxation and free speech continued during the reign of King Charles I (1625-1649), the civil war that introduced Oliver Cromwell’s dictatorial rule. 25 On November 11, 1620, 102 English separatists, who had fled to Holland in 1608 in order to separate from the Anglican Church, and non-believers, including Myles Standish, arrived in New England on the Mayflower. Before coming ashore, the pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, one of the earliest written expression of self-government in America, in which they agreed to enact just and equal laws and to abide by these laws. Only adult males signed the agreement. Government was identified as the “Civil body politic.” In December 1620, the pilgrims established a settlement at Plymouth, Massachusetts, though they never received a charter from the King since they were living in exile in Holland. After only 44 of the 102 pilgrims survived the first winter, the Plymouth settlers learned to use natural resources from Squanto, a Pawtuxet Indian who served as an interpreter, Samoset and Massasoit, leader of the Wampanoags who formed an alliance with the pilgrims. In the autumn of 1621, the pilgrims celebrated their first year in the New World with a festival of recreation and thanksgiving together with their Indian friends. After the death of John Carver, the first governor of Plymouth, William Bradford governed the settlement wisely for many years, helping each settler to acquire individual tracts of land and insuring the depts. Were repaid to merchants who had sponsored the settlement. In 1691, Plymouth, the first permanent English settlement in the New England region, merged with Massachusetts Bay Colony. Lesson 4: The English colonies in the New World were formed as a result of diverse geographic, social, religious, and political influences. Rivers, oceans and mountain ranges marked the boundaries of explorations and English colonies were usually located on good harbors. Most of the English colonies, which were initially controlled by joint-stock companies, proprietors and other investors, ultimately became royal colonies, controlled by the king. 26 Colonists came to America in search of religious freedom and to gain wealth by selling the New World’s goods. The four New England Colonists were primarily formed out of disputes over separation of church and state. The colonists survived on subsistence farms, due to the region’s poor, rocky soil and long winters, built ships and traded fur and lumber products from its good ports to England in exchange for manufactured goods. They relied on triangular trade, sending run to Africa in exchange for slaves and subsequently shipping the slaves to the West Indies in exchange for the molasses needed for manufacturing rum. Most of the region’s immigrants came as families, insuring a stable social structure. Children were educated so that they could read the Bible. In 1636, Harvard College, the oldest corporation in America, was chartered to train boys for the ministry. Yale College was founded shortly thereafter. Life expectancy was high due to the absence of malaria and other diseases. Their Congregational Church government, with its decentralized local church authority, became the region’s democratic source of political government as the New England town meeting became the purest form of democracy in America. The region’s idealism later served as the inspiration for reform. Just as colonial assemblies would give birth to state legislatures, town meetings became the model ultimately followed by town councils. Thomas Jefferson would later refer to the New England town meeting as “the first most perfect exercise of self-government.” Massachusetts Bay Colony was formed by a small group of Puritans who settled at Salem in 1628 to escape religious persecution. Puritan Beliefs Order was the primary goal of the Puritans. Individual interests were sacrificed for the community’s order and consensus. Compacts (agreements) were signed by adult male head-of-household to prevent dissent. 27 As Calvinists, they tried to “purify” the Church of England which was forcing the saints to mingle with the “damned” in open services. To the Puritans, all men were born of original sin. However, God was all powerful and predestined some persons (the elect) for salvation. Each Puritan attempted to prove that he was among the elect by striving hard to live in accordance with God’s will. Full membership in a Congregational Church required a conversion experience proving that the applicant was one of God’s elect. Adherence to the strict moral code signaled salvation and increased the likelihood of prosperity. Men were innately unequal. Only saints could run the Church and only the elite could run the government. Membership in the Church was a prerequisite for participation in the political process. Everyone was legally required to attend the established church. Puritans came to America to create a utopia in the wilderness, as proclaimed in John Winthrop’s “A Model of Christian Charity” sermon: “We must consider that we shall be a City upon a Hill; the eyes of all people are upon us.” The concept of Protestant ethics is derived from the Puritans, who believed that God would grant them saving grace if they honored the contract (covenant) with God. Civil government reflected the voluntary agreement of church followers. There was no separation of church and state in Puritan New England. The Puritans believed that the purpost of government was to enforce God’s laws and felt that government had the expelling dissidents, enforcing attendance, taxing residents to finance churches and establishing colleges to train ministers. The Puritans, however, did not choose the Church’s clergymen. Due to religious uniformity, the Puritans did not accept other groups into Massachusetts Bay Colony, even though they had themselves been victims of persecution in the past. Education was important so that individuals could interpret the meaning of the Scripture and the solutions it offered for their lives. Puritans also felt that education would contribute to good citizenship as well as increased occupational performance. However, diversity of viewpoints on religious matters was discouraged. 28 Acreage from communal lands was distributed to individuals based on family size, need and skills valued by the community. The home served as the center of the family’s social and economic life. Women, though uneducated and domesticated, often served as “deputy husbands” in business matters when necessity required. 17th and 18th century women had more rights than their counterparts in the early 19th century. Children were taught the alphabet and morality (obey God and parents) through the New England Primer (1690), one of America’s first books. Single persons had to live within a family and families were expected to live close to the church. The Puritans had disruptions due to offering interpretations of the Bible. After being tried by Governor John Winthrop, Anne Hutchinson was banished to the wilderness after arguing publicly that ministers were emphasizing “works,” rather than God’s grace, which cannot be earned. Rhode Island and Connecticut emerged out of rebellions against the colony’s leaders. Further undermining the strength of Puritan rule was the decision to extend voting rights to all male property owners, whether or not they were church members, as well as the Halfway Covenant, which provided for the baptism of children belonging to baptized but unconverted Puritans. After the Massachusetts Bay Company received a charter for a large part of New England, 1,000 Puritans settled Boston, which became the capital, in 1630. John Winthrop became the first governor in a government comprised of a General Court of representatives elected from each town’s Bay Company stockholders and church members. During the “Great Puritan Migration” of the 1630’s, over 70,000 Puritans left England but most emigrated to the warm climate of the Caribbean. Only 15,000 of them came to Massachusetts. Massachusetts bought Maine in 1677 and kept it until 1820. 29 The Massachusetts Bay Colony charter was revoked in 1684 in a demonstration of authority by the king and, after acquiring Plymouth, became a royal colony in 1691. In 1692, the Salem witchcraft trials resulted in the legal hanging of nineteen suspected witches and two dogs and the fatal pressing of another suspect, Giles Corey. The hysterical witch hunts were the product of superstition and changing religious conditions that were initiated when the Puritan Church began opening its doors to the “unconverted.” Evidence also suggests that the young girls who identified their neighbors as witches were seeking the attention of the settlement’s elders. Anne Bradstreet’s The Tenth Muse depicted, through poetry, the stability of Puritan life. Connecticut In 1636, Thomas Hooker, a Puritan pastor who was profit-motivated as well as unhappy with the harsh rule of Massachusetts Bay Colony, settled Hartford. New Haven and other settlements later emerged. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) was the first written constitution in America, providing for elected legislative deputies, an elected governor, limited terms of office for public officials and fair taxation. It later served as a model for the colony’s charter and state constitution. In 1662, Connecticut towns united into a single colony. Rhode Island Roger Williams, a Puritan minister in Salem who was banished in 1635 for voicing opposition to the Puritan religious restrictions of Massachusetts Bay Colony as well as the colony’s seizure of land from the Indians. He founded Providence in 1636 where he promoted complete religious freedom, even for Jews, Quakers and others with whom he disagreed. 30 Anne Hutchinson settled Portsmouth after she was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1638 for criticizing Puritan Church restrictions. She believed that one’s personal relationship with God was more important than following the teachings of church leaders. The united colony of Rhode Island received a charter from Parliament in 1644, featuring more religious and political freedom than any other colony. All adult males were granted the right to vote (regardless of property). New Hampshire In 1622 Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges acquired the rights to a large area in Northern New England in search of profit but Massachusetts Bay Colony subsequently annexed the region in 1641. Dominion of New England In 1686, King James II combined the New England colonies together with New York and New Jersey into the Dominion of New England in order to more effectively administer navigation laws and to provide for the defense of the colonies against Indians. a. Sir Edmund Andros, head of the dominion, restricted town meetings, the press, courts and schools, instituted taxes, revoked property rights and prevented government. b. New England Puritans resented Andros, a member of the Church of England, as well as the harsh rule of James II, who had converted to Catholicism. In the 1688 “Glorious Revolution,” James II was replaced by the Protestant monarchy of William and Mary of Orange. William was born in the Netherlands and Mary was the daughter of James II. Andros was “overthrown” in Boston. In 1689, the English Bill of Rights restored colonial charters, representative government and the power of the parliament over the kings and established the principle of no taxation without representation in Parliament. 31 Puritan influence in New England declined prior to the 1690’s due to 1. The death of the original leaders. 2. Internal religious dissent 3. Dissatisfaction with British and Puritan economic regulations. The Middle Colonies The Middle Colonies, including New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, were settled by people from several nations, primarily the English, the Dutch and the Swedes, and came to represent America’s rich ethnic and religious diversity, the melting pot of America. Geographic influences brought prosperity to the region. The “breadbasket of the New World” became the home of large family farms which produced wheat, corn, meat and dairy goods. Prosperous seaports afforded influence to merchants. New York New York emerged from the Dutch colony of New Netherland due to conflict between the Dutch and the English. England felt justified in claiming the region. a. Cabot had explored the region prior to Hudson. b. New Netherland was a barrier separating New England from English colonies in the South. c. Dutch traded with English colonies (illegally). d. Dutch fur trade with the Indians was profitable. 32 e. England wanted to control the New Amsterdam harbor. In 1664 an English fleet forced New Netherland, under the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, to surrender without firing a shot. a. King Charles II, who restored the Stuart dynasty to the throne in England in 1660 upon the death of Oliver Cromwell, renamed New Netherland and the town of New Amsterdam in honor of his younger brother James, Duke of York. b. Representative government briefly met in New York for two years (1683-85), was abolished by James II but restored in 1691 through the Glorious Revolution. New Jersey Following the surrender of New Netherland, the Duke of York gave part of the territory to Sir George Cartaret and Lord John Berkeley who named the colony New Jersey and allowed for liberal grants of land, representative government and religious freedom. New Jersey became a royal colony in 1702 when the proprietors turned the colony over to the king. Pennsylvania Quakers (also known as the Society of Friends) were persecuted in England because this Protestant sect believed that men and women are equal in the eyes of God and that war and slavery were evil. The Quakers called for the manumission (emancipation) of slaves and, later, refused to participate in the American Revolutionary War for religious reasons. William Penn, the Quaker son of a wealthy English admiral, obtained a grant of land in the New World, in honor of his father, which the king named “Pennsylvania” (Penn’s woods). The king was given the right to veto the colony’s laws in the charter. Penn viewed his plans to establish a colony where all people could live together peaceably, enjoy equality, and worship 33 and speak freely as a “holy experiment”. He negotiated for the land with the Delaware Indians. The first settlers arrived in 1682 and founded Philadelphia, (the city of brotherly love) which became the capital and largest city in the colonies with a population of 20,000 by the 1750’s and very successful due to large, diverse immigration (comprised of many Germans.) The “Great Law of Pennsylvania,” a constitution, provided for representative government, religious freedom for all those who professed belief in “one Almighty God,” protection against unfair trade, reasonable, humane punishment, education, and friendly relations with the Indians. Delaware Delaware was originally settled on the Delaware River by Swedes (New Sweden). The Swedes gave the legacy of the log cabin to America. The Dutch were jealous of the Swedish fur trade and, under the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, conquered New Sweden, claiming it as New Netherland. When New Netherland fell to the English, the Duke of York renamed the region “Delaware.” The colony was ceded to Pennsylvania until 1703, when it established its own legislature, and continued to be administered by the governor of Pennsylvania until the American Revolution. The five Southern colonies of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia contained large, self-sufficient plantations which grew cash crops for profit, including rice and the Native American crop of tobacco. The geographical influence of cash crops would lead to lavish lifestyles and hospitality, strong commercial ties to Great Britain, widespread use of indentured servitude, and the introduction of slavery into the region. The region’s heavy reliance on agriculture rather than manufacturing produced the least diversified economy in the colonies while leading to a scattered 34 population and inhibiting the development of schools, churches and cities. Charleston was the only city in the South during much of the colonial period. The Anglican Church became a heavily-established church in the South. By the 1760’s, one-half of the total colonial population (including slaves) lived in the five southern colonies. Though slave-free New England would claim to be the birthplace of American democracy, many historians now recognize that the architects of America liberty ad republicanism (Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington) were, ironically, Virginians. Virginia, the first colony, was firmly established in the Chesapeake Bay region when the other southern colonies formed and was heavily dependent on tobacco cultivation. With only 1200 survivors out of the 8000 adventurer’s who had migrated to the region, Jamestown promoted other settlements. In 1624, James I, who hated tobacco and the “rebellious” House of Burgesses, revoked the London Company’s charter and Virginia became a royal colony. The King appointed the governor and the council (the house of the legislature designed to assist the governor). The colonists continued to elect the members of the lower house, the House of Burgesses. In 1636, William and Mary College was founded. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led almost a thousand disenfranchised Virginians in a revolt against Governor Berkely, whose monopoly on the Indian fur trade led him to protect the Indians after they raided frontier settlements. The revolt targeted the Virginia Assembly which had stripped them of their political rights in 1670 and demonstrated the anger that backwoodsmen felt toward large property owners. After murdering Indians, driving Berkely into exile and burning the capital, the frustrated servants and freedmen saw their civil war collapse when their leader suddenly died of disease. 35 Berkely restored order and hanged twenty rebels. Bacon’s Rebellion led Virginia planters to look for a different source of labor: Africans, the rebellion also led to the negotiation of a new Indian treaty that opened up western land to white settlers. In 1699 Williamsburg became the capital of Virginia and remained the political, cultural and social center of Virginia until 1780, when the capital was moved to Richmond. Most of the immigrants to Virginia were young, single males, many of whom came as indentured secants (“white slaves”) under the headright system which granted land to anyone who would bring fifty laborers to the region. Maryland George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, a Catholic and a friend of King Charles I, obtained a tract of land in the New World in which to found a colony which would serve as a refuge for Catholics who had been persecuted in England. Maryland was England’s fourth colony. Cecilius Calvert became the first individual proprietor of an English colony when his father died. Although he owned the colony, he could only make laws with advise from the colonists A prosperous settlement was founded in 1634 at St. Mary’s near the Potomac, with Leonard Calvert as its first governor In 1729, Baltimore was founded and quickly Maryland’s largest city The Toleration Act (1649) was passed to prevent religious discrimination. Christians of all denominations were welcome there. Jews were prohibited Like Virginia, Maryland’s plantation economy was also dependent on tobacco cutivation 36 The Carolinas The first English settlement in the New World was founded on Roanoke Island in 1587, was “lost” by 1590 In 1663 King Charles II issued a charter to eight lord proprietors to settle “Carolina” (named in the king’s honor) from Virginia to the border of Spanish Florida and westward to the South Seas. The proprietors primarily settled South Carolina while Virginians settled North Carolina Settlers including French Huguenots, Scots, Germans and Scotch-Irish (lowland Scots banished to Ireland, where they faced discrimination from the nations Catholic majority) Virginians and Quakers Tobacco and naval stores were produced in North Carolina while rice and indigo grew in the South Carolina Swamps South Carolina settlers enslaved local Indians and sold them to the West Indies plantations while relying instead on the labor of African slaves who were more resistant to malaria and experienced in rice cultivation. Slave labor so dominated the rice plantations of South Carolina that by 1730, most of the colonies population was black. Rice cultivation was the primary contribution of the colony’s African slaves Slavery wasn’t abundant in North Carolina because the region was settled by poor farmers and religious dissenters who resented the aristocratic Anglican plantation owners of Virginia. North Carolina is often compared to Rhode Island as being more democratic and independent than the other colonies. The main port and largest city in Carolina was Charles Town (Charleston S.C.), founded in 1670. South Carolina often fought with the Spanish Catholics in Florida. 37 Friction grew between the elective assemblies and the proprietors who failed to maintain law and order. In 1729, North Carolina and South Carolina became separate royal colonies. Georgia James Oglethorpe received a charter in 1732 from King George II to establish a colony between South Carolina and Florida that would serve as a refuge for imprisoned debtors as well as persecuted Protestants and also provide a buffer to Spanish Florida. Savannah was founded in 1733 by pioneers but very few prisoners. The diverse population promoted religious freedom but only for Protestants. John Wesley, who founded the Methodist Church was among the early settlers. Slavery was initially outlawed, along with alcohol. There was no representative government in Georgia; a council of trustees residing in England ruled the colony. In 1752, Georgia became a royal colony, with plantations and slaves. Africa and the New World 400,00 African slaves would be brought to the British colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of a total ten million African slaves brought to the New World in chains. Most slaves were taken to the sugar plantations of the West Indies or to Spanish and Portuguese plantations in South America. No other group of immigrants to the New World was isolated from its past culture and traditions. Most African slaves were captured as prisoners of war by rival tribes and sold on the West Coast of Africa to European and American slave merchants. Slaves ships carried hundreds of slave chained to cage-like decks (usually 90 slaves per deck, several decks deep) along the “Middle Passage” from Africa to the New World, Over twenty percent of the slaves died on the journey aboard the sweltering, unsanitary disease-ridden ship. 38 Most slaves were usually taken to the West Indies for a “breaking in” period. It is established that only fifty percent survived the process. Slaves arrived in North America were sold in slave markets in port cities like Charleston, S.C. or Newport, Rhode Island. Although the auctions often divided African family members who were stripped for inspection and sold to owners from different regions, many slaves were able to maintain social networks with family and friends. Most Africans remained slaves, though some gained their freedom and a few became slave owners. Slaves in the Chesapeake region of Virginia lived on large tobacco plantations while South Carolina slaves endured the harsher environments of the rice plantations. Northern slaves served as domestic servants in urban areas, had more contact with free blacks, were less likely to die of disease, in part due to the milder slave codes and summers in the North and represented a smaller percentage of their region’s population that their southern counterparts. Generally the treatment of slaves in the British colonies depended on the supply of slaves, the nature of work being performed, the ratio of blacks to whites in a colony as well as factors like climate and disease. By 1775, Africans would be the largest non-English ethic group in America, comprising over twenty percent of the population. Africans contributed to the colonial economy and culture. African slaves were a more stable source of labor that indentured servants. The agricultural economy of the South would prosper from their labor and the slave trade provided some of the capital that fueled the Industrial Revolution. Agricultural labor and expertise comprise the primary contribution of the African slaves to the southern colonies. American music grew with the development of jazz, which was a product of the African “ringshout” dance. Slaves contributed the banjo, bongo drum, the “blues,” gospel music and provided plantation entertainment. 39 Slaves developed their own on Daufuskie Island and other South Carolina islands. Known as “Gullah,” it combined African languages with English to produce “gumbo,” “voodoo” and other American words. Brought to Boston as a slave at age eight, Phyllis Wheatley learned English, became a published poet, gained her freedom and ultimately met with President Washington. The British Parliament had no policy on slavery. Lesson 5: America nationalism emerged as England gained control of North America. Colonies unity was evident as early as the mid-seventeenth century. New England colonists had united in 1643 into the New England Confederation for defense against the Indians and, in the 1670’s defeated Wampanoag chief King Philip in his revolt against colonial encroachment upon Indian lands. In proportion to population, this was the bloodiest war in American History. Bacon’s Rebellion demonstrated the wilderness of frontiersmen to join together to oppose the royal governor’s unjust system. During the Glorious Revolution in England in 1689, angry colonists toppled the Domination of New England. The “Great Awakening” of the 1730’s and 40’s united American into an emotional mass revival moment, challenging the era’s Enlightenment philosophy which placed faith in man and reason. America was dominated by two religions in the early eighteenth century: Congregationalists, the largest religion in America, and the Anglican Church, which the English fought to control. 40 Jonathan Edwards of Northampton, Massachusetts launched the religious crusade to stress God’s grace and to denounce the nation of salvation through good works. In 1738, George Whitefield fueled the message of divine omnipotence with his emotional oratory and inspired a whole new group of “new light” evangelists. The spontaneity of the first colonial mass movement proved that colonists could quickly unite around a cause. Consequences of the Great Awakening 1. An increase in church membership in all regions 2. An increase in religious tolerance and freedom 3. The division of Congregational and Presbyterian Church into rival factions. 4. Renewed interest in conversion and more humane treatment for Indians and blacks. In 1734-35, Peter Zenger, a New York newspaper printer, was tried for libel by the poyal judges for attacking the colony’s royal governor but the colonial jury, moved by the eloquent defense employed by Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, found Zenger “not guilty.” The trial of Peter Zenger laid the groundwork for freedom of expression and the press in America as well as the cause of liberty. The structure of political power in colonial America, which passed from 1. The king 2. The royal governor 3. The royal councils (the upper houses) 4. The colonial assemblies (the lower houses) The ultimately produced a struggle for power between the royal governors and the aristocracy that controlled the colonial assemblies and, as a result, revolution. After Spain began to decline as a world power, England and France competed in Europe, on the seas, in India and North America where territorial claims 41 were disputed and competition over fur trade led to increased hostilities. The British colonists were unable to remain isolated from the conflicts. Fighting in North America Fighting in North America erupted as a result of the wars between France and England in Europe. King William’s War (1689-1697); known in Europe as the War of the League of Augsburg) and Queen Anne’s War (1701-1713; known in Europe as the War of Spanish Succession) did not see the commitment of regular British and French troops but, rather, produced warfare in which the British colonists fought to defend their frontier settlements against the French and Indians, particularly in New York, Massachusetts and in the South in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). England received the French possession of Acadia (subsequently renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay region. James Oglethorpe and other British colonists fought the Spanish to a standstill in Georgia and the Caribbean in the War of Jenkins Ear in 1739. King George’s War (1744-174; known in Europe as the War of Austrian Succession) once again found Spain in conflict with the English and, again, the Spanish allied with France. As a result, British colonists in New England captured the French stronghold at Louisbourg, which controlled access to the St. Lawrence River, but it was subsequently returned to France through the Treat of 1748, a move which outraged the colonists. The French and Indian War (1754-1763) broke out in North America and later spread to Europe in 1756, where it was known as the Seven Years War (the fourth and conclusive European war). Comparison of the English and French colonies in 1754 Population / Territory 42 a. The English population of 1,500,000 was located in thirteen colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. b. In New France, 80,000 people were scattered over an area twenty times the size of English possessions, producing a difficult problem for defense. Economic activity a. The English colonies were established and self-sufficient with agriculture, shipbuilding, lumbering, manufacturing and commerce. b. The French engaged in fur trading with the Indians, which produced wealth but few permanent settlements. The French were highly dependent on imports. Government a. Each of the thirteen English colonies was a separate governmental unit with authority divided between English officials and elected representatives, later producing difficulty in uniting. b. The government of New France was highly centralized as the king’s officials held complete authority. Indian relations a. English relations with the Indians were poor because the English had occupied Indian hunting grounds and forced the Indians to move b. The French established friendly relations with the Indians. French fur trappers treated the Indians well and, thus, most tribes supported the French during the war. England gained control of North America through the French and Indian War. 43 A dispute between France and England over the land located west of the Appalachian Mountains (the Ohio River Valley) was the cause of the French and Indian War. Conflict arose in the 1740’s when English traders extended their operations into the Ohio River Valley and competed with the French for the Indian fur trade. As the English looked for new settlements, the French built a chain of forts from Lake Eire to the Ohio River, including Fort Duquesne where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join to form the Ohio River (present-day Pittsburgh), a key to the Ohio Valley and the West. War erupted in 1754 when Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent George Washington and militiamen to seize Fort Duquesne after the French refused to vacate the Ohio Valley. The English constructed an outpost named Fort Necessity about 40 miles form the French fort. The French, after an initial defeat, forced the Virginians to surrender and return home, thus marking the start of the French and Indian War. Fearing a reprisal from the French Acadians who England had acquired in 1713 following queen Anne’s war, British forced four thousand Acadians to leave their homeland in 1755 and subsequently resettle in Louisiana, where they maintained their “Cajun” culture. Failure of the colonies to unite led to difficulties for the British in the early stages of the war. At the Albany Congress, representatives of seven colonies met in Albany, New York in 1754 in order to secure the allegiance of the “Iroquois Confederacy and to unite the colonies. The Iroquois avoided the proposed alliance. Benjamin Franklin, author of the widely-read Poor Richard’s Almanac, proposed the Albany Plan of Union that was based upon the powerful 44 Iroquois Confederacy. A “grand council” would maintain an army, levy taxes, deal with Indian problems and control westward expansion. Franklin had earlier published a cartoon in the Pennsylvania Gazette showing the separated colonies as parts of a segmented snake with the slogan “Join or Die!” British General Edward Braddock was defeated near fort Duquesne after the French and Indians ambushed the “recoats” in the forest. Some British soldiers were rescued by George Washington’s frontiersmen. The French captured forts belonging to the English (Fort Oswego, Fort William Henry) and defeated British attempts to seize Ticonderoga (on lake Champlain in New York) and Louisbourg (the key to the French defenses and located on the mouth of the St. Lawrence River near Nova Scotia). English success emerged as William Pitt, the new Prime Minister of England in 1757, sent reinforcements and supplies, appointed good leaders, obtained greater colonial support by increasing the authority of colonial army officers and instilled new spirit into the people. The English subsequently defeated the French at Louisbourg Fort Duquesne (renamed Fort Pitt and later Pittsburgh), Fort Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The English conquered Canada and the French Empire fell. General James Wolfe led a decisive night raid on Quebec by scaling its cliffs. The next morning, both Wolfe and French commander Montcalm died in a fierce battle won by the English on the Plains of Abraham. Mantreal fell the next day and France was defeated. Treaty of Paris (1763) France gave Canada and all land east of the Mississippi River (except New Orleans) to England. France was essentially removed from the North American continent. 45 Spain a French ally, received all French territory west of the Mississippi (and New Orleans) as compensation. Spain gave Florida to England in exchange for Cuba which had been captured by the English during the war. Russia received the west coast of Alaska and Canada. France kept islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (St. Pierre and Minquelon) and the west Indies (St. Lucia, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Domingue). The French and Indian War established a chain of cause and effect relationships that would contribute to American independence and nationhood The French and Indian war proved valuable for the colonists because of the following: Colonists became less dependent on British protection with the removal of foreign enemies on the borders The war produced experienced soldiers The colonists leaned the importance of unity The victory assured the survival of England’s democratic principles and institutions as well as language in North America Scotch-Irish, German and English settlers immigrated into the Appalachian region with the defeat of the Indians. However, the British would prohibit settlements in the Ohio River Valley with the Proclamation of 1763. England emerged as the strongest nation in the world and the dominant power in North America. Great Britain’s indifference towards her colonies 46 came to an end with the French and Indian War as she began to look to her colonies for more revenue to pay large war debts. As the British began to clamp down on the colonies at the very time that they were becoming less dependent on the British, the stage was set for the American Revolution. By 1763, a society had emerged in the colonies that was quite different from that in England, An “Americanization” of the transplanted Europeans had taken place since Jamestown in 1607. The variety of religious and nationalities prevented an “established church” in America. Economically, the colonies yearned for the time when they would outgrow mercantile subordination to the mother country. The New England colonies had little to trade with England and relied heavily on triangular trade. The Southern colonies, which came closest to fitting the British mercantile model, increasingly felt the balance of trade, which favored England, was a drain on the southern economy. The Middle colonies; beginning with iron shops, worked for more agricultural and manufacturing production. British mercantilism produced a rising standard of living and promoted urban development. Exports exceeded imports for the British empire as a whole. Politically, suffrage (the right to vote) was more readily available in the colonies due to the greater availability of land, freedom of the press emerged with the Zenger trial and the three thousand mile distance from England enabled the colonies to have considerable control over their local governments and colonial legislatures. In terms of social classes, the colonies offered more “upward mobility;” it was possible to move up to a higher class, even for indentured servants, due to the abundant land and higher wages. America and England differed in that America had no large destitute white beggar class. The colonial household 47 was an equally important social and economic institution in the North and the South. By 1750, the thirteen primarily English colonies were doubling in population every 25 years. As the 19th Century approached, two-thirds of the colonial settlers were English, 5.6% were Scotch and Scotch-Irish, 4.5% were German, 2% were Dutch, 1.6% were Irish, ½% were French, 1/3% were other whites and 20% were African. English was the most common nationality found throughout the colonies; the English language served as the greatest common denominator. England’s Anglican Church was found throughout the colonies as well, although the diversity of religions prevented the emergence of an “established church” in the American colonies. J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur later wrote in Letters from an American Farmer (1782): “What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or a descendent of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no country… Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labor and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world. Lesson 6: Immediate and long-term causes of the American Revolution Immediate causes England’s colonial policy of mercantilism, which was designed to increase England’s prosperity, changed after the French and Indian War. The enforcement of existing trade laws and introduction of new taxes and restrictions ignited an immediate sequence of cause-and-effect developments that led to the American Revolution. Colonial merchants resented the British rulers who, like the leaders of other mercantilist empires, believed that colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country. England looked upon the colonies as a source of food; raw materials and markets for finished products and wished to restrict colonial 48 manufacturing and foreign trade, which would threaten her industries. Colonial cities served as mercantile markets for the collection of agricultural goods and the sale of imported goods. England’s trade and manufacturing regulations were ignored by the colonists from 1650 through the French and Indian War because the mother country was focusing her efforts on war and building an empire rather than enforcement of the restrictions. a. The Navigation Acts, beginning in 1650, required certain enumerated colonial goods to be shipped on English ships, restricted the sale of certain colonial articles (agricultural products and furs) to English consumers and required that European goods destined for the colonies were to be shipped to England, taxed and then shipped to the colonies aboard English ships. The Acts permitted the colonists to sell food to the non-English West Indies, though all trade was strictly limited during time of war. b. The Molasses Act (1733) taxed sugar and molasses imported by colonists from the French West Indies. c. The Woolen Act (1699) forbade the export of woolen goods overseas or between colonies. d. The Hat Act (1732) prohibited beaver hat exports. e. The Iron Act (1750) forbade colonial iron production. f. The Colonists were able to ignore the restrictions because the British were faced with other problems including the reorganization of governments in Florida and Canada (acquired through the French and Indian War) as well as colonial disputes over newly-axquired lands west of the Appalachians, Ottawa chief Pontiac’s rebellion and weak leadership under King George III (who resigned from 1760 to 1820) England felt that the colonies had benefited from the defeat of France and should help may the cost of the war and of the army left behind to “protect 49 the colonists from Indians.” England, therefore, began to introduce new taxes and restrictions. a. Writs of assistance (1761) were designed to stop merchants from illegally trading with foreign nations by permitting custom officers to enter and search and ship, home or warehouse for smuggled goods. Reaction: James Otis, a Boston lawyer representing Massachusetts merchants, asserted that these search warrants were an act of tyranny and that they violated the fundamental English right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. b. The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited trade and settlements in the Ohio River Valley between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River. Following Pontiac’s rebellion, the act was designed to protect the Indians from exploitation by settlers until treaties could be negotiated. Reaction: Pioneers ignored the proclamation and migrated westward. c. The Sugar Act (1764), one of many acts instituted by George Grenville who shaped England’s colonial policy from 1763 to 1765 as Prime Minister, raised duties (taxes) on refined sugar, textiles and other goods imported from anywhere other than Britain or British colonies, lowered the duty on molasses to discourage smuggling and lengthened the list of enumerated articles that could only be sold to England. The Act attempted to tax the colonies for costs to the empire at a rate comparable to levels paid at home in Great Britain and threatened to destroy the triangular trade upon which the New England colonies were dependent. Reaction: New England and Middle Colony merchants continued to smuggle goods into the colonies and to carry on trade with foreign nations. Boston experimented with boycotts. d. The Currency Act (1764) prohibited colonial paper money and required tax payments in gold or silver coin rather than inflated colonial paper money. Reaction: Mercantilism had already created a trade deficit and colonial resources were already drained. As the currency supply diminished due to the act, colonists complained that business was 50 suffering e. The Quartering Act (1765) required the colonial legislatures to provide funds, living quarters, and supplies for British troops in America. Reaction: The colonists objected to England’s policy of maintaining a large army in America in time for peace when foreign enemies had been removed, suspected that the army was there to control the colonies and opposed paying for its support, again claiming no taxation without representation. Parliament suspended the New York assembly’s legislative powers when it failed to comply. f. The Stamp Act (1765) placed a tax, upon Grenville’s recommendation to Parliament, on newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, playing cards, and legal documents by requiring government stamps on these articles in order to support the British colonial army. Unlike a hidden, indirect tax contained in the price of a product, this direct tax was paid directly to the government. Reaction: I) The colonists demanded “no taxation without representation” and that no offenders should be tried in admiralty courts without juries. The colonists believed that Parliament did not have the right to tax them because they had no colonial representation in the Parliament. II) Patriotic societies, known as the Sons of Liberty, organized resistance to the tax, mobbed tax collectors and halted the importation of English products. III) The Virginia House of Burgesses, at the urging of Patrick Henry, passed a resolution asserting that it had the sole power to tax Virginians. IV) The Stamp Act Congress, including delegates from nine colonies, convened in New York City in the fall of 1765 and demanded the repeal of the stamp tax, stating that taxation without the consent of representatives violated their rights to which they, as Englishmen, were entitled and that Parliament could not impose taxes without granting such representation. V) Because English merchants suffered from the boycott of their goods and English Whigs such as William Pitt and Edmund Burke opposed the tax, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. The non- 51 importation (boycott) of British goods by colonial merchants proved to be the most important tactic employed by the colonists in resisting the Stamp Act and other British legislation. VI) The Stamp Act remained an important moment in American history because it demonstrated that colonists would turn to violence if necessary, coincided with a British attempt to station troops in American cities and illuminated the British argument that the colonies had no right to independence from the rule of Parliament. VII) The Stamp Act led to the most widespread colonial resentment against the British government up to that moment. g. The Declaratory Act (1766), passed after the repeal of the Stamp Act, asserted Parliament’s full authority over the colonies, as well as its right to tax, “in all cases whatsoever.” Reaction: The Colonists ignored the act and celebrated the repeal of the Stamp Act. h. The Townshend Acts (1767), urged by Charles Townshend, the New English Chancellor of the Exchequer, levied indirect taxes on imported glass, lead, paint, paper and tea to pay the salaries of colonial judges and governors, thus ending colonial control over these salaries, and permitted officials to use writs of assistance to enforce the laws. Reaction: I) The colonists now believed that the indirect taxes which they had accepted earlier as means for the British to regulate trade now represented a revenue-raising measure and, thus, taxation without representation. II) The Massachusetts legislature, led by Samuel Adams, successfully convinced the colonies to boycott these imported English goods. The boycott led to the repeal of the Townshend Acts except the tax on tea (1770). III) In order to oppose future English actions, the towns of Massachusetts and other colonies, at the urging of Samuel Adams, formed Committees of Correspondence to remain informed of new developments. 52 i. In 1769, the House of Burgesses was dissolved by the governor of Virginia. j. The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770) fueled the growing confrontation between the colonies and England. I) Prior to the repeal of the Townshend Acts, sixty colonists, including tavern patrons, began to harass a detachment of British soldiers, including a soldier who may have previously stolen a sweetheart’s affection from one of the citizens. II) After Crispus Attucks, a fugitive slave who had joined the mob on the street, clubbed a solder and another soldier was knocked down, the “redcoats” opened fire, killing five (including Attucks) and wounding six. Those that died were “elevated” into martyrdom. Reaction: Samuel Adams and angry citizens demanded and achieved the removal of British troops from Boston to avoid an uprising. John Adams, a future patriot and President, successfully defended the soldiers in court. Two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter and subsequently released after being branded. k. The Tea Act (1773) allowed the British East India Company to undersell colonial tea smugglers and merchants by permitting the company to ship tea to America without paying the heavy English tea duty. Reaction: (to the Tea Act): Colonial merchants denounced the act because it would ruin their business and would encourage Parliament to grant similar rights to other English industries, perhaps destroying all colonial business. Even though British tea was cheaper, the colonists protested taxation without representation. I) In New York and Philadelphia, the company was forced to send its tea ships back to England. II) In Charleston, the tea rotted in a warehouse. III) Boston’s citizens refused to permit three tea ships to unload their cargo and, on the night of December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party took place when about 50 Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped 342 chests of tea worth $75,000 into the harbor. 53 l. The Intolerable Acts (1774) (known in England as the Coercive Acts or Repressive Acts) were passed by the Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. I) The Boston Port Act closed the city’s port to commerce until the colonists paid for the tea. II) The Charter of Massachusetts was revised to give the king the power to appoint the council and jurors. Town meetings were prohibited, General Thomas Gage, the British Commander-in-Chief in America, was appointed governor. III) British soldiers and officials accused of crimes received extraterritoriality, the right to be tried in England rather than a colony. IV) A New Quartering Act required the people in all colonies to feed and house British soldiers. V) The Quebec Act of 1774 extended the boundary of the Canadian province of Quebec southward to the Ohio River in order to provide quarantees to the conquered French of their Catholic religion. Although it was not actually one of the Coercive Acts and was not intended to punish the colonies, its unfortunate timing doomed this act to also be regarded as “intolerable” because it gave Canada lands claimed by several colonies and extended “popery” (Catholicism) into lands once destined for Protestant settlements. Reaction: Boston faced economic ruin with the closing of its harbor. Josiah Quincy, a patriot and orator, spoke out against the act. On the day that the Boston Port Act took effect, many colonies flew their flags at half-mast. AS colonial leaders warned that these acts endangered the liberties of all colonists, an intercolonial congress was convened. First Continental Congress The First Continental Congress, including delegates from every colony except Georgia, met in Philadelphia in September, 1774 and responded to Parliament’s actions through Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Rights and Grievances and other petitions. The delegates stated that colonists were entitled to their rights as Englishmen and that colonial legislatures had the exclusive right (subject to 54 the king’s veto) to levy colonial taxes. The colonists continued to assert their loyalty to the king. The Intolerable Acts were denounced as unconstitutional, unjust and destructive of rights. The British government was criticized for its revenue measures, peacetime standing army and dissolution of colonial assemblies. They formed the Continental Association, agreeing to boycott all British goods (the Non Importation Agreement) until the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. “Committees of Safety and Inspection” enforced the boycott. They agreed to meet the following spring (1775) if their grievances were not settled. Americans and Englishmen were finding it increasingly difficult to understand each other since the colonists considered themselves “partners” in the expanding British Empire and the Englishmen still considered the colonies to be “subordinate”. At a convention in Richmond which followed the suspension of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1775, Patrick Henry called for armed resistance to the British in proclaiming: “I know not what course others ma take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death! The “Daughters of Liberty” spun cloth to lessen colonial dependence on British cloth and drank colonial tea. James Otis and John Dickinson wrote pamphlets decrying British taxation policies in the colonies and Thomas Paine sought to stir colonial morale in The Crises in which he proclaimed: “These are the times that try men’s souls.” The emergence of colonial legislatures ultimately served as the most important development towards political freedom in the British colonies. Most historians focus on 1) Britain’s “salutary neglect” of her colonies prior to 1763, 2) mercantilism. British debt following the French and Indian War 55 and the restriction of navigation rights, and 3) the history of selfgovernment in the colonies as primary long-term causes of the American Revolution. These long-term causes of the American Revolution are also defined by conflicting schools of historical interpretation (historiography). Some historians maintain that the revolution began when the first English settlers arrived in America 150 years prior to the War for Independence. In 1818, John Adams said: “The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the hearts and minds of the people.” The immigrants that came to America were a discontent breed looking for new opportunity, rejecting the Old World. The frontier bred independence and a sense of self-confidence, individual worth and equality. The Traditional (Whig) interpretation of 19th century Patrician historians like George Bancroft, who first introduced scholarly methods to American history, viewed the American Revolution as a divinely- inspired struggle of liberty to triumph over tyranny. (Parson Weems earlier work has not been viewed as serious scholarship). Progressive historians that emerged at the turn of the century argued that the revolution, like most historical events, was a struggle between social classes. Charles A. Beard’s influential work, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (1913), described the founding fathers of the revolution as rich men who wanted to preserve their privileged position by shaping the new nation to meet their needs. Carl Becker, in The History of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760-1775 (1909) saw the American Revolution as two revolutions, an economic conflict between England and her colonies as well as a class conflict between the colonial “haves” and “have nots” who were wrestling for control. Arthur Schlesinger’s The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution (1918) viewed the revolution as a rebellion against the British restrictions that followed the French and Indian War. Schlesinger felt that the 56 Constitution created later by the “ruling class,” wary of class warfare, destroyed the accomplishments of the American Revolution. In 1926, J. Franklin Jameson described the revolution as democratic due to its land redistribution. Imperial historians, among the Progressives, portrayed England as a benevolent mother country and believed that her taxes and restrictions were necessary. Neo-Conservative historians (Robert E. Brown, Daniel J. Boorstin and Edmund S. Morgan), writing during the cold war years, believed that democracy existed in America long before the War for Independence and that the war was fought to conserve colonial liberties and property rights which the British wanted to eliminate. The Intellectual school of historians believed in the power of ideas to influence movements and challenged social/economic arguments. Bernard Bailyn, in The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) argues that the American Revolution occurred when Americans began to fell superior to the British and that liberty emerged in America long before the war. Other noteworthy schools of thought on the American Revolution have recently emerged; A) the loyalists (Wallace Brown) examine the loyalists’ viewpoint B) the Comparative historians (Robert palmer) see the revolution as a reflection of the worlds events C) the psychohistorians (Sigmund Freud, Fawn Brodie), who analyze the participants in historical events, observed an American love/hate identity crisis towards England (a maternal mother country, fatherly king and rebellious colonial children caught in an Oedipus-related struggle) D) the Collective Biographers have focused on the revolutionaries as a group E) Military historians (Charles Royster, John Shy and Don Higginbotham), concerned about social and military interrelated events, conclude that, once the colonial militia gained control of 57 the hearts and mind of the colonial population, the British could have never recovered their allegiance, even if they were victorious in the war F) The Communitarians have examined the characteristics and interests of the diverse groups during the period G) Neo-Progressives of the turbulent 1960’s (Alfred Young) reasserted social conflict as a major factor. Lesson 7: Fighting erupted between the colonies and England, resulting in the American Declaration of Independence. Early stages of the American Revolutionary War The First shot of the revolution was fired on April 19, 1775. Massachusetts citizens organized the Minutemen militia, who promised to be ready for action with only a minute’s notice, and prepared for war. General Gage sent troops to capture the rebellious colonial leaders, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, in Lexington and to seize stores of gunpowder in Concord. Paul Revere, William Dawes, Jr. and Dr. Samuel Prescott alerted the colonies by riding through the night. Colonial Minutemen met the British at Lexington and were ordered to leave and to surrender their weapons. As the militia began to leave without surrendering their weapons, a shot was fired, the British opened fire and 18 colonies were killed or wounded. Emerson’s “Concord Hymn” portrays Lexington’s importance. “By the rude bridge, that arched the flood, Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the World.” The British marched to Concord, exchanged fire in a skirmish, and returned to Boston under continuous fire. Casualties at Lexington and Concord (killed, wounded or missing in action) included 273 British and 93 colonists. 58 The Second Continental Congress (May 10, 1775) mat at the state house (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, elected John Hancock as President and provided for the defense of the colonies by establishing a Continental Army with George Washington as commander-in-chief and requesting colonial troops and funds. The Congressmen continued to seek peace with Great Britain and reaffirmed their loyalty to the Crown, as evidence by John Dickinson’s “Olive Branch Petition.” Most of the colonial Revolutionary war leaders were rich landholders or middle-class merchants and lawyers. Poor farmers were not among the leaders. Washington distrusted the colonial militia and didn’t like “guerilla” warfare. His strategy was to defend and recapture northern cities as well as avoiding direct confirmation with British forced whenever possible while sustaining the moral of his men. Only the first battle of the war led him to the South and his native state of Virginia. The British military leaders concentrated their efforts on capturing major northeastern cities from the colonists and dividing the colonies by seizing the Hudson River Valley. Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point were captured in May, 1775 by Ethan Allen and the “Green Mountain Boys.” In the siege of Boston in1775-1776, Washington tried to 1. Cut off the British supply lines from the west 2. force the British from Boston by sea 3. attack the British military on three sides. The battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) was actually fought at Breed’s Hill (near Bunker Hill). On their third attempt, the British forces were able to capture the hill as the ammunition supplies of the colonial minutemen diminished, but the British lost 1,000 men killed or wounded compared with 450 colonials. George III, as a result, hired 10,000 additional foreign troops (German Hessians.) The battle of Bunker Hill was important because, even though the British won, it demonstrated to the colonists that they could take a military stand against the better-equipped British. 59 Boston was freed on March 17, 1776. British troops, under General William Howe (who replaced Gage), withdrew from Boston due to the seizure of Dorchester Heights (which overlooked Boston Harbor) by the Continental Army. American colonials failed to capture Quebec in the Fall, 1775 invasion of Canada and returned to Ticonderoga in the spring of 1776. At Moore’s Creek Bridge (February 27, 1776- the “Lexington and Concord of the South”), British plans to control North Carolina failed when 2,000 Loyalists were unable to join forces with British troops in Wilmington and Brunswick. The patriots had one killed and one wounded while captured 850 prisoners, many weapons, wagons and a large supply of gold. Independence came on July 4, 1776. After King George III proclaimed the colonies to be in a state of rebellion and approved an act of Parliament closing the colonies to all trade and commerce, Americans began to discuss complete separate from England. By August, 1775 the Second Continental Congress maintained allegiance to the King but not to Parliament. Thomas Paine spurred the movement for independence with “Common Sense,” in which he ridiculed the English monarchy and called on Americans to serve ties with England. The pamphlet sold over 120,000 copies in three months. An impoverished rebel who failed at every occupation in which he had entered, Paine argued that it was futile to seek reconciliation with a mother country with which the colonists were at war (following Lexington and Concord). He called for separation to secure foreign aid to fulfill a moral mandate. Fearing that ties to England would drag the colonies into European wars, recognizing England’s mercantilists plans for America and sensing that the colonies had reached a point of no return, Paine declared that a continent should not be governed by a small island and that the colonists should break their ties with England. 60 The Second Continental Congress began to function as a central government as it established an intercolonial post office, sent emissaries abroad to seek foreign aid (including the very capable Benjamin Franklin to France), organized a navy authorizing to attack English ships and open colonial ports to trade with all countries except Great Britain. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution in Congress which stated: “These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states. All political connection between them and Great Britain is, ought to be, totally dissolved”. Before voting on Lee’s resolution, the Congress appointed a “Committee of Five,” consisting of Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman, to write a formal declaration of Independence. On June 28th, they presented Jefferson’s declaration, edited by Franklin and Adams, to Congress. Congress first adopted Lee’s resolution on July 2nd, promoting John Adams to remark that July 2nd would probably be celebrated with fireworks annually. Then on July 4th, after making some changes, the congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, which was first read to the public in Philadelphia on July 8th. The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) explained the actions taken by the Second Continental Congress through Lee’s resolution and remained on of the cornerstones of the American republican political system. Author: The document was written by Thomas Jefferson who was serving on a committee of five appointed by the Second Continental Congress. Reasons “When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which had connected them to another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect for the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the seperation.” 61 In this first paragraph, Jefferson announced that the colonies were declaring their independence and that they felt compelled to explain theit actions to the world. In the second paragraph, Jefferson demonstrates the contempt that the members of the Congress feel towards Britain’s “long train of abuses and usurptations” as well as the mother country’s unwillingness to settle their differences. The Declaration of Independence also gave the colonists the advantages of a cause to fight for, a likelihood of French and/or Dutch aid since those foreign countries would not be interfering with England’s internal matters and the hope that captured Americans would be treated as prisoners-of-war rather that as traitors. Relying heavily on the philosophy of John Locke, Jefferson described the natural rights (“unalienable rights”) of all men, that the government, created by the will of the people ( the “constant of the governed”), had an obligation to protect these rights and that, if it failed to do so, the people had a right to abolish its “absolute tyranny,” (a principle not found in the Constitution). Although Locke, in his Two Treaties of Government (1690), said that there were three natural rights – life, liberty and property- Jefferson and the committee members abandoned any reference to “property” due to the already emerging controversy surrounding slavery, choosing, instead, “pursuit of happiness.” “We hold these truths to be self- evident” that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights: that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.” Jefferson had to prove to the world that the British had violated the colonists’ rights and he, therefore, listed twenty-seven “injuries and 62 usurpations” that King George III had failed to redress, some of which had been made known to him through the Declaration of Rights and Grievances in 1774. a. King George III is “he” that grievances address. The Declaration of Independence does not mention the Parliament since the Patriots had already rejected Parliament’s authority prior to July 1776. The Declaration of Independence finds the king guilty of abusing his power by refusing to allow the colonists to have representation in Parliament. b. He listed the grievances in reverse order, beginning with the violations of the colonists’ pursuit of happiness, in order to conclude with the most serious abuses. c. He tried to write the declaration in general terms that would be understandable for other countries and future generations. d. Several grievances addressed the abuses by England against the colonial legislatures, particularly in Massachusetts and Virginia. I) “He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository for their public records…” II) “He has dissolved representative houses…” III) “For suspending our own legislatures…” e. Jefferson also described how England had interfered with the judicial process in the colonies. I) “He has obstructed the administration of justice…” II) “He has made judges dependent on his will alone…” III) “He has protected them (British soldiers) by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit…” (in reference to extraterritoriality and, perhaps, to those soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre). f. Jefferson referred repeatedly to the specific acts Britain had implemented in the colonies, particularly the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts. I) “He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states…” 63 (Proclamation of 1763). II) “He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent swarms of officers to harass our people…” (Customs; writs of assistance). III) “He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies… quartering large bodies of armed troops among us…” (Troops in Boston; Quartering Acts). IV) “For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world…” (Navigation Acts; Boston Port Act). V) “For imposing taxes on us without our consent…” (Molasses Act, Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Townshend Acts). VI) “For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province…” (Quebec Act) VII) “For taking away our charters…” (Intolerable Acts – Boston). g. Jefferson closed the grievances against England with the most serious charges of how the British had sought to destroy the colonists’ “unalienable right” of life. I) “He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us…” (Battles had already occurred) II) “He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny…” (Hessians) III) “He has excited domestic insurrection among us (by encouraging slave uprisings) and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers merciless Indian savages… Conclusion Jefferson explained how the colonists had repeatedly exercised legal means of protest through petitions and other devices and how their please to their blood relatives in Britain had been ignored as the British government had moved toward despotism. Jefferson concluded that, since all legal means of protest had been ignored, the colonists had no choice but to separate from England. Jefferson also defined the powers to which the new nation would be entitled and tied to the new nation’s destiny but to the hands of God. 64 The Declaration of Independence clearly rejected the European theory of the divine right of kings. In pledging their “lives, fortunes and sacred honor” in support of the declaration, the signers demonstrated the sacrifices that they were willing to make. Many of them would later suffer for their bravery. a. They joined Britain’s “Most Wanted” list. b. They were accused of treason. c. Five were captured and tortured in prison. d. Twelve were burned out of their homes. e. Seventeen lost everything they owned. f. Many lost family members and nearly all were driven from their homes during the course of the war. “We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are and of right out to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.” With the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the rebellion by the colonists to protect their rights as Englishmen became a struggle for the independence of the United States of America. It gave the colonists a cause 65 for which to fight, helped in securing foreign aid and would serve as a beacon for other nations, like the French in 1789, to follow in their struggle for liberty. Though the Declaration of Independence had extensive social, economic and religious implications, it is clearly a political document. Revisionist critics often find hypocrisy in the declaration’s assertion that “All men are created equal” since blacks (slaves and free blacks), women and native Americans did not enjoy the same rights as white males and since only white, property-owning males could vote. Jefferson was a slave owner when he wrote the document. a. The critics may be committing the historical error of “presentitis,” judging figures of the past on present-day standards rather than the standards of the person’s era. The Declaration of Independence was an idealistic, democratic giant step for mankind, which was previously accustomed, to monarchy. b. Like the Constitution, the Declaration of Independence is a “living” declaration as we continue striving to realize its ideal and to create opportunity for all people today. In reading the document, it becomes apparent that Jefferson understood that he was writing to the ages. Lesson 8: The British defeat in the American Revolution was determined by military engagements, personalities and geo-political factors which produced a major “turning point” in history. Americans slowly turned the tide of the war. When the war erupted, the Americans and the British each held strengths and weaknesses. American Strengths a. George Washington was a great leader. b. The colonists were fighting for homes and freedom. c. They were conditioned to hardship. d. Aid arrived from foreign countries, particularly France. 66 e. f. g. h. The pioneer soldiers were accustomed to firearms. The French and Indian War provided military experience. The colonists were fighting on familiar ground. A defeat of Washington would not mean the defeat of the American guerillas. American Weaknesses a. One-third of the people (“Tories,” loyalists) opposed the rebellion and remained loyal to Great Britain. b. Colonial financial resources were inadequate. c. No manufacturing facilities existed since most production facilities were located in Great Britain. d. There was a shortage of supplies and ammunition. e. Enlistments were short-term. f. The rowdy frontiersmen who served as colonial soldiers were unaccustomed to military discipline. g. The colonial navy was weak, essentially non-existent. British Strengths a. Well-equipped, well-trained professional soldiers comprised the ranks of the British military. b. The British enjoyed professional military leadership. c. The powerful British navy could transport troops and blockade the North American coastline. d. Foreign soldiers (mercenaries) were enlisted, particularly German Hessians. e. The British military had adequate financial and manufacturing support. f. American Loyalists supported the British war effort. g. Great Britain’s political power was advantageously united and centralized. British Weaknesses a. The “redcoats” were unaccustomed to wilderness warfare. b. British leaders underestimated American military ability. c. The field of battle was separated from the homeland; orders and reinforcements faced 3,000 miles of ocean journey and the army had difficulty getting fresh troops and supplies. d. Hired soldiers fought only for pay and with little motivation. 67 e. England faced other conflicts with France, Spain and the Netherlands, which drained resources away from the war effort in the colonies. f. Englishmen opposed the war, including the “Whigs,” led by William Pitt and Edmund Burke. g. The Tories did not contribute greatly to the British effort. The war shifted from New England to the Middle Colonies after the British abandoned Boston. The British occupied New York City and chased Washington and the Continental Army across the Hudson River, through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. As the Americans crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, they seized the boats on the river, preventing the British from following them. On Christmas night, 1776, in a blinding storm, Washington led his men across the ice-choked Delaware and trounced the Hessians encamped in Trenton, capturing nearly 1,000 prisoners and a large quantity of supplies. Outmaneuvering Cornwallis (who had been sent out to defeat Washignton), Washington defeated two British regiments at Princeton, and then established winter quarters near Morristown, New Jersey. The British plan to divide the colonies by conquering New York and isolating New England failed at Saratoga, the “turning point” of the war. 1. General John Burgoyne led an army southward from Canada along Lake Champlain but General Horatio Gates and the colonial army captured General Burgoyne’s entire army on October 17, 1777. 2. Colonel St. Leger brought another force from Canada to Oswego on Lake Ontario but encountered fierce resistance in the Mohawk River Valley and retreated to Canada. 3. Rather than leading a third army northward up the Hudson Valley from New York City toward Albany, where the three armies had planned to meet, General Howe sent his army to 68 Philadelphia. 4. The Victory at Saratoga became the turning point of the war as it convinced France, which had been courted diplomatically by Benjamin Franklin, to openly aid the American cause and it boosted colonial morale. The British captured Philadelphia (September, 1777) and repelled American attempts to drive them out at Brandywine Creek and Germantown. Washington’s army endured a cruel winter, as well as the Prussian military drills of Baron Von Steuben, at Valley Forge, and then followed the British forces (now under Sir Henry Clinton) to New York City where they contained the British for the remainder of the war. George Rogers Clark (1778-1779) and his frontiersmen gained control of the Northwest Territory (north of the Ohio River), preventing the British from further inciting the Indians to attack American settlements. The war at sea produced heroic exploits by American seamen. Before the French fleet came to the aid of the Continentals, American sea power consisted of only a few small warships and a number of privateers, i.e., privately owned merchant vessels and fishing boats that were fitted with guns and authorized to attack British ships. By the end of the war, they had captured or destroyed nearly 800 British vessels. The war produced two outstanding Naval heroes. 1. John Paul Jones, commanding the Bonhomme Richard, fought and captured the English warship Serapis in the most dramatic naval battle of the Revolution (1779), during which, upon the British commander’s demand for surrender, Jones proclaimed “I have not yet begun to fight.” 2. John Barry won fame in capturing British men-of-war. Benedict Arnold’s plot to surrender West Point failed. He escaped to a British warship and served as an officer in the English army for the remainder of the war. His name has come to mean “traitor” in America. 69 The British attempted to conquer the South after failing to make headway in New England and the Middle Colonies. 1. They captured Savannah, Charleston (the greatest American defeat during the war) and Camden, but were beaten back at King’s Mountain and Cowpens by frontier sharpshooters. 2. Washington sent Nathaniel Greene to take charge of Continental troops in the South. Greene recaptured most of the inland positions held by the British in South Carolina and Georgia and inflicted heavy losses on the British at Guilford Courthouse in North Carolina in March 1781. By the summer of 1781, the British only occupied Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown in 1781. Cornwallis invaded Virginia from Wilmington but failed to destroy the outnumbered Continentals led by Marquis de Lafayette from France, the most outstanding French officer to serve in the colonial effort. Cornwallis established a base at Yorktown, neat the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, in August 1781, waiting for supplies and reinforcements for a spring campaign. Washington decided to strike a surprise blow. a. Admiral de Grasse and the French fleet sealed off the Chesapeake Bay. b. Washington, with the help of 5,000 French troops under Comte de Rochambeau’s command, marched his army from New York to Virginia and laid siege to Yorktown. c. After several weeks of fighting, Cornwallis surrendered his entire army of 5,000 men on October 19, 1781 in the last major battle of the war. Results of the American Revolutionary War. 70 In 1782, a Whig Parliament, favorable to Americans, replaced the Tory regime of Lord North and voted to end hostilities and to start peace negotiations, despite the fact that the British still occupied New York City and the Southern seaports. The Treaty of Paris (1783) was negotiated by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay. 1. Britain acknowledged the thirteen colonies’ independence. 2. Britain agreed that the boundaries of the new nation would be the Atlantic Ocean in the east, the Mississippi River in the west, Canada in the north and Florida in the south. The United States gained the right of navigation on the Mississippi River. 3. The British granted to Americans full fishing privileges in the Newfoundland area, to the displeasure of Canadians. 4. England also returned Florida to Spain. 5. The United States agreed not to persecute loyalists and to recommend, to state legislatures, the return of loyalist property. The states also agreed to avoid hampering the collection of debts owed to British creditors. Some historians have noted that the effects of the American Revolution were not limited to political results but also included a social and economic transformation of America, resulting in: 1. The expansion of suffrage. 2. The emergence of an antislavery movement during the era, which contributed to the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery in all of the northern and middle states before 1830. 3. The opening of the trans-Appalachian west and land reform with the redistribution of Tory estates. 4. The total separation of church and state. 5. Increased pressure on the interior Indian tribes. 71 Unit Two - Self Government in America’s Founding Period Lesson 1: America’s first permanent form of government, the Articles of Confederation, emerged from the development of self-government throughout the colonial and revolutionary period. The framers of the founding documents drew guidance from centuriws of European experience and ideas. The Magna Carta, singed by King John of England in 1215 A.D., provided for trial by jury, due process of law and no taxation without representation. 72 The English parliament exemplified the form and method of state and national governments. The English Petition of Rights (1628) and the English Bill of Rights (1689) provided ideas for the Constitution’s Bill of Rights, passed after its ratification in 1791. John Locke (1632-1755), an English philosopher, asserted “popular sovereignty” through his Two Treaties of Government and defended the right of (a majority of) the people to revolt against tyranny. He argued the government was established as a fiduciary trust for the people, with a legislature serving as the supreme power only through the consent of the people. Locke’s book became the “bible of modern liberalism”. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), in his book The Spirit of the Laws, pronounced his famous theory on separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a great proponent of democratic revolution and believed that man was naturally good but corrupted by civilization. In his book, The Social Contract, he stated that government officials should be subject to the general will through a “social contract.” Rousseau became a man of the people and one of the most lauded philosophers in European history. “We the people” is a tribute to the man whose writings fueled the French Revolution. The concept of self-government emerged early in the colonies and continued throughout the colonial and revolutionary era. The house of Burgesses in Jamestown, the Mayflower Compact at Plymouth, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the Great Law of Pennsylvania were examples of early expressions of self-government in the colonies. The Declaration of Independence is a founding document of American selfgovernment as the Second Continental Congress declared “We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of 73 these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are of right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES: that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, ought to be totally dissolved… Attempts at Union emerged prior to the Constitution. 1. New England Confederation (1643-1684): Four colonies. 2. Dominion of New England (1686-1689): seven colonies. 3. Albany Congress (1754): seven colonies. 4. Stamp Act Congress (1765): Nine colonies. 5. Committees of Correspondence (1772-1776): Thirteen colonies. 6. First Continental Congress (and the Continental Association) (1774): Twelve colonies. 7. Second Continental Congress (1775-1781): Thirteen colonies created state governments when the Second Continental Congress, on May 10, 1775, adopted a resolution urging the colonies to replace colonial governments with alternative governments. The Second Continental Congress was important because it was the first national government (for five years) and it prosecuted the war, created a monetary system and performed as a government during the revolution. 8. The first state governments were based on popular sovereignty (consent of the governed), limited government, civil liberties, separation of powers, (three independent branches of government), checks and balances, separation of church and state, and concern over slavery and the rights of women. The Articles of Confederation were enacted in 1781 to provide a central government for the new nation. The Continental Congress voted to adopt, on November 15, 1777, John Dickinson’s “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union”, and agreed to send the document to the states for ratification (formal approval). Ratification was delayed due to a dispute among the states over western land claims but, on March 1, 1781 the Articles were adopted when the national government acquired possession of the nation’s western lands (the 74 territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, with the Ohio River dividing the “Old Southwest” from the Old Northwest”). Congress regulated the sale of the Northwest Territory with the Land Ordinance of 1785. Land was surveyed and divided into townships of thirtysix square miles (sections). One section was set aside for schools and the remaining sections were sold at public auctions to reduce the national debt. The Ordinance of 1787 (Northwest Ordinance) provided a plan of government for the Northwest Territory. Thomas Jefferson was a key influence and author. Congress would provide a temporary government with a governor and judges. A representative legislature was to be established when the territory had 5,000 adult male settlers. Any part of the territory could apply for statehood when its population reaching 60,000. Three to five states would be allowed in the territory. Civil liberties were guaranteed. Slavery was prohibited. Thomas Jefferson, a slave owner, originally proposed the idea but Rufus King offered the official resolution in Congress. Public education was promoted. The Northwest Ordinance is generally considered the outstanding congressional achievement under the Articles of Confederation, providing a pattern for the administration of America’s public lands from the Appalachians to the Pacific, the development of new states on a basis of equality with the original thirteen and the guarantee of civil liberties, democratic government and public education in the wilderness. The Articles provided a “firm league of friendship” (confederation) among sovereign, free, independent states who kept all rights not given to the 75 national government. The Articles were created to provide common defense, security of civil liberties and general welfare. The structure of the Articles of Confederation was very simple. A unicameral (single-chambered) Congress was the sole entity created. Executive and judicial functions were handled by congressional committees and a Congress President was chosen each year, though he did not serve as an executive. Samuel Huntington served as the first President of the Confederation Congress. Congress had the power to make war and peace, send and receive ambassadors, enter into treaties, borrow money, establish a monetary system, build a navy and army, fix uniform standards of weights and measures and settle disputes among the states. The states were obliged to obey the Articles and Acts of Congress, provide the funds and troops requested by Congress, treaty citizens of all states fairly, respect the public acts, records and proceedings of other states, submit interstate disputes to Congress for settlement and allow travel between and among the states. Weakness of the Articles of Confederation No provision was made for an executive of judicial branch of government. Result: There was no president to enforce the laws passed by Congress and there were no federal courts to settle disputes between states. Congress did not have the power to tax; it could only request funds from the states. Result: Congress lacked sufficient money to finance the government and to pay bondholders and soldiers of the Revolutionary War. The right to regulate currency and to issue money was given to both Congress and the states. Congress lacked the power to regulate trade between the states and with other countries. Result: States taxed each other’s products, quarreled over navigation rights on river boundaries and establish their own systems of tariffs on imports. Foreign nations refused to negotiate commercial 76 agreements with the United States because Congress was unable to enforce them. Each state, regardless of population, had only one vote in Congress. Result: Heavily populated states felt their interests were inadequately represented. Representatives of at least nine of the thirteen states had to approve a measure in order for it to become a law. All thirteen states were required to approve amendments. Result: It was difficult to obtain passage of legislation and amendments. Accomplishments of the Confederation It led the American people through the last phase of the Revolution and negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783. It formed a bond among the thirteen states until they were ready to accept a stronger plan of union. It laid the foundation for future westward expansion by providing public land to settlers and evolving a plan of government for the Northwest Territory. The period during which the Articles of Confederation provided the nation’s system of government is known as the “Critical Period” (1781-1789) as any U.S. leaders feared that the United States was on the verge of collapse. Congress was beset with financial problems. Congress was unable to maintain order. The government lost the respect of other nations. The states quarreled over boundary disputes. Farmers from western Massachusetts, fearing the loss of their farms through mortgage foreclosure resulting from debts, rose in Shay’s Rebellion, forced the closing of many debtor courts and threatened the seizure of the 77 federal arsenal in Springfield before being suppressed by a large militia. Shay’s Rebellion had a dramatic impact on the Constitutional Convention. In 1784, the State of Franklin (in present-day East Tennessee) temporarily emerged out of the western lands which had been recently ceded by North Carolina to the federal government. North Carolina repealed its cession of the lands and opposed Franklin independence as a rebellion. Defying North Carolina, the State of Franklin drew up a constitution, elected a legislature and John Sevier as governor and applied for admission as the 14th state to the Union. Overriding North Carolina’s repeal, Congress voted 7-2 to accept Franklin but statehood failed because a two-thirds vote (nine votes) was necessary. At the “Battle of Franklin” in 1788, John Tipton’s pro-North Carolina forces and the State of Franklin came to an end. Sevier was arrested for treason, rescued from jail in Morganton, North Carolina, granted amnesty and ultimately elected to the Noth Carolina legislature. North Carolina ceded its western lands to the federal government in 1789 under the new constitution and the territory helped from the State of Tennessee in 1796. John Sevier was Tennessee’s first governor. Lesson 2: The concept of self-government flourishing in the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution of the United States formed a union among the states as a result of the failure of the Articles of Confederation. Events leading to the Constitutional Convention Delegates from Maryland and Virginia met at George Washington’s home Mount Vernon, Virginia in March, 1785 and settled some shipping problems that had occurred under the Articles of Confederation. The success of the “Mount Vernon Conference” promoted the Virginia assembly to call for a 78 “joint meeting of the states to recommend a federal plan for regulating commerce” at Annapolis Maryland in 1786. With only five states represented the “Annapolis Convention” called upon Congress to summon another convention the following year to discuss commercial problems and means of improving the national government. Congress called a conference, with delegates chosen by their state legislatures, as with the Stamp Act Congress. The Constitutional Convention, after obtaining a quorum on May 25, 1787, held their first meeting in Philadelphia’s Independence Hall on May 28th, with 12 of the 13 states present. Rhode Island refused to send a delegates, suspicions that the convention might threaten the liberty achieved through the blood spilled in the revolution. 55 of the 74 delegates attended the convention and represented wide knowledge, public experience, wealth and prestige. Eight had served on their state constitutional convention committees, seven had been governors, eight had signed the Declaration of Independence, two would become presidents, one would become Vice-President, seventeen would become future senators and eleven would be members of the House of Representatives. Many Revolutionary leaders were absent, including Samuel Adams, Massachusetts Governor John Hancock, suspicious Patrick Henry Lee and Thomas Jefferson Ambassador to France. The “Founding Fathers” included George Washington, who was unanimously chosen to serve as president of the Convention; Benjamin Franklin, the elder statesman and philosopher; James Madison, the “Father of the Constitution,” whose detailed record of the proceedings far surpassed the official outline in detail and accuracy; Alexander Hamilton who, like Madison, advocated a strong national government with greater powers. Other notables included Roger Sherman, who had served with Franklin, Jefferson and others on the committee of five that wrote the Declaration of Independence, Robert Morris, who was very wealthy but headed for bankruptcy, George Mason, 79 William Livingston, John Dickinson who wrote the Articles of Confederation, George Wythe, Elbridge Gerry and James Wilson, who would become an influential voice in the fight for ratification. No more that approximately thirty delegates, representing eleven states, were present at any one time. Some of the delegates left to address personal matters, some left in disgust and other arrived late. Money was a problem for the delegates who were there for several months and who were often only land-rich. The delegates agreed that, instead of revising the Articles of Confederation, they should frame a new constitution to create a government for the United States that would be stronger, republican and based on written constitution. They also agreed that it would have its own source of income and control over foreign affairs and commerce as well as separation of powers over three branches of government to prevent tyranny. A legislative branch would make laws which would be enforced by an executive branch and interpreted by an independent judicial branch. It would be weak enough to preserve the sovereignty of the states yet strong enough to confront national issues. After adopting rules of procedures which included giving each state one vote at the convention and requiring a majority vote for all decisions, the delegates met in secret sessions for four months until September 17, 1787. The spirit of compromise prevailing at the Constitutional Convention as the Founding Fathers solve important differences. The larger states favored the Virginia Plan that called for representation in both houses of Congress to be based on population. It called for the dominant legislative branch to choose the executive and judiciary and to have the power to crush rebellions and to vote state laws that were not in accordance with the Constitution. The small states supported William Paterson’s New Jersey Plan which proposed that each state should have equal representation in the unicameral legislature and which called for a multiple executive, limited judiciary and stronger Congress which would have the power to levy taxes and regulate commerce. The New Jersey Plan was rejected but concessions were made to the smaller states. Solutions: The 80 Connecticut Compromise, the “Great Compromise” proposed by Roger Sherman and the Connecticut delegation, created a bicameral (two-chamber) Congress in which each state would be represented equally by two senators in the Senate (the upper house) and proportionate to population in the House of Representatives (the lower house). The compromise held as the small states abandoned the Articles of Confederation which they hoped to preserve and the large, nationalist states conceded equal legislative representation for the states. Hamilton left the convention in disgust and Madison unsuccessfully opposed the compromise which probably saved the convention. The Southern states, in order to obtain maximum representation but minimum taxation, proposed that slaves should be counted in determining representation in the House of Representatives and not counted for the purpose of direct taxation by the federal government. Solution: The ThreeFifths Compromise (incorporated as part of the Great Compromise) provided the five slaves would be counted as three persons for both representation and direct taxation. The manufacturing and shipping interests of the industrial North and the agricultural South wanted Congress to have the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce but the Southern farming interests feared that Congress might tax agricultural exports and prohibited the importation of slaves. Knowing that they could be outvoted in Congress, the southern states insisted on two-thirds approval of all commercial regulations, a move that would virtually give them veto power. Solution: The Commerce Compromise granted the Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce and to levy tariffs on imports, but Congress could not tax exports or restrict the importation of slaves for twenty years (until 1808). The compromise also included a fugitive slave law calling for the return of runaway slaves as well as a provision requiring a two-thirds majority in the Senate to ratify treaties and commercial agreements. Principles of the Constitution Federalism is a dual system of government in which a written constitution divides the powers of government territorially between a central (national) government and local (state) governments. By granting sovereignty and 81 direct rule over the people to both the state and national governments, federalism may represent the delegates’ greatest compromise. Delegated powers are granted to the national government. Expressed powers are spelled out, expressly, in the Constitution. Implied powers are not expressed in the Constitution but are reasonably implied by those which are. Inherent powers belong to the national government of a sovereign state, based on tradition. Reserved powers are reserved for the states as powers which are not given to the national government and which are not denied to the states. (Statesupported education, licenses, etc.) . Concurrent powers belong to both the national Government and the states, separately and simultaneously (taxes). Powers are denied to the national government expressly in the Constitution, through its silence of through the nature of the federal system (Ex: Congress cannot tax the state governments). Powers are also denied to the states expressly in the Constitution and through the nature of the federal system. The Constitution is the “Supreme Law of the Land” and always takes precedence in a conflict between state law and national law. The Constitution is the top rung on a “ladder of laws” formed by its Supremacy Clause which joins the national government and the states into a single, federal United States. The Supreme Court “umpired” the federal system with the Supremacy Clause. The national government’s obligations to the States include guaranteeing a republican form of government, protection against invasion and domestic violence and respect for the territorial integrity (boundaries) of each state. Cooperative Federalism 82 Aid given to the states by the national government including grant-in-aid programs, block grants, and revenue sharing. States aid the national government by conducting national elections in state facilities, holding naturalization proceedings in state courts and help federal officials capture fugitives from federal justice. Interstate compacts (agreements), usually involve natural resources. The Full Faith and Credit Clause specifies that each state recognize the validity of the acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other state in civil, not criminal, matters. Extradition provides for the return of a fugitive from justice who has fled from one state to another. The Privileges and Immunities Clause prevents unreasonable discrimination against an out of state resident. Only Congress has the power to admit new states to the Union and no state may be created from the territory of an existing state without the state’s consent. Checks and balances Sharp conflict emerged in creating the executive who would carry out national laws enacted by the legislature and who would make appointments to offices. Madison’s and Hamilton’s nationalists won their fight for a strong executive because the convention employed checks and balances to limit abuse of power. The Senate would approve his treaties only with a two-thirds majority and give advise and consent on his appointments. Congress could override his veto and exclusively controlled the power to make and finance war. He of his judicial appointments could be removed through impeachment. 83 The delegates crafted the executive branch knowing that the wise convention President, George Washington, would surely be the first Chief Executive. Most delegates objected to the nationalists’ argument that the President should be elected by the people, suggesting that poor communication and travel would prevent the people, through trustworthy, from making fair judgments about the candidates in an election. The Virginia Plan called for Congress to choose the President and wanted to limit his tenure in office to single seven year term. Solution: The electoral college provided each state with the power to choose electors, equal to the state’s number of Senators and Representatives, who would elect the President with a majority of their votes. In the absence of a majority, the President would be chosen by the House of Representatives from the five leading candidates. The runner-up would become Vice-President. The delegates were confident that the House would chose every President since they envisioned every state nomination a “favorite son;” they failed to see the rise of political parties. Checks and balances were also placed on the legislative and judicial branches of the government as each branch gained certain powers wit which it could restrain the other. The executive branch (the President and his Cabinet) may veto legislation, call special sessions of Congress recommend legislation, appeal to the people and appoint federal judges. The judicial branch (the Supreme Court and other Federal Courts) may declare acts of Congress unconstitutional (illegal, null and void) through the power of judiciary review which is the power of the court to determine the constitutionality of a government action on law. The checks and balances system makes compromise necessary and essential to democratic government Checks are placed on “the people” through staggered terms for elected officials and through the Electoral College The Constitution protects the liberties of individuals 84 Trial by Jury Writ of Habeas Corpus forces a jailer to release a person form the prison unless the person has been formally charged with, or convicted of a crime Ex Post Facto Laws, which punish someone for a past action that is not unlawful at the time it was committed, are prohibited A bill of attainder, which is a law that deprives a person of his civil rights without a trial, is prohibited The Constitution protects against unfair treason charges Structure of the Constitution The Preamble introduces the general purposes and intentions of the Constitution It emphasizes that the “people” rule the government and that this new government is “more perfect” than the form of government that existed previously under the Articles of Confederation (Read the Preamble!!!) The Delegates draw heavily on colonial experience, avoiding experimentation when ever possible The executive was modeled after the colonial royal governor and his duties were primarily constructed from the New York State constitution of 1777 which relied on colonial traditions Bicameral legislatures already existed in most of the colonies Money bills originated in the lower “peoples” house in the colonial days The Northwest Ordinance, passed by the Congress while the convention met, provided additional direction 85 The Delegates left the Constitution flexable for future generations to shape, avoiding such issues as the number of Presidential terms and whether or not new states would enter the Union on an equal basis with the original 13 states The Constitution provides rules of procedure for change, even in times of crisis, through the “necessary and proper” clause (or the “elastic clause) which is the source of implied powers The constitution may be amended formally or “informally” (changing the Constitution without changing its written words) Ratification The Constitution was signed on September 17, 1787 by 39 delegates and submitted to the states for ratification with the approval of nine states required. State by state, the constitution was approved. State 1. Delaware 2. Pennsylvania 3. New Jersey 4. Georgia 5. Connecticut 6. Massachusetts 7. Maryland 8. South Carolina 9. New Hampshire 10. Virginia 11. New York 12. North Carolina 13. Rhode Island Date Approved Dec. 7, 1787 Dec. 12, 1787 Dec. 18, 1787 Jan. 2, 1788 Jan. 9,1788 Feb. 6, 1788 Apr. 28, 1788 May 23, 1788 June 21, 1788 June 26, 1788 July 26, 1788 Nov. 21, 1789 May 29, 1790 For Against Unanimous 46 23 Unanimous Unanimous 128 40 187 168 63 11 149 73 57 46 89 76 30 27 197 77 34 32 Delaware was the first state to ratify the constitution (December 7, 1787) and New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify on June 21, 1788. As a result, the Constitution was adopted on July 2, 1788 and went into effect on 86 March 4, 1789. North Carolina and Rhode Island were the last states to ratify (after the government had been established and gone into operation). Sharpe debate between the Federalists who supported the Constitution, and the Antifederalists, who opposed it. The Federalist, including merchants, industrialists, landholders, professionals and government bondholders, wanted a strong central government capable of regulating commerce, maintaining law and order and stabilizing finances. The Antifederalists, including small farmers, frontiersmen, city laborers, debtors and others, wanted the states to retain most power to safeguard fundamental rights. The promise for a bill of rights softened this opposition. Lesson 3: The struggle for ratification of the constitution led to the pronouncement of differing theories about self-government through The Federalists and the Antifederalists papers. The Preamble of the Constitution (the singularly most magnificent sentence in political theory) reflects the desire of the founding fathers to achieve what all Americans, Federalists and Antifederalists, wanted: liberty and order. In reconciling order with liberty, both the Federalists and Antifederalists were committed to republicanism (representative government), rejecting majority rule could best be expressed. The fundamental paradox in American democracy throughout the history of the nation has been the clash between order and liberty, between majority rule and minority rights. Americans of the 1780’s wanted constitutional government to have power to maintain order and limits on its power to protect the liberties of the people. Trying to avoid an overemphasis of either ingredient was the great dilemma faced by Americans then …… and now. The Federalist papers are the most significant political writings in American history and remain our best statement on constitutional government. The Federalists expressed the fundamental ideas of republicanism, federalism, separation of powers and free government. Soon after the 87 constitution was completed in September, 1787 in Philadelphia, sharply divided public opinion emerged throughout the United States concerning the new government. The collection of 85 papers (essays) were written from October, 1787 to May, 1788 by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay under the pseudonym “Publius” (after Publius Valerius Publicola, a great defender of the Roman Republic) to explain and to promote support for ratification of the constitution. As one of New York’s three delegates to the convention, Alexander Hamilton preferred the Constitution’s much stronger national government when compared to the government under the Articles of Confederation. He was one of the thirty-nine delegates to sign the agreement. In campaigning for the ratification in New York, Hamilton faced strong opposition from the state’s powerful governor, George Clinton, as well as the other New York delegates, Robert Yates and John Lansing. The Federalists was a response to the early opposition of the antifederalists in the newspapers. Authors Alexander Hamilton, the youngest of the three authors, was thirty-two years old in 1787. As a assistant to General Washington, Lt. Col. Hamilton fought at Yorktown. He was instrumental in the creation of the Constitutional and later served as President Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury, providing a second financial program for the nation. Hamilton wrote 51 of the 85 papers (# 1, 8-9, 11-13, 15-17, 21-36, 59-61, and 65-85). James Madison, a Virginian, was known as the “father of the Constitution” for the role he played at the convention. As a representative during the first Congressional session under the Constitution, Madison proposed amendments that became the Bill of Rights. He later served as President Jefferson’s Secretary of State and was elected to two terms as the fourth President of the United States (1809-1817). Madison wrote 29 essays (# 10, 14, 18-20, 35-58, and 62-63). 88 John Jay of New York was the primary author of his state’s constitution and one of the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris. After serving as the head of foreign affairs in the Confederation government, Jay, in1789, became the first Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Due to illness, Jay only wrote five essays (#2-5 and 64). The immediate purpose of The Federalist was to advocate the ratification of the Constitution. The authors also wanted to influence Americans in the other states to ratify the Constitution. Though the Constitution did not reflect in entirety the views of any of the authors, it was, as a compromise, far superior to the system of the government provided by the Confederation. Madison and Hamilton together defended the proposed government, though they would later join rival political parties. Alexander Hamilton’s essays 1. In The Federalist No. 1, Hamilton, writing as Publius, encouraged the American people in choosing their own form of government and reminded them that the government of the United States, as well as their own liberty and security, was at stake. 2. Alexander Hamilton stated: “Man love power. Give all power to the many, they will oppress the few. Give all power to the few, they will oppress the many.” If a constitution, which limits the power of the government in order to protect individual liberties form oppression, provided limits that are too strict, then the government will be too weak to effectively insure order, as seen under the Articles of Confederation. Hamilton stressed the need for strong government, asserting that the possibility of abuse was no argument against granting power to the government, for “too little power is as dangerous as too much, that it leads to anarchy, and from anarchy to despotism.” In The Federalist Nos. 15-17, 21-22, Hamilton argued that the Confederation government lacked sufficient “energy” (power) to provide order and liberty and, as a result, anarchy was “impending” and the nation had reached “the last stage of national humiliation.” He lamented the government’s inability to collect taxes and to raise a military and complained that the state governments, acting directly on the people, had too much 89 power to block the national government’s actions. “There is no express to delegation of authority to them (the United States) to use force against delinquent members (states of individuals)…” (No. 21). Hamilton proposed solutions in Nos. 23-26 and 70-81 to the problem of weak government, calling on America to: Give the government the power to carry out its duties such as protection for the individual against foreign governments and internal uprisings (No. 23). Grant the power to tax to the government so that it may effectively carry out its duties. Give the government the power to deal directly with the individual rather than having to depend on action from state governments. Establish a strong Chief Executive (President) who enforces the laws and protects the nation’s interests in foreign affairs (No. 70). Create a judicial branch to interpret the laws so that they will function equitably on society (No. 78). Hamilton also proposed to protect liberty from abuse of government power, in Nos. 23, 24, 26-34, and 78-81 by: Structuring the government with separation of powers and making officials accountable to the people. Expressly denying certain powers to the government. Granting to the judiciary the power to declare government actions null and void through judicial review (No. 78). Giving control of finances to the Congress, thereby limiting executive power. Insisting in republican (representative) government. 90 James Madison wrote, perhaps, the most significant essays on constitutionalism. In No. 10 and 51, he warned that the majority must be limited by law to prevent republican tyranny, asserting that power is power, whether it is in the hands of a king or the people. He equally opposed the tyranny of one (King or dictator), the tyranny of the few (oligarchy or aristocracy) and the tyranny of the many (majority), perhaps the greatest threat to liberty in a republic. Madison did not see majority rule as an end in itself, as the Antifederalists did, but, rather, saw the individual private rights as justice and believed the justice, not majority rule, was the end to the achieved. Democratic law, according to Madison is best served when it is limited by a higher law (the Constitution) that restrains power (even in the hands of the people). He wanted majority rule by electing representatives but with limits on the majority’s power in order to protect the liberties of people that the majority disliked. In a letter to Thomas Jefferson (October 17, 1788), Madison warned: “Wherever the real power in a Government lies, there is the danger of oppression. In our Government, the real power lies in the majority of the community, and the invasion of private rights is chiefly to be apprehended, not from acts of government contrary to the sense of its constituents, but from acts in which the government is the mere instrument of the major number (majority) of the constituents. This is a truth of great importance, but not yet sufficiently attended to… Whenever there is an interest and power to do wrong, wrong will generally be done, and not less readily by (a majority of the people) than by a …prince.” In order to protect liberty from tyranny while, at the same time, insuring order, Madison asserted that: A well-structured constitution can prevent tyranny, including the tyranny of a majority against a minority (No. 51). Federalism in a large republic and separation of a federal government’s powers are essential parts of a good constitutional government. 91 Federalism allows the central and state governments to restrain one another. Groups and individuals must compromise and cooperate in a large federal republic in order for majority rule to be achieved, unlike a small, direct democracy that is subject to majoritarian tyranny (No. 10). Separation of powers prevents the accumulation of all powers in the same hands which, according to Madison in The Federalist No. 47, “may justly be pronounced as the very definition of tyranny.” Each branch of government has the constitutional power to restrain the other branches and each branch and the representatives are accountable to the people. The popularly elected part of the Congress (the House of Representatives, at the time) must be restrained from implementing tyranny by the majority to whom it is accountable. Madison felt that government, though limited by law, must have the “necessary and proper” powers to carry out its duties and maintain itself. (Nos. 41-48 and 62-63) Madison admirably summarizes the great American political dilemma, the conflict between order and liberty, majority rule and minority tights, indeed, between “domestic tranquility” and “the blessings of liberty” in The Federalist No. 51: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed, and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions (a well-structured constitution with checks and balances). 92 The Antifederalist Papers were also published in New York during the ratification process by a writer known as Brutus (probably Robert Yates). Brutus argued that the constitution would not achieve the desired liberty for the individuals and order for society, warning “That a consolidation of this extensive continent under one government… cannot succeed, without a sacrifice of your liberties.” He asserted that the powers delegated to the national government came at the expense of the state governments and called upon the American people to change the proposed system of government. Patrick Henry, a Virginian of Revolutionary War fame (“Give me liberty or give me death!”) was, perhaps, the most famous Antifederalist. At the same time that the Federalist papers were appearing in New York newspapers, Brutus published sixteen essays in the New York Journal (October 18, 1787 to April 10, 1788). These essays have been viewed as the best expression of the Antifederalist position, which asserted that majority rule was, in itself, justice and that the process of replacing aristocratic power with republican power would produce a harmonious society. In arguing that the Constitution of 1787 overemphasized order and paid too little attention to liberty, Brutus stressed basic antifederalist beliefs. a. The federal nature of the Union, which should stress states’ rights and federalism created by a union of the states, has been replaced by consolidation of the national government’s power. Since free government should be close to (not remote from) the people it represents, tyranny is likely to emerge. b. The central government has excessive powers, including the power to tax, to command military forces in time of war (or peace) and to assume virtually any power in order to insure “the general welfare of the people,” a vague allowance. c. The “necessary and proper” clause enables the Congress to expand its powers too easily. d. The President and the Senate have too much power, at the expense of the House of Representatives which is closest to the people, and such 93 power, including the power to make treaties binding on the people, is a threat to liberty. e. Liberty is threatened by the judicial branch, which is less accountable to the people and can overrule state government acts. Brutus called for a shift in the federal balance of power to favor the state governments (the small republics) over the national government (the large government in the extended republic favored by the Federalists), arguing that: a. People are closely connected to their representatives in small republics. b. Legislative representatives reflect the ideas of their constituents. c. Stable majorities in the small republics are preferable to the conflict caused by the diversity of large, extended republics. d. The opportunity for the people to participate as voters and candidates in elections is greater in a small republic, thus serving popular majority rule. e. Small republics have regular elections of officials with short terms. f. Majority rule, as seen through popular participation in limited government, prevents tyranny. g. Popular participation in government is more likely to produce satisfaction among the people, thus reducing the need for the government to exercise coercive power. The Antifederalists were willing to accept the Constitution of 1787 only if their proposed amendments were adopted. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, adopted in 1791, became known as the Bill of Rights because they illustrated the efforts of the Antifedealists to insure the liberties of the people, to limit the power of the central government and to protect the state governments. 94 George Mason, a Virginia delegate to the Constitutional Convention, called for limits to be placed on the central government’s power and refused to sign the Constitution. In November, 1787, he published his arguments against the Constitution that contained “no Declaration of Rights” in many newspapers. Brutus agreed with Mason and other Antifederalists. a. The flaws of consolidated central government were reviewed in Essay I. b. Brutus, like Mason, called for a Bill of Rights in Essay II and discussed representative government in Essay IV. c. Essay X criticized the government’s military power and Essay XV attacked the judiciary’s power. d. In stating the Antifederalist belief that majority rule is justice, Brutus wrote, in Essay I, that “…the people must give their assent to the laws by which they are governed. This is the true criterion between a free government and an arbitraty one. The former are ruled by the will of the whole, expressed in any manner they may agree upon, the latter by the will of one or a few…” Historians have often debated how Thomas Jefferson felt about the Constitution. Due to his support for the Bill of Rights and his later opposition to Alexander Hamilton’s economic program, Jefferson is often associated with the Antifederalist position. He expressed fear about overemphasizing power to secure order. “It has been said that our government… wants energy (lack power); that it is difficult to restrain… individuals… from committing wrongs. This is true, and it is an inconvenience. On the other hand that energy which absolute governments derive from an armed force, which is the effect of the bayonet constantly held at the breast of every citizen, and which (order and security) very much resembles the stillness of the grave, must be 95 admitted to also have its inconveniences. We must weigh the two together, and like best to submit to the former.” Jefferson, however, shared a continental vision with his friend, James Madison, and their correspondence suggests that Jefferson would have supported the Constitution of 1787 but would also have joined the call for a Bill of Rights. In a letter written to Madison prior to his discovery that Madison had contributed to Publius, Jefferson referred to The Federalist as “the best writings” he had seen on democracy. Lesson 4: The first ten amendments to the Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights, extended the Constitution and provided guarantees for individual liberties and rights. Debates arose over the necessity of a Bill of Rights but the Antifederalists ultimately prevailed in securing the amendments. Federalists argued in defense of the Constitution without a Bill of Rights. 1. They saw the entire Constitution as a well-framed government with checks and balances as well as elected officials as a bill of rights. 2. Article I, Sections 3 and 10, were seen as an internal Bill of Rights. 3. The federal government, it was noted, is, unlike state governments, a government of enumerated powers and it is not given a power that is not enumerated in the Constitution. They also pointed out that state bills of rights remained in force. The Antifederalists argued for a Bill of Rights. 1. The supremacy of the Constitution, they contended, called into question the reliance on state bills of rights or implied restrictions. 2. They also noted that the presence of restrictions suggested that powers not reserved for the states had been granted to the federal 96 government. 3. The Antifederalists, as earlier, questioned the “well-constructed” republican, federal government. The Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791. 1. Freedom of religion, press, speech, assembly, petition 2. Right to keep and bear arms 3. No quartering of soldiers in peacetime 4. Freedom from unreasonable search and seizure 5. Rights of accused persons (no required self-incrimination) 6. Right to speedy trial 7. Trial by jury in civil cases 8. No excessive fines or cruel and unusual punishment 9. Powers retained for the people 10. Powers reserved for the states Additional amendments have emerged throughout American history and will be examined later in the course. 11. Suits against states (required to be in state courts) 12. Election of President and Vice-President – separate ballots 13. Prohibition of slavery 14. Minority citizenship and Civil War punishment 97 15. Minority right to vote 16. Income tax 17. Direct election of senators 18. Prohibition 19. Women’s right to vote 20. “Lame Duck” session 21. Repeal of Prohibition 22. President’s Tenure (up to two terms or ten years) 23. Washington, D.C. voting 24. Barring of poll tax 25. Presidential disability and secession 26. Voting age (lowered to 18) Individual rights, including those enumerated in the Bill of Rights, are relative to the rights of others and are, therefore, not absolute. Results of the Constitution Disagreement exists over the accomplishments of the Constitution 1. Many people felt that the Constitution fulfilled the promise of the revolution. 2. Charles Beard, in 1913, said that the founding fathers were selfish men of property who successfully protected their economic selfinterests and limited the growth of popular democracy. 98 3. Most historians feel that the founding fathers were patriots of great stature and vision who put aside their personal financial concerns. Accomplishments 1. People became “citizens” instead of “subjects.” 2. The rights of people were written and, therefore, not vague. 3. Leaders transformed from “rulers” into “servants of the people” due to frequent elections. 4. The Constitution allowed for a higher number of elected officials. 5. Although the legislative branch had the greatest power, no branch could be overbearing towards another branch. 6. Greater middle-class and farmer representation emerged due to the exodus of many Tories after the revolution and due to the opening of the frontier. 7. The Constitution of the United States is the oldest working constitution in the world today. 99 UNIT THREE: THE NEW NATION COMPLETES ITS INDEPENDENCE DURING THE EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD (1789-1815) Lesson 1: The Federalist Era opened as Washington’s administration confronted the challenges of “a nation at risk.” Domestic issues faced the new government during the Federalist Era. The first federal officials had to organize the new government using only Constitutional principles and their own experience to guide them in their effects. George Washington was elected as the First President with John Adams serving as his Vice-President. Washington remains the only President in U.S. history to be unanimously elected. 100 Born on a farm on February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland Country, Virginia, Washington received little formal education until, following his father’s death, he moved to his older brother’s home at Mount Vernon where he became a gentlemen, surveyor, outdoorsmen and owner of Mount Vernon upon his brother’s death. During the French and Indian War Period, he won fame for his bravery and skill in battle and, as commander of Virginia’s militia, defended the colony from enemy attacks for three years. Between the wars, he married Martha Custis, managed his Mount Vernon plantation and served in the Virginia House of Burgesses as well as the First and Second Continental Congress. During the Revolutionary War, he commanded the Continental Army and then retired to Mount Vernon. During the “Critical Period” of the 1780’s, he called for a stronger national Confederation government, presided over the Constitutional Convention and help sway public opinion in favor of ratification. Washington took the oath of office on April 30, 1789 in the first capital, New York City, as the first President of the United States, although he would have preferred to remain a private citizen. Congress created three executive departments and Washington appointed able men to head this cabinet, though this advisory board was not mentioned in the Constitution. a. Secretary of the Treasury- Alexander Hamilton b. Secretary of State- Thomas Jefferson c. Secretary of War- Henry Knox d. Edmund Randolph became the first Attorney General The federal court system was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789 which provided for the Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and five associate justices, thirteen district courts and three circuit courts. 101 The First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was John Jay, an active supporter of the Constitution. The Judiciary Act provided for the uniform interpretation of the Constitution among the states by granting the power of “judicial review” to the judiciary. The first official census was enacted in 1790. The Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791 and Vermont joined the union the same year. The biggest problem facing the new government was raising money. In addition to operating expenses, the new government needed money to repay foreign and domestic dept incurred by the Second Continental Congress and the Confederation. The states were also in dept. Alexander Hamilton’s economic program proposed to put the nation on a firm financial foundation and was generally accepted by Congress. He proposed to pay the foreign dept in full (and it was ultimately paid off by 1795). In his Report on Public Credit, Hamilton proposed that the domestic dept, primarily Revolutionary War bonds, was to be paid in full (and was paid off by 1835). James Madison opposed this proposal because he believed that it was unfair to reward speculators who had preyed on public fears during the American Revolution and who had purchased government securities from bound holders at a fraction of their face value. Hamilton proposed that the federal government should assume the $25 million dept of the states because the states had borrowed to finance the war. Since the Southern States objected to use of their tax dollars by a centralized power against debt primarily incurred in the North, the compromise know as the Assumption Bill allowed Congress to assume state debts while agreeing to locate the national capital in the South, along the Potomac River. 102 Philadelphia had served as the nation’s capitol from the birth of the century in 1776 until 1786, when it was moved to New York. After Washington’s inauguration in New York, the capitol returned to Philadelphia in 1790. Located of the banks of the Potomac River, Washington, D.C. would be surveyed by Benjamin Banneker, a black mathematician and astronomer, and Major Andrew Ellicott in 1791 and designed by French architect Charles L’Enfant. Hamilton proposed to fund the debt payments by exchanging old bonds for new interest- bearing bonds to be redeemed in 15-20 years. He believed that people would work harder to insure the success of the nation if the government owned money to them. Hamilton argued that a national bank would Provide a safe place for tax money Make it easier for the government and private individuals to borrow money. Create and issue a uniform, stable currency nationwide (sound paper money). Provide for the easy transfer of money (by check rather than gold). Thomas Jefferson and other opponents of the bank feared that the bank would 1. monopolize the banking business 2. give the wealthy monopoly control over the nation’s money supply 3. violate the Constitution and their strict construction (interpretation) because the Constitution does not specifically grant Congress the power to charter banks. Jefferson warned that “to take a single step beyond the boundaries thus specifically drawn around the powers of the Congress, is to take possession of a boundless field of power.” 4. hurt local and state banks. 103 Hamilton’s loose Constitutional interpretation asserting that the bank was necessary and proper on order for Congress to carry out its expressed powers of coining, regulating and borrowing money as well as collecting taxes. Congress established the first Bank of the United States in 1791 with a twenty year charter. Congress established a United States Mint in Philadelphia in 1792 to replace foreign coins in circulation with gold, silver and copper coins. An excise tax was placed on domestically-produced distilled liquor and whisky. It produced resentment among Western farmers who distilled their surplus grain into whisky which was easier to transport and which brought a higher price than grain itself. Pennsylvania farmers refused to pay the tax and confronted federal tax collectors with violence in the Whisky Rebellion of 1794, the “second American Revolution.” President Washington demonstrated the government’s willingness and ability to enforce its laws by crushing the rebellion with fifteen thousand troops. Hamilton requested a protective tariff to discourage the importation of foreign goods and to stimulate the growth of American Industry. A protective tariff is a high tariff placed on imported goods so that those goods cannot compete with domestic goods (compared to a revenues tariff which just raises money). This was only proposal rejected by Congress. The effects of Hamilton’s policies were favorable. 1. The nation’s credit was firmly established. 2. The government’s revenue needs were met with workable money system. 3. Commerce and industry were stimulated. 104 4. The government gained the support of businessmen and the people. Hamilton’s program relied heavily on continued trade with Great Britain for revenue from customs duties as well as the collection of excise taxes. Foreign affairs during the Washington Administration French Revolution Most Americans were excited about the Revolution in France (1789) because they believed that the French were following the trail to liberty blazed by the Americans. The Federalists were shocked when Louis XVI was executed, fearing mob rule at home. Democratic-minded Americans, like Jefferson, believed that the “liberty of the whole earth” depended on the triumph of “liberty, equality, fraternity” in Frence but, like the Federalists, they deplored the violence. The French Revolution had a world wide impact as the uprising of the French masses ultimately produced eight different forms of government in France from 1789-1815, ranging from Absolute Monarchy to a Constitutional Monarchy (1789), a Democratic Republic (1792) in which the King and Queen were executed, a more conservative Republic with a new constitution (1795), a Directorate (1795), a Consulate (1799), Napoleon as dictator and, in 1804, as emperor, and finally, in 1814-1815, a Constitutional Monarchy under Louis XVIII. The Revolution produced stronger government to suppress revolutionary dissent, separation of church and state and a new emphasis on the historical role of change. Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality In 1793, France was at war with Great Britain and Spain. France expected the United States to honor her alliance made a treaty in 1778, in which the United states had pledged to be France’s ally forever, and to “return the favor” from the American Revolution, but President Washington declared that the United States would remain neutral in the conflict. 105 The proclamation angered the Jeffersonians who were anxious to “honor” our commitment by helping the French. The Great Affair France sent “Citizen Genet”, a diplomatic agent, to obtain U.S. help and, upon arrival, he began to organize military expeditions on American soil against Spanish Florida and Louisiana. He issued French commissions to Americans and armed American ships to prey on British merchant ships. Through recalled at Washington’s request, Genet chose to remain in the United States and became an American citizen (fearing execution in France). Disputes with Great Britain The British continued to operate forts and trading posts on the Northwest Territory (Detroit), carrying on extensive fur trade, selling firearms to Indians and inciting them to attack American settlements in the Ohio Valley, in violation of the Treaty of Paris, as a response to the failure of Americans to pay pre-Revolution debts owed to English creditors and merchants (in violation of the treaty). Despite U.S. Government protests, the British navy, in order to halt the flow of supplies to France, began seizing American cargos in the West Indies and kidnapping American sailors from their ships, impressing them into service in the British navy due to a shortage of sailors. Great Britain seized over 300 American ships. In the Treaty of Greenville (1795), the Northwest Indians ceded the Ohio territory to the Americans following “Mad Anthony” Wayne’s victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) over Little Turtle’s Miami warriors where British firearms and dead British-Canadians were found on the battlefield. Jay’s Treaty with Great Britain (1794) The treaty postponed war with England until 1812. 106 John Jay concluded the treaty that provided for a. Removal of British troops from the Northwest (the same agreement he had secured in negotiating the Treaty of Paris in 1783) b. Payment of debts to English creditors. c. Easing of restrictions for U.S. merchants trading with the British and the West Indies. d. Compensation to American shippers for ships and cargos seized by the British. The treaty included some of the same provisions that Jay had included in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Alexander Hamilton, an Anglophile (he admired the British), probably undermined Jay’s efforts to secure a fair treaty by telling the British in advance of the trip that the United States didn’t want war. The treaty was criticized because it ignored the impressment of American sailors. Despite the criticism, Washington succeeded in securing ratification at a time when the United States was ill-prepared to fight a war. The Pinckney Treaty with Spain (1795) – (also known as the Treat of San Lorenzo) was negotiated to settle problems arising from Spanish control of Louisiana and Florida. Provisions a. Western farmers received the “right of deposit,” i.e., the right to ship their agricultural products on the Mississippi River to New Orleans and to transfer those goods, duty-free, from their river barges to ocean-going vessels. This agreement made it much easier to move farm products to Atlantic coastal markets, as well as Europe, as compared to moving those goods over land on pack animals. 107 b. It settled the boundary dispute between Georgia and West Florida. c. Spain agreed to stop provoking Indian attacks in Georgia and the West. The Pinckney Agreement was, perhaps, the most successful agreement reached by the government during the 1790’s. Pinckney’s Treaty was important because it led to the economic development of the Mississippi River Valley. Conclusion of the Washington Administration Having won reelection in 1792, President Washington decided not to run for a third term in 1796. In doing so, he established the “two term tradition” for the Presidency, which remained the “unwritten law” until the 22nd Amendment was enacted in the mid-Twentieth Century. In his famous farewell address, Washington i) cautioned against sectional jealousy and excessive party spirit ii) stressed the importance of a firm union and strong central government iii) called for political (not economic) isolationism in regards to foreign nations, advising against permanent alliances with foreign nations and discouraging involvement in European affairs. The Adams administration faced challenges at home and abroad during the conclusion of the Federalist Era. The Adams administration began with the rise of political parties. By 1792, the division of opinion between Jefferson’s followers and Hamilton’s followers over Hamilton’s economic program, as well as foreign 108 policy, led to the emergence of America’s first political parties in 17921793. The first national party contests were for seats in the House of Representatives and Senate because President Washington was “above politics.” White, male landowners were the only voters in the early republic. The Federalist Party, which favored Hamilton’s policies, included wealthy merchants, bankers, and manufacturers and was especially strong in New England and along the Atlantic seaboard. a. The Federalists were fearful of placing too much power in the hands of the people, believing that men of position and property were best able to govern. They wanted restrictions on free speech and press. b. They favored a strong national government and a loose interpretation of the constitution in order to broaden the powers of the federal government. c. They believed in the development of a balanced and diversified economy, with special emphasis on manufacturing and industrial interests. d. They believed that government should aid business, favored the protective tariff and national bank and favored a properly-funded national debt. e. The pro-British Federalists called for close ties with England. f. The Federalists wanted a strong navy to protect shipping interests. The Democratic-Republican Party (forerunner of the modern Democratic Party) was comprised of small farmers, frontiersmen, tradesmen and urban laborers who opposed Hamilton’s policies. They were strong in the South and West and expressed Jefferson’s views. a. Jefferson was a strong advocate of the rights of man and a firm believer in democracy. He had faith in the ability of the “informed 109 (literate) masses” to govern themselves wisely. His party supported relatively free speech and press. b. Jefferson believed that the states and the people should retain as many rights and powers as possible and stood for strict interpretation of the Constitution to limit the powers of the federal government. c. The Democratic-Republicans preferred agriculture to manufacturing. Jefferson contended that the small farmer was the backbone of democratic America. Fearing the growth of industries and cities and opposed to Hamilton’s financial program, he was joined by many antifederalists. d. They opposed the protective tariff and other special favors for manufacturing interests and opposed the national bank as well as the concept of a national debt. e. Led by Jefferson, a Francophile, the Democratic-Republicans were pro French, favoring that nation’s radical Revolutionary tradition. f. The Democratic-Republicans wanted a minimal navy for defense of the coastline. Psychohistorians have speculated that Hamilton and Jefferson, who both lost their fathers at a young age, saw Washington as “father” and were competing for his attention. The Federalist Era, which began with the Washington administration, would conclude following the controversial domestic events of the Adams administration. Election of 1796 a. The Federalist caucus chose John Adams for President and Thomas Pinckney for Vice-President. 110 b. The Democratic-Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson for President and Aaron Burr for Vice-President. c. Jay’s Treaty was the issue of the election. d. Electors, chosen by state legislatures, made the decision based on the popular vote. The two largest vote-getters were declared President and Vice-President. Unfortunately, the framers of the Constitution didn’t foresee the emergence of political parties and the method of selection wasn’t changed until 1804 by the 12th Amendment. Adams won by a narrow margin and, have received the second highest number of electoral votes, Jefferson became Vice-President. The election became a referendum on the popularity of the candidates. e. Adams had served in the First and Second Continental Congresses, signed the Declaration of Independence, negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783 and served as the nation’s first Vice-President. The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed in 1798 by the Federalistdominated Congress and were aimed at crushing Republican opposition since most immigrants joined Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican Party. The Acts were seen as gross violations of First Amendment liberties as well as the rights of foreigners and were designed to keep French ideas out of America. a. An alien is a person who is not a citizen and sedition is the use of language to stir up rebellion against the government. b. The Naturalization Act raised the residence requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years. c. The Alien Act authorized the President to expel foreigners considered to be a danger to public security. d. The Alien Enemies Act stated that foreigners could be imprisoned or deported in time of war. e. The Sedition Act punished American citizens that defamed government officials. Republican journalists would be convicted under 111 this act. f. James Madison and Thomas Jefferson attempted to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (17891799), the first attempt by any states to employ the doctrine of state nullification. i) they argued that the Federal government had specific powers provided by the states and that the states could criticize the Federal government if it committed unauthorized acts. The problem with the States’ rights argument is that the states could declare any act “null and void,” a violation of the Constitution’s Supremacy Clause. ii) The Federalists responded by asserting that the federal government’s power comes from the people, not the states. iii) The Resolutions of Madison and Jefferson were not approved by other states. g. The Federalist-controlled Supreme Court took no action against the unconstitutional acts. Shortly before the Federalists left office as a result of losing the Election of 1800, Congress passed the new Judiciary Act of 1801, increasing the number of Supreme Court Justices to 16. Adams filled these judgeships and other new court positions with Federalists in an effort to maintain Federalist control of the judiciary branch. When the DemocraticRepublicans came into office, they quickly repealed this act and removed most of the “midnight judges.” Foreign Policy during the Adams administration President Adams began his term fearing war with France. France resented 112 a. America’s Proclamation of Neutrality (1793), which demonstrated our refusal to honor the 1778 treaty, which created an alliance “forever.” b. Jay’s treaty, which was perceived as pro-British and also a violation of the 1778 alliance. Armed French vessels began to seize American merchant ships bound for English ports while the French government refused to receive our minister, Charles Pinckney. XYZ Affair (1797) a. American envoys were supposed to meet with Talleyrand, the French foreign minister. The French government normally expected bribes to be paid in order to meet with its officials. b. Adam’s diplomatic efforts were revoked as French officials issued insulting demands to visiting American diplomats. i) Adams was expected to apologize for remarks, which he had made in a Congressional speech. ii) The United State was expected to make a loan and a $250,000 bribe payment to the Directory. c. The American envoys rejected the demands. As “millions for defense but not one cent for tribute” became the battle cry, Congress enacted a number of defense measures, including the Department of the Navy, which expanded the three ship navy through the use of “privateers” (small commercial ships outfitted for war), the creation of the United States Marine Corps and the authorization of a 10,000 man army. d. The incident led to the enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts and undeclared war. The undeclared war against France, fought mainly in the West Indies, led to the capture of more than 80 French ships in 1798 and 1799. However, Adams reached agreement with Napoleon in a treaty known as the Convention of 113 1800, thus avoiding an extended war and bringing to an end the 1778 alliance which would be America’s only peacetime military alliance for a century and a half. His refusal to go to war against the French may ave cost him the Election of 1800. Conclusion of the Adams administration and the Federalist Era The Federalist Period came to an end with the Election of 1800 as Thomas Jefferson (President), Aaron Burr (Vice-President) and the DemocraticRepublicans gained control of both the legislative and executive branches of the government. Jefferson was chosen by the House of Representatives in the election, primarily due to Democratic-Republican unity. a. According to the Constitution, members of the Electoral College were to vote for two and candidates without indicating which office each was to fill. The candidate with the highest number of votes would be President and the next highest, Vice-President. b. Since each Democratic-Republican elector cast two votes, the vote in the electoral college resulted in a tie between Jefferson, the Presidential nominee of that party, and Aaron Burr, the V.P. c. The Constitution provides that when the two candidates are tied in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives must choose between them. d. Federalist Congressmen tried to swing the election to Burr, but Alexander Hamilton, the most influential Federalist, swayed the House to choose Jefferson because he felt Burr was dishonorable and dangerous. e. The Twelfth Amendment, adopted in 1804, required electors to cast separate ballots for President and Vice-President. f. Aaron Burr had helped the Republicans tremendously in New York by implementing the Republican strategy of electing state legislators who 114 would pick the right delegates to the Electoral College. Reasons for the Federalist downfall Their policies served the minority commercial and manufacturing groups rather than the majority, namely farmers and laborers. The common people resented the Federalist aim of keeping the government in the hands of the elite. The Alien and Sedition Acts aroused the fear that the Federalists would destroy civil liberties. Achievements of Federalists (1789-1801) They put the constitution in operation and firmly established the powers of the federal government. Hamilton solved the nation’s financial problems and developed commerce and industry. Washington and Adams kept the country out of war with England and France. John Marshall, a well-respected Federalist, served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801-1835 (Marshall was Thomas Jefferson’s cousin). a. His decisions greatly increased the authority of the Supreme Court. i) Judicial review was reinforced. The Supreme Court could declare a law unconstitutional. ii) The Supreme Court had the power to overturn state laws that conflicted with Federal laws (the “Supreme law of the land”). iii) The Supreme Court could reverse a decision by a state court (note the hierarchy). 115 iv) The Union of the states was strengthened and nationalism prevailed, much to the dismay of Jefferson. Marshall increased the power of the national government more than Hamilton. b. Marshall’s landmark decisions i) Marbury v Madison (1803): William Marbury was among forty-two Washington, D.C. justices of the peace for who were appointed in the last days of the Adams administration. James Madison, President Jefferson’s Secretary of State, refused to deliver the overdue appointment to Marbury, who then asked the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus requiring Madison to deliver the commission. The court ruled that Marbury was due his commission, which had been signed and sealed by the previous administration. However, Marshall ruled that Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional since it authorized the court to issue a writ but the Constitution denied the power. Marshall established and reinforced the concept of judicial review in declaring an act of Congress unconstitutional for the first time. The decision angered President Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Congress so much that they unsuccessfully tried to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase for “high crimes and misdemeanors.” If they had succeeded, Marshall would have been impeached. Judicial independence, however, was preserved as the Republican attack failed. ii) Dartmouth v. Woodward (1819): Marshall ruled that a charter was a contract between two parties, neither one of whom could change it, and, thus, the New Hampshire state legislature had no right to alter Dartmouth College’s original charter without the college’s consent. Daniel Webster, a Dartmouth graduate who became a great orator/statesman, argued for Dartmouth. 116 iii) McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): When the state of Maryland attempted to destroy the Baltimore branch of the National Bank by taxing it heavily, Marshall ruled that the Maryland tax law was unconstitutional because it was attempting to destroy a Constitutional act of Congress (the bank). Noting that “the power to tax is the power to destroy,” he reaffirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law and strengthened the use of implied powers by Congress since the National Bank was chartered through implied powers. iv) Cohens v. Virginia (1821): The Cohens were illegally selling lottery tickets in Virginia and were convicted by the state. When they appealed their conviction in the Supreme Court, Marshall upheld the conviction, but established the precedent that the Supreme Court could review state court decisions. v) Gibbons b. Ogden (1824): When Thomas Gibbons established a ferry system under a federal license, Aaron Ogden tried to prevent him from operating it because Ogden had bought the monopoly for steam navigation in the state waters of New York which had been granted by the state to Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston. Marshall declared that the New York monopoly was unconstitutional because only Congress had the right to regulate interstate commerce, including commerce that extended into the interior of any state. Lesson 3: The turn of the century brought the Democratic-Republicans’ domestic program to the nation’s capital. Political development of the Jefferson administration Jefferson was inaugurated in the new capitol of Washington D.C. The President’s qualifications for office were well-known. 117 Born in Virginia in 1743 and raised on the family plantation, he was one of the best educated men in colonial America. As a graduate of the William and Mary College School of Law, he had an outstanding grasp of history, law, philosophy, mathematics, science, architecture. After marring Martha Skelton in 1772 and settling down at Monticello, his home in Charlottesville, Virginia, he served as a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses from 1769 to 1775. Jefferson served as a Virginia state legislator and governor (1776-1781) and wrote the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom, used by the founding fathers in constructing the First Amendment’s religious guarantees. He formulated the Northwest Ordinance after being elected to the Confederation Congress in 1783 and, as Minister to France (1785-1789), negotiated commercial treaties with France and England. Jefferson served as President Washington’s Secretary of State (17891793) but resigned after his first term due to his disagreement with Hamilton’s economic program. After forming the Democratic-Republican Party, he was elected VicePresident in 1796. He would serve two terms as President (1801-1809) before retiring to Monticello, where he experimented with new farming methods, served as a White House advisor and built the University of Virginia. Jefferson died on the same day as John Adams, on July 4, 1826 – the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence! Jefferson’s victory brought changes from the past. He was elected on his ideas, not popularity. The country became isolationist. He introduced the spoils system (although Jefferson disliked removing someone from office for political reasons.) When he took office, he found 118 only four Republican federal employees, so he fired twenty-one of the “midnight” appointments (including John Quincy Adams, by mistake) and others, resulting in a balance of 151 Republicans and 122 Federalists in the government. He was the first president to realize that the cooperation of Congressmen was necessary. His French chef and wine cellar cultivated relationships. The Elitist status of the nation declined by 5 to 10%, as new Republican politicians were less educated. The “Revolution of 1800,” as the election came to be known, demonstrated that power could be transferred peacefully from one party to another in America. Jefferson repealed many Federalist Acts but preserved many of their programs. In his inaugural address, he stated: “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists” in an effort to calm Federalist fears about upheaval but also to reach out politically to moderate Federalists in an effort to consolidate his executive power. Among the acts which he repealed were the 1. Alien and Sedition Acts a. Those imprisoned under these laws were pardoned as these acts expired. b. The Naturalization Act was repealed and the residence requirement for citizenship was reduced to 5 years. 2. Excise taxes (including the tax on whisky that had produced the Whisky Rebellion during President Washington’s administration). 3. Judiciary Act of 1801 (not the 1789 Judiciary Act), thus preventing the “midnight judges” from taking office. IN the Judiciary Act of 1802, the Democratic-Republicans restored the number of Supreme Court justices to six, fixed one term per year for the Court and established six circuit courts, each 119 headed by a Supreme Court justice. 4. Federalist armed forces legislation, thus reducing the services. Some Federalist Acts were undisturbed. 1. The national bank’s 20-year charter remained intact. 2. State debts assumed by the national government under Hamilton’s program were paid off by Jefferson’s Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin. Jefferson was very frugal, reducing the number of embassies to three (France, Spain, England) and relying on militias somewhat for defense. After dropping Burr as his second-term running mate in favor of George Clinton (New York), Jefferson won the Election of 1804 by a landslide over the Federalist ticket of Charles Pinckney (South Carolina) and Rufus King (New York). The Federalists were discredited because of the Essex Junto, a scheme by extremist Federalist leaders to separate the northeastern states from the Union in order to escape from the “Virginia dynasty.” Burr decided to run for governor of New York with the support of Federalists opposed to the Louisiana Purchase and advocating secession of the northern states but Hamilton persuaded Federalists in that state to vote against Burr, who subsequently lost the election. When Hamilton refused to apologize to Burr for discrediting him in the Presidential Election of 1800, Burr killed Hamilton in a duel (in which Hamilton refused to fire at Burr). In 1806, Burr was arrested for trying to create his own separate empire out of the southern Louisiana Territory. His failure to secure support in the region demonstrated the growing allegiance of the West to the national government. He was tried in 1807 but acquitted in a trial, which, under Chief Justice Marshall, narrowed the definition of treason. Burr went to exile in Europe following the trial. 120 Summary of domestic developments during Jefferson’s two terms 1. The Alien and Sedition Acts were repealed or allowed to expire. 2. All excise taxes, including the tax on whisky, were repealed. 3. Federal expenses were cut and the federal debt was substantially reduced by Albert Gallatin, Jefferson’s Secretary of the Treasury. 4. The United States Military Academy at West Point was established (1802). 5. The importation of slaves was prohibited (1808) as the provision protecting slave importation for twenty years in the Commerce Compromise of the Constitution expired. 6. The Louisiana Territory was purchased (see below). Jefferson undermined the system of checks and balances that had been written into the Constitution by his friend James Madison by going far beyond the Federalists in strengthening the power of the Presidency. In the Election of 1808, Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison (Virginia) and his Vice-Presidential running mate, George Clinton (New York), defeated the same Federalist ticket from the 1804 election, namely Charles Pinckney (South Carolina) and Rufus King (New York). The Federalists improved because the Embargo Act of 1807 hurt American commerce. James Monroe became Madison’s Secretary of State. Madison was reelected in 1812 with a new running mate, Elbridge Gerry (Massachusetts) over Dewitt Clinton (New York) and Jared Ingersoll (Pennsylvania). The Federalists, backed by rebellious Republicans in New York, made heavy gains in Congress due to strong opposition to the War of 1812, especially in New England where it was referred to as “Mr. Madison’s War.” The Early National Period produced tremendous growth for the United State of America. 121 Five states joined the union during the period including 14. Vermont (1791) 15. Kentucky (1792) 16. Tennessee (1796) 17. Ohio (1803) 18. Louisiana (1812) The nation’s territorial size doubled during Jefferson’s administration with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Louisiana was the enormous territory lying between the Mississippi River, a very important natural highway, and the Rocky Mountains (bordered in the West by the Continental Divide). Spain acquired control of the territory from France through the Treaty of Paris, which concluded the French and Indian war. The territory was not profitable for Spain because the inhabitants continued to trade with France and the taxes collected from the territory only paid for roughly 20% of the administrative costs. French emperor Napoleon acquired Louisiana from Spain in 1800 through the treaty of San Ildefonso, an agreement which he never honored. Spain, under Charles IV, gave the territory to France for fear of aggression by American frontiersmen or the possibility of an Anglo-French-American alliance. The acquisition of Louisiana by France concerned Jefferson because a. France, a powerful nation, might threaten the western border of the Untied States and withdraw the “right of deposit” in New Orleans which had been obtained in the Pinckney Treaty with Spain in 1795 (giving Americans the right to navigate the lower Mississippi and deposit goods on ocean-going vessels duty-free in New Orleans). 122 b. It would limit American expansion westward. c. It might force the United States, which was trying to remain isolationist, into an alliance with Great Britain. After bluffing Napoleon, through proposed military expenditures, into believing that the U.S. was planning to attack the territory, Jefferson sent James Monroe to help the American minister to Paris, Robert Livingston, offer $10,000,000.00 to France for the purchase of New Orleans. Spain had closed the port earlier due to American smuggling. Napoleon astonished the Americans by offering to sell not only New Orleans but the entire Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000.00. Livingston and Monroe accepted the offer (Perhaps the best real estate deal in American history). Napoleon sold Louisiana because: a. Franc could not control its colony at Santo Domingo (Haiti) because Touissant L’Ouverture had led French slaves in a successful independence movement during the French Revolution, defeating the best French troops and preventing Napoleon from recapturing it in 1800. b. France could not control Louisiana without a strong naval base in the West Indies. England, with whom France was engaged in war, could easily take possession of the territory with its powerful navy. $15 million was better than nothing! Jefferson was pleased with the bargain but was haunted by his strict interpretation of the Constitution, for the Constitution did not specifically state that the government had the right to purchase foreign territories. By Jefferson’s standards, the purchase of the territory was unconstitutional. He nevertheless urged the Senate to ratify the purchase due to the territory’s importance. The Federalists opposed the sale because they felt that, since the territory would be pioneered and settled by middle-class people, middle class (Democratic-Republican) representation in Congress would increase. On December 20, 1803, Louisiana became part of the Untied States. 123 Exploration of the Louisiana Territory (1804-1806) a. Jefferson had earlier proposed a plan in 1792 to pay Andre’ Michaux, who had explored the Blue Ridge mountains, to explore the Missouri River as a possible route to the Pacific Ocean but Michaux was unavailable due to this involvement with Citizen Genet. However, prior to purchasing Louisiana from Napoleon, Congress had appropriated money for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the West in order to develop trade with the Indians and to find a waterway from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean suitable for commercial trade. b. Lewis, who alone commanded the journey, was a 28-year-old Blue Ridge frontiersman, scientist, military officer and personal secretary for President Jefferson. Clark, who served as his close friend’s righthand man even though Lewis treated him as his equal in front of the men, was a frontier Indian fighter and younger brother of George Rogers Clark of Revolutionary War fame. c. After recruiting their Corps of Discovery which was comprised of about 45 Army and civilian volunteers, they explored the northern part of the Louisiana territory, following the Missouri River to its source and the Columbia River to the Pacific. They built fort Mandau on the Missouri River. On the return trip, Clark went south to Yellowstone while Lewis went North, only to flee from Indian troubles and to rendezvous with Clark and Yellowstone. d. Their 8000-mile journey and the reports that followed familiarized the nation with the new territory as well as the Oregon Country (which the Untied States would later claim). The journey, which cost $38,722 plus an $11,000 bonus for the men, produced a wealth of scientific knowledge including observations of many animals and plants that were previously unknown. Only one of the 51 explorers died on the journey (probably of appendicitis). e. Lewis and Clark were aided by Sacagawea (the Indian wife of a French fur trader) and York, a slave who was freed at the end of the expedition. 124 i) Sacagawea (“Canoe launcher,” not “Bird Woman”) led the explorers from the North Dakota plains across the Rockies, carrying a two month old baby, to earn her freedom from the Dakota Indianans who had captured her. Clark refused to let her husband beat her, leading to mythical stories of romance. ii) York, a black slave, was a linguist who was popular among the Indians due to his skin color and jovial nature. f. Following the journey, Meriweather Lewis was appointed by President Jefferson to serve as Governor of Upper Louisiana Territory. After President Madison’s administration failed to reimburse him for personal expenditures in the territory, Lewis decided to journey to Washington to collect his money and to meet with a publisher concerning his journals, but he died of gunshot wounds at Grinder’s Stand, an isolated inn on the Natchez Trace in Tennessee, where he was buried. The death of the 35-year-old Lewis remains a mystery. The “apparent suicide” due, perhaps, to mental derangement resulting from laudanum addiction or a bout with malaria, has been disputed due to differing accounts of his death and foul play has not been eliminated as a cause. g. Zebulon Pike, from 1805 to 1806, explored the northern part of the territory, trying to find the source of the Mississippi River. From 1806 to 1808, he explored the Arkansas River to the Rockies where he discovered Pike’s Peak in Colorado. Importance of the Louisiana Territory a. The purchase assured the U.S. of an outlet to the sea as Americans now controlled the Mississippi River. b. The area of the United States doubled. c. Resources of the region increased the wealth of the nation. 125 d. 13 states were produced in whole or part, including Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. Lesson 4: International issues confronted the Jefferson and Madison administrations during the Early National Period. Foreign affairs facing President Jefferson Jefferson began his term with war against the Barbary States. The Barbary States (Morocco, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli), located on the North African coast, were seizing foreign ships passing through the Mediterranean, looting their cargos and holding the crews for ransom. For many years, the United States and the European countries had paid tribute (money) to the Barbary States to keep their ships from being seized. When Jefferson refused to pay a higher tribute demanded by Tripoli, Tripoli declared war (1801). Jefferson blockaded Tripoli with a small squadron of ships, after ceasing his opposition to the expansion of the navy, and Tripoli sued for peace in 1805. The other Barbary States exploited American shipping in the region until 1815 when Captain Stephen Decatur ended the payment of all American tribute to the Barbary pirates. The victory led to an enormous increase in nationalism. The War of 1812 was the result of violations at sea by the French and the British which began primarily during the Jefferson administration. After France and Great Britain renewed their war in 1803, the United States remained neutral, trading with each of the warring nations. However, both the British and the French searched and seized American ships during this period. The British attempted to stop American trade with France in 1807 with Orders in Council, which ordered American vessels to avoid ports controlled by Napoleon. 126 Napoleon attempted to blockade (seal off) Great Britain with the Berlin and Milan decrees which prohibited all nations, including the United States, from trading with Great Britain and warned that any vessel that entered French ports after stopping at British ports or that submitted to British inspection and/or paid duties to the British would be seized. In 1807, the Leopard, a British warship, fired on the Chesapeake, an American merchant ship, producing twenty-one American casualties and the impressments of four American sailors. Reluctantly, Jefferson removed American ships from the seas, as a response to British and French aggression, in order to avoid the war. a. The Embargo Act of 1807 prohibited all foreign trade but blockade runners continued to smuggle goods. b. As a result, Philadelphia’s industrial base shifted from shipping to manufacturing, from 15 cotton mills in 1807 to 87 mills in 1809. c. As the British found new sources of trade, farmers and sailors suffered financial setbacks. Jefferson wanted righteous national sacrifice but it was difficult to achieve in the absence of war. d. The Federalist Party revived in the North. e. The embargo was ineffective due to the determination of the British, a good crop in Great Britain and Latin American trade. f. The Embargo act was repealed in 1809 by Jefferson, just as it was beginning to work, demonstrating poor leadership by the “lame duck” President. g. The failure of the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which allowed trade with other nations except Great Britain and France, led to the resumption of blockade running. 127 Jefferson’s Secretary of State James Madison was inaugurated in 1809 and, though a great intellectual, diplomat and constitutionalist, was a weak President who led the nation into the War of 1812. He angered the British by resuming trade with France in 1810 as a result of Macon’s Bill No. 2 through which the United States asserted that it would restore the practice of nonimportation against the nation (France or Great Britain) that did not repeal its restrictions. Due to a lack of communication, the Untied States declared war on Great Britain on June 12, 1812. In his war message to Congress, President Madison asserted that the United States had no choice but war. a. Great Britain announced, two hours before the outbreak of war that it would withdraw the Orders in Council in order to trade with the United States. However, which no trans-Atlantic cable, the message did not reach the United States in time to prevent war. b. The House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 in favor of the declaration and the Senate also approved the measure by a margin of 19 to 13. The narrow margins indicated disagreement over going to war, despite the fact support for the war could be found in all regions. The Federalist-dominated, commercial New England states of Massachusetts (including Maine), Rhode Island and Connecticut, along with the Federalist middle states of New York, New Jersey and Delaware voted heavily against the war, though some support for the war emerged in New England’s frontier regions of New Hampshire and Vermont. The Republican middle states (Pennsylvania, Maryland), the Republican southern states (Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia) and the western states (the trans-Allegheny states of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee along with New Hampshire and Vermont) voted for the war. In summary, the mostly-landlocked southern and western states voted for the war so that freedom of the seas could be enjoyed… by the eastern seaboard states that were vehemently opposed to the war! 128 c. Reasons for the declaration of war. i) Lack of freedom of the seas as demonstrated by the Orders in Council and British ships off the American cost. ii) Impressment of American sailors. iii) Land hunger for British territory in Canada and Spanish territory in Florida (Great Britain and Spain were allies and, thus, the United States could “justify” an invasion of Spanish territory). Canada was seen as a base for Indian resistance. iv) Nationalism. v) Indian troubles in the Northwest territory. vi) War spirit created by “war hawks,” including Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The western war hawks wanted to destroy Indian resistance led by the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet, particularly after General William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh at Tippecanoe (in present-day Indiana) on November 7, 1811. vii) Rejection of American attempts to negotiate peace. d. Opposition to the War of 1812 i) Federalist opposition came from merchants who feared shipping would be ruined and those who opposed expansion into Canada because of the prospects of more agrarian, Republican representation in Congress. ii) Republican opposition was voiced by Southern Republicans who feared that the annexation of Canada would weaken the power of the Southern slave-holding states in Congress and those who feared an increase in the power of the federal government. iii) The Hartford Convention discussed the secession (breaking away) 129 of New England from the United States, as had been discussed on three previous occasions (Jefferson’s election, Embargo Act of 1807, War of 1812). During the convention, New England Federalists tried to strengthen the power of the commercial sections of the country and tried to declare Federal laws “null and void,” in much the same fashion that the Republicans had used with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. New Englanders were worried about their loss of influence in a growing country, the loss of business due to “Mr. Madison’s War” (New England merchants favored a trade alliance with England) and the southern slant of the Republican Party. The Convention sent delegates to Congress demanding satisfaction just as Jackson was winning the Battle of New Orleans and England was agreeing to a peace treaty. As a result, the Federalists, who made a comeback from 1808-1814, looked ridiculous and were driven out of existence as a political party by 1816. e. The Untied States faced handicaps the outbreak of war. i) The United States virtually had no navy, depending on over 500 privateers to combat the 500:3 ratio of British to American ships. The privateers operated as a business in which profits were split among them and pensions were received from the government. Remarkably, this makeshift navy seized over 1500 British ships in the process of winning 12 of their 25 battles against the powerful British navy. ii) Most American troops were poorly equipped and trained. iii) The Bank of the United States had expired in 1811 at a time when Americans needed a strong financial institution. iv) A lack of central leadership was evident. There was no “George Washington” available to lead the troops. v) Financial and military support from New England was missing due to their opposition to the war. vi) America seriously lacked effective transportation and 130 communication systems. The transportation and communication systems. The lack of good roads would later be addressed by the American System Highlights of the War of 1812 The Primary objective of the United States was the conquest of Canada a. Canada was chosen because it was a vulnerable place to attack England and her Indian allies. b. The American attempts to capture Canada, launched from Detroit, Niagara and Lake Champlain failed. c. In August, 1812 General William Hall surrendered his American forces at Detroit, in the Michigan territory, following the destruction of Fort Dearborn by Native American allies of the British. d. In October, American troops were defeated at Queenston Heights in Canada after the New York militia refused to fight in Canadian territory. Naval victories protected American territory. At Put-in-Bay, Ohio on Lake Erie in September, 1813 Captain Oliver Hazard Perry proclaimed, “We have met the enemy and they are ours” after defeating British navel forces. The British and Native Americans forces that were forced to retreat from Detroit were defeated by General William Henry Harrison’s army at the Battle of the Thames River in October; 1813. The conflict claimed the life of Tecumseh, the Shawnee leader of Tippecanoe fame who was serving as a British General, ending Native American support for the British in the territory. Thomas Macdonough defended New York in a brilliant victory over the British ship on Lake Champlain. This Battle of Plattsburg was perhaps the 131 most important battle of the year because it prevented the dissolution of the United States. The second prong of the British offensive came with the landing of welltrained British forces in the Chesapeake Bay region in August, 1814. General Robert Ross, the British commander, landing at Patuxent River, Maryland captured Washington, D.C. and, after President Madison fled the White House dinner table due to a warning from Secretary of State James Monroe, Ross entered the White House, ate Madison’s meal and proceeded to burn the Capitol and the White House. As a result, James Monroe replaced John Armstrong as Secretary of War. (A servant saved the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington). This humiliating spectacle occurred for the United States as the war was going badly in 1814 and with the hopes of conquering Canada gone. The British then seized Fort Washington at Alexandria and marched towards Baltimore. Ross was killed during the offensive against Fort McHenry at Baltimore in September where the British navy fired 1800 shells and rockets in an unsuccessful effort to take the American fort, which was determinely defended by Major George Armistead. As a tribute to the defense of the fort and unusually large American Flag flying over it (30 x 42 feet), an observer, Francis Scott Key, who was a temporary prisoner of the British, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner” (to the tune of an English tavern song). It became the national anthem of the United States in 1931. The failure of the British to capture Fort McHenry caused them to abandon their attack and to turn their attention towards New Orleans. As a result of the British blockade, American trade declined dramatically from its 1811 level and the federal government faced the threat of bankrupt due to the decline of customs duties on imports. The Battle of New Orleans was an outstanding victory of General Andrew Jackson’s forces even though it was fought in January, 1815, two weeks after the peace treaty was signed with the British and the war had ended. Jackson had recently crushed the Creek Indians ant the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (in present-day Alabama). 132 British General Packenham led Wellington’s army after Wellington’ refused to lead his forces into the region’s difficult terrain. The British aligned their formation in a swamp below New Orleans and were subsequently caught between U.S. artillery across the river and riflemen located behind 600 lb. Cotton bales. The British lost over 2000 men, compared to 70 Americans. The Battle was important because made Jackson a national hero. The United States gained respect from the victory which forced the British to recognize American dominance in North America. If Jackson had not won at New Orleans and protected the Louisiana Territory, then the British may have given the territory to Spain at the Congress of Vienna (1815) because the British felt that the purchase was fraudulent. Conclusion of the War of 1812 Treaty of Ghent (1814) The United States and the Great British returned to a state of pre-war conditions since the treaty did not address the problem of violations on the seas of impressments. However, the British war against Napoleon in Europe was over and, thus, England no longer needed to seize American ships. The treaty arranged for the release of prisoners and restored occupied territories. Agreement was reached to settle boundary disputes. Peace was restored. The “Second War for American Independence” was of little importance from a global perspective. Americans were lucky to get a “draw.” 133 Results of the War of 1812 The United States, buoyed by a sprit of nationalism, became more independent of Europe and turned towards isolationism, developing resources at home. The United States gained the respect of England and other foreign nations by proving to the outside world that the republic could work and that it could count on the public virtue. The War of 1812 established honor. The war encouraged the growth of American industry as the United States was forced to develop its own production facilities due to Great Britain’s wartime embargo. The war stimulated westward expansion by removing the Indian opposition between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The migration was also due to unemployment in the East resulting from the destruction of commerce during the war. The United States Merchant Marine was destroyed. The improvement in relations between the United States and Great Britain after the war could be seen in their post-war agreements. The U.S./Canadian boundary was established by the Treaty of 1818 along the 49th parallel bordering the Louisiana Territory. The Rush Bagot Agreement (1817) insured that United States and Canadian defenses along the border would be kept small in order to reduce unnecessary expense and to prevent future skirmishes. It also called for the disarming of the Great Lakes. 134 UNIT FOUR: THE GROWTH OF NATIONALISM AND SECTIONALISM (1815-1850) Lesson 1: Domestic developments and forging policy during the Era of Good Feelings from 1817 to 1825 were affected by the forces of nationalism and Sectionalism. Nationalism (devotion to, or advocacy of, national interests or national unity and independence) was so strong, as a result of the wars against the British and the Barbary States, that the Monroe Administration became know as the “Era of Good Feelings”. Nationalism was an especially important unifying force after the disunity created by the War of 1812. Sectionalism emerged as industry grew in the North, agriculture dominated the Southern economy and expansion and transportation became issues in the west. Political and economic developments of the Era of Good Feelings James Monroe won the elections of 1816 and 1820 as a result of economic developments. 135 Monroe, a Virginia Republican, renewed the Virginia-New York alliance in the Election of 1816 by choosing Daniel Thompkins of New York as his running mate. Rufus King and John Howard due to and economic boom and the end of the War of 1812. Monroe was the last statesmen of the Revolutionary War generation. Clay, Calhoun and Webster were new. The Federalist Party disappeared after the Election of 1816 because the Republicans were advocating Federalist positions and the Federalists were discredited by their opposition to the War of 1812. The American System contained Federalist ideas. McCulloch v. Maryland increased the federal government’s power over the states. Republicans were loosely interpreting the constitution. Monroe was reelected in the Election if 1820, despite the Panic of 1819. Monroe received all but one of the electoral votes. William Plumer of new Hampshire cast one electoral vote for John Quincy Adams, who was running as an independent, in order to preserve the honor of unanimous election for George Washington and to express his dislike for Monroe’s policies. The Panic of 1819 was the result of over speculation (excessive, risky investment in land, stock or commodities in the hope of making large profits). Cotton dropped from 32.5 cents to 14.3 cents/pound as a result the panic which was primarily fueled by the national bank’s speculation in frontier land. The Industrial Revolution was a revolution in manufacturing and industry that began in the 1700’s (in Europe) with the invention and development of power-driven machines and which transferred manufacturing to factories from homes and small shops. Samuel Slater, the “father of the American factory system” was a highlyskilled mechanic and textile worker who left England covertly and brought to 136 America his own knowledge of the power driven machines. In 1719, Slater produced textile machinery from memory and built America’s first water powered cotton factory in Pawtucket, Rhode Island on the Blackstone River. The factory system spread throughout New England and the Mid-Atlantic region. Due to high costs, capitalists, like Moses Brown, built factories, installed machinery, purchased raw materials, hired workers and distributed products. Capitalists invested money in a business with the hope of earning profits. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production (land, labor, capital) are privately owned and controlled (rather than publicly owned and controlled by the state) and prices, production and the distribution of goods are primarily determined by competition in a free, unregulated market. The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in America posed a challenge to Thomas Jefferson’s vision the America must remain rural and agrarian in order to preserve the public virtue that republican government requires. The factory of Lowell, Massachusetts was created to slow that industrialism republicanism could harmoniously coincide. Many Americans were simultaneously amazed by the booming, technologically advanced English factory towns like Manchester and socked by the wretched social conditions, the vice and poverty, of those same slum ridden towns. The “Boston Associates,” America’s leading manufacturers prior to the Civil War, sought to provide an alternative to the English social breakdown. In 1815, they launched their first factory in Waltham, Massachusetts and it was soon followed by others, including Lowell, their most successful endeavor. Lowell was located on the Merrimack River because it offered a rural setting and available water power. Lowell’s solution to the English problem was to control the factory environment. 137 Patents on the inventions and copyrights on written ideas were granted by Congress to inventors and authors, guaranteeing the excusive rights to profits resulting from their products during a 14-year period. Thus, Congress promoted the invention of labor-saving machines. New inventions and ideas facilitated industrial growth. James Watt patented a steam engine in England and, by the 1790’s steam power replaced waterpower in British mills. Elias Howe invented the sewing machine. Peter Cooper built the first steam locomotive, the “Tom Thumb,” for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (the “B & O”) in 1828. Robert Fulton produced a steamboat in 1807. Eli Whitney promoted interchangeable parts for machines, ultimately leading to “mass production.” He also patented the cotton gin which would have a large impact on southern agriculture and slavery. In the future, The Industrial Revolution would: a. help unit the American people. b. Solve transport problems with railways. c. Produce labor saving devices. d. Change roles and status of American man and women. e. Help American conquer the wilderness. f. Transform America into the wealthiest nation on earth. The “American System” was developed by Republicans and adopted during Madison’s administration. A national bank was promoted for a strong financial system. a. The bank’s charter, begun in 1791, expired in 1811. b. Without the control exercised by the national bank from 1814 to 1816, the number of state banks grew from 88 to 246 and the money supply 138 grew from $28 million to $68 million. In 1816, Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States. (Many private banks were circulating money not backed by gold.) Protective tariffs were designed to protect American industries from competition. The Tariff Act of 1816 was a response to the British act of “dumping” large quantities of goods on the market below cost in order to drive rival manufacturers out of business. A transportation system was requested to promote trade between northeastern manufacturers and southern/western farmers. a. Henry Clay argued that revenues from the protective tariff could be used to fund internal improvements and John C. Calhoun’s Bonus Bill of 1817 was designed to provide 1.5 billion to the states for such improvements. However, both Presidents Madison and Monroe vetoed the legislation as unconstitutional. Therefore, internal improvements (roads, etc.) were not included in the American System. b. Due to the Presidential vetoes, the states had to resort to their own improvements. i) The Erie Canal, completed in New York in 1825, was significant because it made trade economical between New York and the Ohio River Valley. ii) The Cumberland Road, begun in 1811, was completed and facilitated migration into the Ohio River Valley during the “Golden Age of Transportation.” The foundations of the American System were formerly Federalist ideas and drew support from three lawmakers. a. Henry Clay, a Kentucky Republican, developed the American System and represented the West. 139 b. John C. Calhoun, a South Carolina Republican, represented the South and states’ rights advocates. c. Daniel Webster, a Massachusetts Federalist, represented the northeastern industrial interests. America’s foreign policy was affected by nationalism during the Era of Good Feelings Many Americans viewed the struggle of their Latin American neighbors as a continuation of their own previous struggle for independence. a. Latin America was struggling to win independence from Spain and Portugal in the early 1800’s. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 signaled an opportunity to the Latin American people. Latin American armies, led by revolutionary heroes like Simon Boliyar and San Martin, won independence for this region, a development that led to the reduction of slavery. b. Although the American government attempted to remain neutral in the conflict, the United States annexed Florida by purchase from Spain as a result of Andrew Jackson’s successful invasion of the territory in the First Seminole War (1816). In the Adams-Onis treaty of 1819, the United States gained all Spanish territories in Oregon and east of the Mississippi but agreed to abandon its claim to Texas as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Tsar Alexander I of Russia was interfering with American trade on the Oregon coast. A formal protest was issued to Russia, asserting American “freedom of the seas” in the Pacific. The Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain) threatened to restore Spanish colonies to Spain. The United States responded firmly to the threat. a. Independent Latin American revolutionary governments received formal recognition. 140 b. The Monroe Doctrine (December 2, 1823) contributed to strong American nationalism. i. The doctrine was directed at Spain and the Quadruple Alliance (the 1815 Congress of Vienna monarchies in Europe). ii. Monroe’s decision came partly as a result of British support; the British had dropped out of the alliance due to their desire for friendly relations with the United States and trade with Latin American countries (who could not trade as Spanish colonies). Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was opposed to a joint U.S. – British resolution but the British naval fleet helped the United States enforce the doctrine. iii. The Western Hemisphere was no longer open to colonization by European powers. iv. As an attempt by any European nation to establish colonies in the New World or to gain political control of any American country (the Americas) would be viewed as an unfriendly act towards the United States. v. The United States would not interfere in European affairs or in the affairs of European colonies already established in America. vi. Europe was prohibited from distributing the political status of any free country in the Western Hemisphere. vii. Latin America initially supported the United States in its efforts. (This support eroded as the doctrine came to represent “Yankee imperialism.”) viii. The Monroe Doctrine may violate international law because it determines foreign policy for the Latin American nations and restricts their sovereignty. ix. The Monroe Doctrine has been used often to justify U.S. intervention in Latin America. 141 x. The United States declared its complete political independence from Europe with the doctrine. xi. Russia withdrew her outposts from Oregon while the Quadruple Alliance (less England) dropped plans to reconquer Spain’s former colonies. Lesson 2: The Age of Andrew Jackson has generally been interpreted as a victory for the “common man.” The Rise of Jackson By 1824, the “Era of Good Feelings” was drawing to a close as sectionalism began to divide the only political party, the Democratic-Republicans. Unlike his predecessors, President Monroe did not designate a successor. The Age of Jackson began with the Election of 1824, in which voter turnout was low due to the confusion caused by the candidacy of five DemocraticRepublicans. John Quincy Adams: a. Qualified, educated son of former President Adams. b. American Minister to Russia. c. Negotiated Treaty of Ghent that ended the War of 1812. d. Former Secretary of State under Monroe. e. Moderate federalist who joined the Republicans with the disappearance of the Federalist Party. f. Nationalist who represented New England. Henry Clay: a. Assisted Adams with the Treaty of Ghent. 142 b. Speaker of the House. c. Author of the “American System”. d. Well-qualified nationalist with well-defined platform. e. The “Great Compromiser” f. Represented Kentucky, Missouri and the border states. John C. Calhoun: a. Very qualified nationalist. b. Former Secretary of War. c. Represented South Carolina and initially drew support from Pennsylvania due to this call for tariff reform. d. Withdrew after Pennsylvania nominated Jackson and became VicePresident. William Crawford: a. Old-style Republican who advocated states’ rights. b. Secretary of Treasury under Madison and Monroe. c. Highly admired and very powerful (many people owed him favors). d. Represented the interests of Georgia and Virginia. Andrew Jackson: a. Unknown ideology and very little political experience. b. Twice a senator from Tennessee. 143 c. War hero. d. Represented western states. Jackson received the most votes but did not receive a majority (50%+) of electoral votes. According to the 12th Amendment, the House of Representatives had to decide the issue from the top three candidates (Jackson, Adams, and Crawford). a. Calhoun had dropped out of the race and ran for Vice-President. b. The House of Representatives did not trust Jackson. c. Clay supported Adams with whom he had negotiated the Treaty of Ghent and Adams won the Election of 1824. Clay was appointed Secretary of State, the “pipeline to the Presidency.” Jackson felt that a “corrupt bargain” had been made. (James Buchanan’s “twitching eye” raised Jackson’s suspicions) but this scandal was unlikely; Adams hated political deals. d. Jackson resigned from the Senate in 1825 (after voting against Clay’s confirmation as Secretary of State) and campaigned for the Presidency in 1828, telling Americans that Adams and Clay “sold them down the river.” The Presidency of John Quincy Adams represented a transition period between the age of the founding fathers, characterized by the Presidents who were revolutionaries and intellectuals, and the age of Jackson and the “common man.” The Election of 1828 marked the return of two-party politics. John Quincy Adams was the candidate of the National Republican Party (which became the Whig Party in 1834). Andrew Jackson, the first “log-cabin” candidate, represented the Democratic party. 144 a. The formation of the Democratic Party in the 1820’s sealed the Virginia-New York alliance, which had previous elections; four previous Presidents were Virginians – Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe – and New Yorkers served as Vice-Presidents as a result of the elections of 1800, 1804, 1808, 1816 and 1820. b. Southerners welcomed the coalition party that was inclined towards regional interests rather than the American System, but which had northern support. The Democratic Party could not be a “slavery” party. c. Martin Van Buren, a political leader in the richest state, New York, believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution and was an advocate of states’ rights. Therefore, he was readily accepted as a friend of the Antifederalist South. d. Van Buren and other leaders of the Democratic Party agreed that their candidate in Presidential elections would have to be a northerner who sympathized with southern interests or a southerner with ties to the west (like Jackson). No Deep-South candidate would be acceptable. Jackson won the Election f 1828 easily, receiving 178 electoral votes to Adam’s 83, due to a campaign style that was aimed at the masses and which included campaign buttons, cartoons for the semi-literate, parades, barbeques (with booze), and slogans such as “Adams can write but Jackson can fight!” The campaign was ugly; pro-Jackson journalists accused Adams of having served as a pimp for the tsar of Russia while Adams supporters circulated the story that Jackson’s mother was a common prostitute brought to America by British Soldiers! Jackson also killed a man in a duel once for slandering his wife Rachel because her divorce wasn’t technically official when she married Jackson. John C. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-President. The significance of the election of 1828 lies in the fact that it seems to mark the triumph of the democratic, egalitarian “common man” of the West over the aristocratic interests of northern industrialists and southern 145 planters. a. Eastern, upper class historians writing in the last half of the 19th Century viewed Jackson as the degradation of democracy because he was uneducated. They joined with New Englanders who saw Jackson’s election as a victory for “King Mob,” especially after the drunken White House inauguration party. b. In 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner’s “The Frontier in American History” asserted that the western frontier was the source of American democracy individualism, egalitarianism and nationalism that Jackson, the western democrat, was the embodiment of those frontier democratic values. c. From 1900-1945, Progressive historians like Charles Beard and Arthur Schlesinger argued that Jackson’s election represented a victory for the Eastern, urban working class over the capitalist elite, rather than a victory for the southern and western frontiersmen. d. From 1945-1965, Neo-Progressive historians criticized Schlesinger, claiming that Jackson was merely a member of the southern slaveholding elite and that the struggle was between groups of capitalists. They could rightfully point to the fact that Jackson favored the aristocratic wealthy in the Panic of 1819 as well as the Tennessee gubernatorial race of 1821 and that his supporters were exceptionally vicious to black voters. e. Results of the Election of 1828 Jackson was the first President since Washington who was not a college graduate and the first President from the trans-Appalachian West. The Hermitage was one of the finest plantations in America. In the period 1825-1845, political, social and economic democracy remained limited to white males, though many state constitutions eliminated or reduced property requirements for voting. Women and free blacks who held the right of suffrage lost ground 146 during the Age of Jackson as many were stripped of the franchise. Black voters existed in nine states in 1815 but only five states by 1840. Much of the call for popular elections with no property requirement came from anti-Masonic candidates, who were opposed to the Masons (a secret fraternal organization to which many of the nation’s past and present leaders belonged, including Jackson, and which was the target of bizarre conspiracy theories.) The Election of 1828 was arguably a victory for southern sectionalism and slavery more than democracy, considering the fact that owing to the three-fifths compromise, Jackson’s 200,000 southern voters contributed 105 electoral votes while his 400,000 northern voters contributed only 73 electoral votes. Jackson was whipped soundly in the reform-minded New England states while carrying 72.6% of the planter-dominated South. The Jackson election rested on his convictions for greater political democracy and majority rule, a strong union and strong leadership. Jackson reinforced the “spoils system” to promote government opportunities for “many” instead of a “few” witnessed the start of nominating conventions and represented “the people” rather than sectional interests Jackson attacked the Bank of the United States 1. He disliked banks and felt that the Bank of the United States was monopoly for wealthy seaboard investors guilty of questionable political activities such as influencing legislation with loans to Congressmen 2. The President had support from farmers, business owners and private banks 147 3. The National Bank was defended for years by its president, Nicholas Biddle, who fought Jackson over the issue 4. Henry Clay’s National Republicans made (his) Bank of the United States the primary issue in the election of 1832 after Jackson vetoed the bill to recharter the bank for four years ahead of schedule. Jackson won the election by a small margin with Martin Van Buren of New York his Vice President 5. Jackson withdrew funds from the Bank of the United States and placed these funds in certain state banks (his “pet banks”), thus refusing to comply with the interpretation in the “McCulloch v. Maryland” decision of 1819 in which Chief Justice John Marshall protected the Bank of the United States as federal law. The national bank closed in 1836. Despite his position on the national bank, Jackson was dedicated to national interests as evidence in his stand on the issue of nullification. Some Southern states, led by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, declared the right to nullify (refuse to obey) any act of Congress they considered unconstitutional. (Similar to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions). This action was directed at the protective tariff of 1816 which had been raised in 1824 and 1828 (the “Tariff of Abominations”). The crisis led a break between Vice-President Calhoun and President Jackson. In the WebsterHayne debates in Congress, Daniel Webster elicited tears in closing with “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable.” Andrew Jackson stated: “Our Federal Union- it must and shall be preserved,” while John C. Calhoun, though opposed to secession, said: “The Union- next to our liberty, the most dear!” The Protective Tariff of 1832, which had lower rates, did not satisfy the Southern planters. November, 1832: South Carolina adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 “null, void and no law,” and “not binding upon this state, its officers, or citizens”. It declared that if 148 federal authorities tried to enforce the tariff law after February 1, 1833, South Carolina would secede from the Union. The Tariff Act of 1833, a compromise promoted by Henry Clay, stated that tariff rates would be reduced to the American System’s 1816 level over a ten year period. The Force Act, passed in 1833, gave the President the power to enforce federal tariff laws by military force if necessary. Jackson’s policy towards the Cherokees and other Indian tribes illustrated the limits of democracy during his administration as most native Americans were moved to Oklahoma to make way for westward expansion. The “Five civilized tribes” (Chickasaw, Creek, Chocktaw, Seminole, and Cherokee) emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Early Indians changed tremendously in the 16th through the 18th centuries following contact with European immigrants. Charleston slave traders sent Cherokee slaves to South Carolina and Barbados plantations, entire Indian towns were killed and, in 1738, smallpox killed half of the 40,000 Cherokees. Dwindled Indian populations moved to Georgia (central Alabama) and formed the “five civilized tribes.” The Cherokees, whose remote mountain location offered protection from mosquito-born diseases and invasion, were nonetheless, changed by white society in the 18th Century whose demand for deerskins led the Cherokees to abandon pre-hunting rituals, embrace wealth while rejected traditional tribal equality, become dependant on guns to fight their Creek enemies, allow white traders to neglect the chiefs, relocate villages closer to trading posts, lose respect for medicine men who could not stop smallpox, neglect ancient oral traditions, pay off depts. With land, and become farmers. Although the Cherokees became “civilized” by adopting an alphabet (Sequoyah’s syllabary),, a constitution with a bicameral congress, education and Christianity in a failed effort to halt the seizure of their lands by speculators, the white man’s pursuit of their lands continued, particularly 149 after the invention of the cotton gin. The Louisiana Purchase provided America an alternative to civilizing the Cherokees: removal to the West. Georgia gave its western lands to the national government in 1802. The region was set aside for the Creeks and Cherokees but also opened to white settlers, despite treaties in 1791 and 1798. Despite American land hunger and racism, Cherokees served with Andrew Jackson against the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend where Junaluska, a Cherokee warrior, probably saved Jackson’s life. Jackson, an Indian fighter who invaded Seminole lands in 1816, felt that Indians were savages. In an 1817 treaty, he hold the Cherokees that they could abide by state laws or either move beyond the Mississippi River. Coupled with the Treaty of 1819 negotiated by John C. Calhoun the two treaties took 400 million acres of land from the Cherokees. After the Cherokees tried to form an independence state in 1827, the Georgia legislature, which believed that the Cherokee constitution of 1828 violated the U.S. Constitution, the 1802 cession compact and states rights doctrine, nullified all federal Indian laws and attempted to seize Cherokee lands. When gold was discovered on Cherokee lands, the Indian Resettlement Act (1830) provided for the voluntary removal of Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River, into the area between the Red River and the Arkansas River. The Act led to the Black Hawk War in Illinois and Seminole War in Florida and was opposed by Jackson opponents and Cherokee sympathizers like Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and Davy Crockett, 94 treaties ended Indian claims to their lands. The Chocktaws were removed from Mississippi through the Treaty of Dancing River Creek in 1830. When Georgia’s Governor George Troup ordered a survey of Creek lands in 1826 and promised the defy federal force, the Creeks fiercely resisted but ultimately surrendered their lands through the Treaty of Washington (March 24, 1832) and moved beyond the Mississippi River. 150 The removal of the Chickasaws began with the Treaty of Pontotoc Creek (October 20, 1832) and concluded with the Treaty of Doaksville, January, 1837. Unable to get support from President Jackson or Congress, the Cherokees took their case to the Supreme Court. When they sought an injunction in 1831 to prohibit the seizure of their lands, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled, in “Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia,” that Indian, as “domestic dependant nations,” could not sue in the U.S. courts but also asserted that the federal government, not the states, had authority over the Indians and their lands. In the Worcester v. Georgia decision (1832), Marshall ruled that Georgia could not enforce its laws within Cherokee boundaries of trespass on Cherokee lands. When Georgia continued to evict the Cherokees, the Jacksonian Congress refused to order Jackson to enforce the Supreme Court’s decision. Jackson feared that enforcing Marshall’s decision in Georgia might require enforcement of tariff laws in the South Carolina’s nullification crisis and secession/war. Unionist sympathy exceeded concern for Indians. The 16,000 Cherokees resisted when they were ordered to mover west but they were undermined by the Ridge Family, a minority Cherokee faction led by Major Ridge (of Horseshoe Bend fame ), his son John Ridge, his nephew Elias Boudinot, and Stan Waite who, out of self-interest, signed the Treaty of New Echota which, in May, 1836 gave the Cherokee two years to move west. The treaty misrepresented Cherokee interests. In 1837, President Van Buren, a Jacksonian Democrat, sent troops, under General Winfield Scott, a Whig, to prepare for the removal. (Even though the Whig Party sympathized with the Cherokees, they later nominated an Indian fighter and remover, William Henry Harrison, as their Presidential candidate in the Election of 1840). By the 1838 deadline, only 2000 Cherokees had moved, largely due to the non-violent resistance movement of John Ross. When many Cherokees died in the “roundup,” Ross reluctantly agreed to lead the Cherokee westward. 151 Over 4000 Cherokees (one-fourth of their population) died on the “Trail of Tears” from starvation, disease and the Winter cold (many were barefooted). Ross’ wife died. By late March 1839, the exodus was complete. More than 100,000 Indians from various tribes had been forced to move to lands located north of the Red River (Oklahoma). The Cherokees, who wanted sovereignty rather than assimilation, were the victims of land hunger, racism and “Jacksonian democracy.” After removal, factionalism led to bloodshed. An 1829 Cherokee law had ordered the death penalty for any Cherokee who ceded land without tribal authority. After their arrival in the western lands, Major Ridge, John Ridge and Elias Boudinot were assassinated on June 22, 1839. Stan Waite escaped. Factions led by Ross and Waite competed for control in the new territory, resulting in bloodshed and war. The U.S. government formally divided the Cherokees into two nations, the eastern and western bands, though the Cherokees continued to recognize themselves as one band. The eastern Cherokees included those who had escaped removal by hiding in the mountains and/or securing state citizenship. 1000-1100 Cherokees remained in North Carolina in the Qualla, Chota Valley River settlements (primarily Swain and Jackson counties). The Oconaluftee tribe were led by Chief Gail Yonaguska, who urged his tribe to avoid removal because he believed that the white man would also ultimately claim the western lands and William Holland Thomas, who was taken in by the Oconaluftee Cherokees at age five and who, by 1831, was acting as their attorney, protecting them from removal with state citizenship. The Oconaluftee Cherokees weren’t removed because they lived outside the Cherokee boundaries, their lands were only marginally valuable and federal officials wouldn’t move them if North Carolina did not insist. The oconaluftees were given the option of moving. 152 After 1840, the eastern band faced isolation from the white North Carolinians, dependency on the state government, fear of removal, the struggle to be “useful” citizens (as state law required) while retaining their culture. After the Civil War, North Carolina passed legislation to allow the Cherokees, who had served in the Confederacy, to remain in the state. In 1894, the Cherokees settled land claims that emerged as a result of the war. By the mid-1880’s, railroad brought industry to the lands of the eastern band, ending their tribal isolation. Debates focused on their land and timber. After the U.S. government asserted its authority over the Cherokees in 1900, the Cherokees gained full citizenship and the right to vote in 1930. Jackson won every major political battle during his two terms (1829-1837). He used his Constitutional power to participate in the lawmaking process by vetoing more legislation than all previous Presidents combined. Jackson saw the executive branch as the people’s defense against an aristocratic Congress dominated by industrial interests. Conclusion of the Age of Jackson Election of 1836 Jackson announced that he would be the candidate. The Democratic Candidate was Martin Van Buren, Jackson’s 1st term Secretary of State and 2nd term vice-President. His running mate was Richard M. Johnson (Kentucky). The Whig Party, named after the British antimonarchial party, was formed in 1834 by those opposed to “King Andrew” Jackson. They tried to prevent Van Buren from getting a majority of votes by nominating three “favorite sons” (sectional candidates), hoping to throw the election into the House of Representatives. Those candidates were Daniel Webster (Massachusetts), Hugh White (Tennessee) and William Henry Harrison (Ohio). 153 Van Buren won the election despite the Whig strategy. The senate, for the only time in American history, elected the Vice-President (Johnson). The Depression of 1837 was a result of the excessive printing of money by the “pet banks” in which Jackson had deposited the Federal government’s money after closing the Banks of the United States. Jackson issued the Specie Circular (1836), forbidding the Treasury to accept as payment for public land anything except gold and silver (specie) or bank notes backed by specie. This action created a “run” on the banks as people tried to exchange their bank notes for specie. Many banks could not redeem their notes and failed. Soon after Van Buren took office, every bank suspended specie payment. The absence of money and banks from the economic caused business to decline and led to the depression of 1837. Election of 1840 The Whigs used the depression as a single issue in an overwhelming victory for William Henry Harrison, a hero of the War of 1812. As a member of one of the first “First Families of Virginia,” Harrison found his somewhat aristocratic background change by party enthusiasts eager to portray the issueless Harrison as the “log cabin and hard cider” candidate. John Tyler became the Vice-President. The Whig Slogan was “Tippecanoe and Tyler, too!” as they defeated Van Buren, the incumbent Democrat, and James G. Burney of the Liberty Party. Harrison died of pneumonia one month after taking office (the shortest Presidency and the longest inaugural address). Tyler a strong states’ rights advocate, succeeded him, serving until 1845. Lesson 3: The conflicting interests of the agricultural Outh and the industrial North clashed from 1815 to 1850 as sectionalism undermined the national unity which had emerged following the War of 1812. Southern sectional interests were defined by the “Cotton Kingdom.” 154 By the 1840’s-50’s, the southern states stretched from Maryland to the Gulf of Mexico, bordered in the southwest by Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas. Southerners grew the cash crops of cotton, tobacco, rice and sugar cane. Small subsistence farms provided many families with food crops. Corn remained the nation’s top crop. Industries and towns grew more slowly in the South due to the region’s agrarian economy. Eli Whitney’s cotton gin brought the cotton kingdom westward by mechanizing the process of separating seeds from fiber. With the development of the cotton gin, the demand for cotton soared. By 1860, cotton represented roughly two-thirds of the entire nation’s exports. Rising prices and demand drove southern planters to plant more cotton. Agricultural expansion became a necessity due to mineral depletion in southern fields. The South became dependent upon slaves as a large supply of cheap labor. Only one-fourth of all white families in the South were slave owners. In summary, a majority of the slaves were owned by a minority of the whites. Distinct economic and social groups emerged in the south. Slaves were isolated from the culture and traditions of their sociallyadvanced African society. Interstate slave trade led to the breakup of many slave families. George Tucker argued that slavery was an inefficient system of labor due to the: a. High purchase costs of slaves b. Low productivity of slaves (no incentive) 155 c. Cost of supervision d. Costs of food, clothing and shelter e. Losses resulting from death Most white southerners defended slavery as a way of life in the South, arguing that planters needed an adequate supply of labor and that the slaves were more comfortable, in terms of food, clothing, and shelter, than northern mill workers. Though some slaves performed housework, most slaves worked in the fields under two systems of labor. 1. The task system gave a daily task to a slave. 2. The gang system got as much work as possible out of slaves under the control of overseers. Evidence suggests that slaves on small farms were more humanely treated while slaves on plantations received better food, clothing and shelter. Slaves, costing from $750-2000, were considered property and generally treated well, though cotton production led to a decline in the life expectancy of slaves. Some slaves escaped while others revolted, namely Gabriel Prosser in Virginia, Denmark Vessey in Charleston, South Carolina and Nat Turner in Southampton County, Virginia who, in 1831, led a rebellion based on his religious convictions. Most slaves took no part in rebellions. Slaves preserved African culture while contributing enormously to the economy and culture of the South. Almost a quarter of a million free Blacks lived primarily in cities where they suffered extensive discrimination, including restricted mobility. Poor whites (10-20% of the southern population – frontier families) lived in areas of poor soil or in the Appalachian Mountains and suffered from 156 unemployment due to slavery. White farm laborers/tenant farmers were hired during harvest season or to do work regarded as too dangerous for the expensive slaves. Small farmers were self-sufficient on their own land. Small, slave-owning farmers owned a slave or slave family. Planters, the smallest but most influential socioeconomic group in the South, compromised 10% of the southern population and were defined by the Census Bureau as farmers owning 20 or more slaves. a. Many planters were born wealthy while others were “self-made” (John C. Calhoun and Andrew Jackson). Most planters were not “cash rich.” b. Plantation families were well educated. c. With the county as the most important political unit, planters controlled the political machinery. Reform Movements blossomed in the industrial North in the 1840’s as a result of the Second Great Awakening in the 1820’s and 1830’s. The Women’s Rights movement emerged because women were seen as inferior due to tradition and religion. Some changes in the nineteenth century helped women (education) while others hurt (Industrial Revolution). Individual achievers included: a. Elizabeth and Louisa Blackwell (medicine, religion). b. Dorothea Dix (prison reform, care for the retarded). c. Sarah Josepha Hale (influential female journalist). d. Lucretia Mott/Elizabeth Cady Stanton/Susan B. Anthony (first women’s rights convention – the Seneca Falls Conference in New York, 1848). 157 The Temperance Movement was designed to rid religion and the home from the threats of drunkenness. The Peace Movement stated that war was inhumane, anti-Christian and uneconomical (the American Peace Society). The Utopian movement attempted ideal communities – Robert Owen. Education Henry Barnard was the first Commissioner of Education. Dewitt Clinton pioneered a public school system as governor of New York. Mary Lyon started the Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary. Emma Willard created the Emma Willard School in New York, a female seminary. Horace Mann was a Massachusetts educator who stated: “Education, then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is a great equalizer of the conditions of men – the balance wheel of the social machinery… it gives each man the independence and the means by which he can resist the selfishness of other men. It does better than to disarm the poor of their hostility toward the rich: it prevents being poor…” Abolition (anti-slavery movement) The American Colonization Society suggested freedom of Blacks through their return to colonies in Africa. In 1821, 12,000 slaves were sent to Liberia, a colony established by the U.S. Congress on Africa’s West coast. In 1831, Black leaders meeting in New York City rejected the idea that they should migrate to Africa. David Walker wrote Appeal, which called for Blacks to strike for freedom – violently, if necessary. He disappeared one year after its publication. 158 William Lloyd Garrison denounced slavery through The Liberator, advocating the immediate freeing of slaves. He burned a copy of the U.S. Constitution because it recognized slaves as property. Theodore Weld was an important non-Eastern abolitionist. Angelina and Sarah Grimke’ championed the rights of women and slaves. The American Anti-Slavery Society appealed to white America through literature to end slavery. Frederick Douglass denounced slavery through lectures, asserting that slavery in the United States “made republicanism a sham and Christianity a lie.” a. As a former slave in Baltimore, he learned to read and write, despite prohibitions, and later published his biography. b. He toured Europe, speaking out for Irish home rule and women’s rights, prompting many Irish to denounce slavery. c. His North Star addressed all types of injustice, from capital punishment to poverty d. His home was a station on the Underground Railroad e. Douglass urged President Lincoln to free the slaves and to arm Black soldiers during the Civil War. He later served as an advisor to Lincoln and, after the war, as the Ambassador to Haiti. Harriet Tubman, the “Moses of her people,” created the underground railroad, helped 300 slaves to escape in nineteen trips to the south and would guide Union raids in the South during the Civil War. Levi Coffin, a Quaker banker in Indiana, became known as the “President of the Underground Railroad.” 159 Josiah Quincy, a lawyer, defended the first fugitive slave captured under Constitutional provisions. Sojourner Truth refused to give up her seat on Washington, D.C. streetcars in violation of local laws. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin defined the inhumanity of slavery in a historical novel and incited such strong emotions in both the North and the South that President Lincoln would later, upon meeting her during the Civil War, proclaim: “So, you’re the little lady who started this war.” Quakers opposed slavery because they believed that all people contained an inner light. Furious reaction to abolitionism from slaveholders and northern businessmen, as well trade unions who feared that freed slaves would compete for jobs, led to legislation. a. The Fugitive Slave Law (1793) stated that owners of runaway slaves could recover the slaves by appearing before a magistrate and declaring that the captured slaves belonged to them. b. Due to the “gag rule”, representatives could not read anti-slavery petitions on the floor of the House. Literary achievements flourished during the reform movement. In Civil Disobedience, Henry David Thoreau expressed distrust for the national government and industrial society with its material concerns. He objected to slavery and the Mexican war, refused to pay taxes that he felt would be used to support the war and was jailed. Thoreau argued that people had a duty to disobey unjust laws, even at the cost of imprisonment (later influencing Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Tolstoy). He said, “It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right” and asserted “under a government which imprisons any man unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison.” Like Jefferson, Thoreau believed that government is best when it governs the least, stating: “Government is best 160 when it governs not at all.” He also asserted: “There will never be a really free and enlightened state until the state comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly.” Ralph Waldo Emerson, a mentor of Thoreau’s and fellow Concord, Massachusetts transcendentalist, advised his readers to lead self-reliant, noble lives. George Cullen Bryant was a famous poet. James Fenimore Cooper was the first important American novelist (Leatherstocking Tales, Last of the Mohicans and The Deerslayer) and focused on frontier America. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote short-stories and novels about the Puritanism of early New England in The Scarlet Letter and House of Seven Gables. Patriotic poet Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote Old Ironsides. Washington Irving satirized the early Dutch settlers of New York’s Hudson River Valley in Diedrick Knickerbocker’s History of New York, Rip Van Winkle and Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, a poet, wrote “The Song of Hiawatha” (the best known epic American poem), “Evangeline”, “The Courtship of Miles Standish” and “Paul Revere’s Ride”. James Russell Lowell, a poet and literary critic, opposed slavery and the Mexican war. Herman Molville wrote Moby Dick and Billy Budd, focusing on the man’s quests. Francis Parkman’s The Oregon Trail was a famous historical work. Edgar Allan Poe, a poet, short-story writer and critic, wrote many great mysteries focused on the pain and sorrow of mankind. 161 William H. Prescott was a famous historian. William Gilmore Simms wrote popular southern stories. John Greenleaf Whittier was an abolitionist poet. Leson 4: First coined in 1845 by John L. O’Sullivan, the concept of “Manifest Destiny” defined the belief of Americans in their historic duty to spread westward to the Pacific Ocean. I. Reasons for Manifest Destiny A. B. C. D. It facilitated the expansion of slavery The West provided space for immigrants The quest for new markets drove businessmen westward The region offered potential locations for ports which could accomidate trade with China E. An abundance of cheap land offered a fresh start in life for millions of pioneers II. Bitter struggles for control of western areas often emerged as a result of disputes over the “cotton kingdoms” slavery A. The number of Free and Slave States prior to 1820 was balanced with each side holding 11 states 1. Original Free States 1791-1819 New Hampshire Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York Free States acquired Vermont Ohio Indiana Illinois 162 New Jersey Pennsylvania 2. Original Slave States Slave States Acquired 17911819 Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Kentucky Tennessee Louisiana Mississippi Alabama B. The first serious clash involved the admission of Missouri to the Union 1. Missouri, a slave territory, applied for statehood in 1819 but was opposed by Congressman John Tallmadge because Missouri’s admission would upset the congressional balance, giving the South control of the Senate and would establish a precedent for extending slavery throughout the Louisiana Territory. Tallmadge proposed an amendment, which would prohibit any additional slavery in Missouri and would gradually emancipate the regions slaves. The amendment enraged and frightened the South 2. The Missouri Compromise (1820), engineered by Henry Clay, the “Great Compromiser” provided for Missouri to enter the Union as a Slave State while Maine would enter as a Free State. Slavery was prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase, north of latitude 36”30’ C. In 1836 Arkansas entered the Union as a slave state D. In 1837, Michigan restored the balance by entering as a free state 163 E. Texas: With the founding of Santa Fe in 1609, the Spaniards claimed the Southwestern quarter of the presentday United States, established forts, missions, villages, towns and ranches in the present-day states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. The Spanish had prohibited trade with the United States in order to discourage American expansion but the policy began to weaken by 1820. The Mexican government renewed the land grant for Stephen F. Austin that his father, Moses Austin, had received from Spanish authorities. In 1821, Austin began an American colony in Texas with handpicked pioneers who each received 4000 acres. By 1830, 20,000 Americans spoke English, worshiped as Protestants and owned slaves had entered Texas, despite requirements from the Spanishspeaking Mexicans that prohibited slavery and which required the settlers to covert to Catholicism. In 1830, Mexico closed its doors to further settlements, but the Americans in Texas volunteers defeated a large Mexican force in San Antonio. In 1836 General Santa Anna, the dictator President of Mexico, led a large army back into Texas and killed 200 Texans who refused to surrender at the Alamo, including James Rowie, William Travis and Davy Crockett. 1200-1400 Mexicans were killed in the battle. Compared to the deaths at the Alamo, more than twice as many Texans were massacred on Palm Sunday March 27, 1836 at Goliad after surrendering. The Texans, led by Sam Houston (the “Raven;” former Tennessee Governor of Horseshoe Bend fame) struck back against Santa Anna ant San Jacinto, destroyed his forces, killing 800 and capturing 750 (including Santa Anna) while losing only 50 Americans. Santa Anna was released in order to secure recognition from Mexico for the independence of Texas. On March 2, 1836, Texas declared its independence and drafted a constitution as the “Lone Star Republic” of Texas. Since Texas had 164 previously declared its independence at Goliad in 1812 and again in 1821, the new republic was actually the Third Republic of Texas. Sam Houston became the first President of Texas. Texas applied for admission to the United States. The admission of Texas to the United States was delayed until 1845 because Sumner and other abolitionist feared that it would increase southern influence in Congress, extend slavery and invite war with Mexico. The issue was delayed until the 1844 election which James K. Polk won by implying that the United States had always owned the territory, even though the United States had abandoned its claim to the territory in the 1819 Adams-Onis Treaty. Britain and France were also interested in the territory. Texas entered the Union in December, 1845 under the following provisions: Five states could be carved out of the territory with the consent of the Texans. Any State that emerged north of the 36 30 latitude would be closed to slavery. The United States would acquire the boundary dispute with Mexico. Texas would retain its lands and pay its debts. The addition of Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848) to the Union as free states restored the balance that was upset by the admittance of Texas and Florida. The Southwest was acquired through the war, annexation purchase and expansion. War with Mexico (1846-48) Reasons for the War The settlement and annexation of Texas. 165 Cultural clash in the Southwest. (Spanish law, architecture, customs and language clashed with “Manifest Destiny.” The mistreatment of Americans in Mexico. Mexico’s failure to repay debts to Americans. Rising war fever (In 1842, Commodore Thomas Jones captured Monterrey, California by mistake but gave it back to Mexico the next day). Rejection of American attempts to purchase California and New Mexico by John Slidell. President Polk sent troops under General Zachary Taylor into the disputed territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande Rivers. The Mexicans probably had a stronger claim to the region, as the Nueces River had traditionally served as the Southwestern border of Texas. Mexican troops crossed into the area and killed sixteen American soldiers in combat. On May 13, 1846 the United States declared war on Mexico. Opposition to the war: Abraham Lincoln asked if America was acting as an aggressor through his Spot Resolution asserting that the war effort was based on the weak pretexts, namely the nonpayment of debts and the rejection of Slidell’s offer. The Whigs attacked Polk as a Pawn of the southern “slavocracy.” Northerners opposed the annexation of Texas because it would extend slavery. On June 14, 1846 the Republic of California declared its independence. The United States then claimed the new republic and defeated the Mexicans there. 166 In 1846-47, Zachary Taylor led his troops into Mexico. On September 14, 1847 American marines, under General Winfield Scott, captured Mexico City after landing at Veracruz near “the halls of Montezuma.” The war ended as Mexico accepted American terms. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) was negotiated by Nicholas Trist, despite the fact that President Polk had recalled him for bungling an opportunity to bribe Santa Anna. Mexico lost two-fifths of its land through the Mexican Cession (New Mexico, California). The United States gave Mexico $18,250,000, including payment of Mexico’s $3,250,000 of indebtedness owed to U.S. citizens. The Unites States promised to respect the Civil liberties of Mexicans in the area. Several viewpoints emerged concerning the question of extending slavery into Mexican Cession. President Polk proposed extending the 36 30 line of the Missouri Compromise to the Pacific Ocean. Polk was unhappy about the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo because he felt that Nicholas Trist, the American negotiator, gave too much to Mexico. The Northern states accepted the Wilmot Proviso (1846), which stated, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in lands acquired from Mexico”. The Proviso passed in the House of Representatives was defeated in the Senate. However, it brought the issue into open discussion. The Southern states, represented by John C. Calhoun, insisted that Congress had no right to prohibit slavery in the Southwest and must protect the rights of slave owners to their property (slaves). 167 Lewis Cass and Stephen A. Douglas proposed “popular sovereignty”, suggesting that each territory could decide whether or not it wanted slavery. Many Americans, including James Buchanan, Lewis Cass, Stephen A. Douglas, James K. Polk and Jefferson Davis, believed that the United States would ultimately gain more Mexican territory (the Yucatan Peninsula) and that slavery would extend to areas where cotton could grow. In the Election of 1848, the main issue was slavery in the territories. a. Neither party (Democrats, Whigs) took a strong stance on the issue of slavery. b. Despite the vast territorial acquisitions and successful war effort of his administration, Polk was unpopular and did not seek re-election. c. Candidates: i) The Democratic ticket of Lewis Cass (Michigan) and William Butler (Kentucky) promoted “popular sovereignty,” ignoring the issue of slavery in the territories by focusing on expansion into Cuba and the Yucatan Peninsula. ii) The Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor (Louisiana), took no position on slavery in the territories but he did take an anti-expansion position. His running mate was Millard Fillmore (New York). iii) The Free-Soil Party, which nominated former President Martin Van Buren (New York) and Charles Francis Adams (Massachusetts – son of John Quincy Adams), included anti-slavery dissidents from both parties who were opposed to any further extension of slavery. Van Buren lost the election but the freesoilers 168 won twelve seats in the House of Representatives. d. Zachary Taylor won the election as a result, in part, of his Mexican War heroics. The 1849 Congress faced the issues of: a. California’s application to be admitted to the Union as a free state. b. The Texas/New Mexico boundary and the debts of Texans. c. Southern resistance to the abolition of slavery in Washington, D.C. d. Southern resistance to the organization of New Mexico and Utah due to the lack of any reference to the right of slave ownership in these territories. e. Southern demands for a new slave law requiring state officials to assist in capturing runaway slaves. California entered the Union in 1850. a. Spanish culture flourished in the region. b. In 1841, John Bidwell, the “Prince of California Pioneers”, led settlers into the region. c. On January 24, 1848, gold was discovered by John W. Marshall at John Sutter’s Mill in Sacramento, producing a flood of migrants into California in 1849 (49’ers) seeking fortunes in the Gold Rush. d. In 1849, California’s new constitution outlawed slavery but discriminated against Indians. e. In 1850, California entered the union as a Free State under the provisions of Henry Clay’s Compromise of 1850. i) California was admitted as a Free State (primarily because 169 Californians were racists, rather than opposed to slavery). ii) Popular sovereignty would be allowed in the other territories acquired by Mexico. iii) The United States agreed to pa Texas $10 million for disclaiming New Mexico east of the Rio Grande River and also agreed to assume Texas’ debts. iv) Slave trade was abolished in Washington, D.C. v) Congress enacted another fugitive slave law. f. President Taylor, an abolitionist, opposed the compromise. Calhoun, too weak to speak, had his speech read for him, denouncing the compromise and calling for a Constitutional amendment guaranteeing slavery. Henry Clay read a two-day speech, declaring that nature would be its own Wilmot Proviso against slavery in the territories. Taylor and Calhoun died in 1850 before the outcome was announced. Millard Fillmore became President on July 9, 1850. Henry Clay died in 1850. With the death of Daniel Webster in 1852, the great voices of compromise would be gone and the Whig Party would split between the North and South. g. The South came out of the proceedings as the loser because the region lost equal representation in the Senate, even though they secured protection for their “property,” and because the new fugitive slave law was nullified by “personal liberty laws” which allowed northern law enforcement officers to refuse to enforce the law. Through the Gadsden Purchase (1853), the United States paid $10 million for the land south of the Gila River. Southern Congressmen succeeded in securing the legislation to purchase the Gadsden Territory in an effort to insure that the proposed transcontinental railroad would follow a route through the South. Summary: 170 The Art of compromise had been the secret of American society since 1787 and remained so during this critical period. People unwilling to compromise (primarily the abolitionists) were unpopular. Nevertheless, compromise would diminish in the 1850’s as war approached. The extension of slavery (not the existence of slavery) produced the most troubling issue of the late 1840’s and most seriously divided the North and the South. Very few people wanted war or secession (prior to 1861). Other conflicts emerged with the expansion of America as settlers battled human and environmental hazards to carve out a new start in the rugged wilderness. The boundary of Maine was established by the United States and Great Britain through the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842, following the 1837 attack by British citizens on the American steamer “Caroline” and the “Aroostook War” between American and Canadian lumberjacks. The Oregon country was claimed by Spain, Russia, Great Britain and the United States until the 1820’s. Spain gave up its claim in 1819 in the Adams-Onis treaty. In 1824, Russian withdrew its claim to all land south of the 54th parallel as a result of the Monroe Doctrine. In 1818, the United States and Great Britain agreed to occupy the Oregon country jointly for ten years and renewed the agreement ten years later. By 1840, Americans were demanding British withdrawal from all land south of the 54th parallel. a. Westward expansion became the primary issue in the Election of 1844. The Democratic ticket of James K. Polk (Tennessee) and George M. Dallas (Pennsylvania) was elected, calling for the annexation of Texas and occupation of Oregon, using the slogan “Fifty-four forty or 171 fight!” They beat the Whig ticket of Henry Clay (Kentucky) and Theodore Frelinghuysen (New Jersey), who avoided the annexation issue, as well as the abolitionist Liberty Party candidates, James G. Birney (New York) and Thomas Morris (Ohio), who were opposed to annexing slaveholding Texas. b. In the Treaty of 1846, Great Britain agreed to give up its claims to the Oregon country south of the 49th parallel and, thus, by 1846 a boundary existed between the United States and Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The United States was willing to drop its demand for the British to withdraw to the 54th parallel and compromise on the issue in order to avoid fighting a two-front war with Great Britain and Mexico. Polk’s willingness to compromise on Oregon but his refusal to compromise on Texas made him appear to the American people as pro-slavery. The timber and furs of the Oregon territory had drawn the interest of Americans since the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804-1806. a. Western trade was organized by enterprising companies such as the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and the American Fur Company, both of which traded with mountain men for fur pelts. John Jacob Astor became the richest man in America through the fur trade by sending wagon trains to Jackson Hole, Wyoming to Collect furs from trappers. Jedediah Smith, who is credited with discovering Wyoming’s South Pass, and Jim Bridger, whose trading post became Fort Bridger, were the most famous trappers in the Rockies. b. Smith’s South Pass ultimately became the famous Oregon Trail through the Continental Divide to the Pacific. By the 1840’s, a thousand pioneers per year were entering the Oregon country. c. Trapped within the Sierra Nevada Mountains in 1846 by the worst winter on record, members of the legendary Donner Party faced starvation and brutal conditions. Roughly half of the settlers perished while many of the remaining members of the party resorted to cannibalism, struggling for survival amidst despair. 172 Utah was settled by the Mormons who, after facing discrimination in the East due to their religious beliefs, including their practice of polygamy, moved westward to Salt Lake City in an organized manner, sending scouts ahead to plant fields along the way. The Mormons were first led by their founder, Joseph Smith, then Brigham Young, following Smith’s death. The Fort Laramie Treaty (1851) promoted fifteen years of relatively peaceful condition between the United States government and the Indians in the Southwest. Unit Five The Civil War and Reconstruction Lesson 1: Sectionalism dampened the spirit of compromise in the 1850’s and, by 1860, the nation was moving towards war. Events of the 1850’2 The election of 1852 was uneventful due to prosperity and the Compromise of 1850. Franklin Pierce, a New Hampshire Democrat, and his running mate, William R. King (Alabama) won the election over the Whig ticket of Winfield Scott/William A. Graham and the free Soil ticket of John P. Hale/George Julian. Winfield Scott was the last Whig President candidate. Pierce, who had served in the Mexican War under Winfield Scott, was sympathetic to the South. 173 As an expansionist, he favored taking Cuba and Central America, opened trade with Japan, favored the Kansas-Nebraska Act and purchased the Gadsden Territory (named after a South Carolina railroad owner) in an effort to give the planned Trascontinental Railroad to the South. Dissension over slavery grew. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin enraged the South. Stowe sold 1 ½ million copies. The Fugitive Slave Law (1850) angered the North. Personal Liberty laws (a response to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850) were seen by southerners as illegal. The Ostend Manifesto created suspicion in the North as it leaked plans for the United States to acquire Cuba (potential new slave territory) by force. Kansas-Nebraska Act In 1854 Stephan A. Douglas of Illinois sponsored legislation that creates two new territories Kansas and Nebraska. Douglas felt that the new territories would help Chicago become a larger industrial center by allowing the proposed Transcontinental Railroad to take a northerly route. It abolished the Missouri Compromise dividing line (36 20 parallel) and stressed self-determination for these new territories. He was trying to please the South because he wanted to be President of the United States. The results were not what Douglas had intended. Douglas assumed that Nebraska would enter the Union as a free territory and would be balanced by Kansas as a slave territory. By eliminating the Missouri Compromise, Douglas became a hero in the South and was hated in the North, though the Act helped the North secure the railroad. He Kansas-Nebraska Act split the nation sectionally, not along party lines. 174 By 1855 Kansas had two governments, one pro-slavery and one anti-slavery. The blood of 200 men spilled in ‘Bleeding Kansas” as 500 pro-slavery forces clashed with anti-slavery forces. Following the sack of Lawrence, Kansas by pro-slavery forces, John Brown hacked to death five slave owners in Kansas and, on October 16, 1859, led five blacks and 13 whites in a raid on the government arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, hoping to arm (unwilling) slaves along the Appalachian Mountains. U.S. Calvarymen under the command of Robert E. Lee killed nine of Brown’s men (including two of his sons). Brown was found guilty of treason and hanged. Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, a professor at VMI, and John Wilkes Booth were among the spectators at the hanging. Fredrick Douglas observed: “I could live for the slaves; John Brown could die for them.” The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to the formation of the Republican Party (1854) because the Whigs and Democrats would not oppose the extension of slavery. The Whig Party disintegrated by 1854. Kansas voters rejected statehood rather than accepting the pro-slavery constitution proposed by Lecompton. On May 19, 1856 abolitionists Senator Charles Sumner (Massachusetts) was beaten unconscious on the floor of the Senate by cane-wielding Congressman Preston Brooks (South Carolina) for insulting Brook’s cousin, senator Andrew Butler (South Carolina), in a Senate speech the previous day in which he labeled southern slave owners “hirelings picked from the drunken spew and vomit of an uneasy civilization.” “Bully Brooks, who received hundreds of cans from admirers to replace his broken one, resigned but was reelected while Sumner’s seat remained empty during his long treatment for injuries. The Election of 1856 marked the end of the era of compromise. The Republicans (organized in 1854) nominated John C. Fremont (California) whose platform asserted “Free soil, free speech, free men and Fremont.” Southerners felt threatened because the opposed the extension of slavery. Freemont won 11 of the 16 northern states and his 114 electoral votes were 175 all from free states, demonstrating intense sectional divisions. His running mate was William L. Dayton (New Jersey). The Democratic candidate, James Buchanan (a Pennsylvania Democrat who was acceptable to southerners) and his running mat, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, won the election by supporting the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act. He won most of the southern votes by supporting Kansas’ LeCompton constitution. The American Party (Know nothing Party) nominated former President Millard Fillmore (New York) and Andrew J. Donelson on an anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic platform, aimed at immigrants who had fled Ireland’s potato famine. Dred Scott Decision (1857) Dred Scott, a slave, was taken by his owner from Missouri into free territory and, after a few years, returned to Missouri. Scott sued for his freedom on the grounds that he had lived in free territory and therefore was no longer a slave. (The 1787 Northwest Ordinance prohibited slavery in free territory.) The Supreme Court (controlled by the South and influenced by Buchanan, a friend of the South) ruled that: a. Residence in a free territory and free state had not given him his right to freedom b. Slaves were not citizens of the United States or any particular state and therefore had no right to sue in the courts. c. The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because Congress had no right to exclude slavery from the territories, based on the 5th Amendment which prohibited Congress from depriving an person of “…property, without due process of law.” (This made the “exclusion of slavery” stance of the Republican Party unconstitutional.) 176 This decision enraged the North because it would require the U.S. government to support the expansion of slavery everywhere. In 1857, economic panic in the North convinced many Southerners that a superior way of life existed in the South. The seven Lincoln-Douglas debates in the Illinois senatorial campaign of 1858 were a preview of the 1860 Presidential election. Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was not an abolitionist but felt slavery was morally wrong and was determined to preserve the Union. a. Born on a farm in central Kentucky on February 12, 1809, Lincoln moved to Indiana at age seven and educated himself in the wilderness. b. He moved with this family to Illinois at age twenty-one, then worked on a Mississippi flatboat, clerked in a store, serving as village postmaster and became a surveyor. c. Young “Honest Abe” was a champion rail splitter and demonstrated good sportsmanship d. First elected to the Illinois legislature in 1834, Lincoln practiced law in Springfield while serving four two-year terms as a legislator. e. He served in the House of Representatives as a Whig (1847-1849), was defeated for reelection because of his opposition to the Mexican War and then returned ot his law practice. He was a good speaker. f. He opposed the extension of slavery and, with others, organized the Republican Party after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. g. On accepting the Republican nomination for senator in 1858, Lincoln told the nation: “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect… the house to fall 177 – but I do expect it will cease to be divided. IT will become all one thing, or all the other.” Stephen A. Douglas, a Democrat, won the race as a supported of popular sovereignty. In the Freeport, Illinois debate Douglas stated his “Freeport Doctrine,” i.e., that a territory could refuse to pass a law supporting slavery and thus exclude slavery in spite of the Dred Scott decision. Lincoln had asked Douglas if he favored his own principle of popular sovereignty, which permitted a territory to exclude slavery, or the Dred Scott decision, which said that slavery could not be excluded from a territory. The “Freeport Doctrine” probably cost Douglas the 1860 Presidential election because he alienated southerners who were already angry over his refusal to allow the Democratic Party to become a pro-slavery party and due to his opposition to the Lecompton (pro-slavery) constitution in Kansas. The debates made Lincoln famous and helped him to gain the Republican nomination for President in 1860. The 1860’s produced the dissolution of the Union. The Election of 1860 demonstrated intense sectionalism. Candidates: a. Constitutional Union Party (composed of ex-Whigs) – John Bell (Tennessee) and his running mate, Edward Everette (Massachusetts) ran on the platform that all citizens should recognize the constitution, the Union and law enforcement above all other principles. The creation of the Constitutional Union Party, which was strong in the border states, meant that the divided South could not win the election. b. National Democratic Party (consisting of Southerners meeting in Baltimore) – John C. Breckinridge (from Kentucky) supported a proslavery platform that demanded federal protection for slavery in the territories and the annexation of Cuba. The Democratic Party was split during this election because Jefferson Davis and the Deep South states withdrew from the Democratic Convention in Charleston, South Carolina after Stephen A. Douglas refused to include a federal slave 178 code proposed by Davis in the Democratic platform. Davis felt that the slave code was a natural extension of the Dred Scott decision. Joseph Lane (Oregon) was the party’s Vice-Presidential nominee. c. Democrats (Northern Democrats) – After reconvening in Baltimore, the Democratic Party nominated Stephen A. Douglas (Illinois) and Hershel V. Johnson (Georgia). Douglas supported “popular sovereignty” and a fugitive slave law platform (to pacify the Southerners that he had earlier alienated with this opposition to the Lecompton constitution and his Freeport Doctrine). d. Republicans – Abraham Lincoln (Illinois) and his running mate, Hannibal Hamlin (Maine) advocated a platform that was purely sectional and aimed at Northern industrialists and Midwesterners. Lincoln was opposed to the extension of slavery and promised railroads, free homesteads and internal improvements for the west while supporting protective tariffs for the North. Lincoln was viewed as an abolitionist by the South because he was opposed to the extension of slavery, though he repeatedly emphasized that he would allow slavery to continue where it already existed. Lincoln felt that any further compromise should be made by pro-slavery forces. Lincoln won the Election of 1860 with a minority of the popular votes (40%) a. Results: Lincoln Popular vote 1,865,593 Percent 39.79% Douglas 1,382,713 29.40% Breckinridge 848,356 18.20% Bell 592,906 12.61% Electoral Vote 180 (all free states except three votes in New Jersey) 12 (Missouri and the 3 N.J. votes) 72 (All cotton states) 39 (Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee) 179 c. Lincoln carried every free state but failed to carry a single slave state. c. He received no popular votes in ten southern states (he was not listed on the ballot). d. If all of the popular votes of the opposition parties had been combined, Lincoln would have still carried a majority of the electoral votes because he received his support from the more populous states e. The Election of 1860, in reality, was two elections; Douglas v. Lincoln in the North and Bell v. Breckinridge in the south. The combined strength of Douglas and Bell exceeded Breckinridge’s support, suggesting that most southerners opposed secession. f. The election proved to the south that the North was populous enough to elect a President, to control patronage and to change public policy without any southern influence. The election represented a power shift to the North. g. Even though Republicans were a minority in Congress and the ProSouth Democrats controlled the Supreme Court, the South saw Lincoln’s election as a victory for Radical Republicans in Congress and abolitionists who saw slavery as morally evil. h. His victory produced rumors of southern secession. Secession from the Union Southern legislators generally belonged to the ruling planter class and, therefore, they favored secession. A South Carolina state convention on December 20, 1860 declared that “the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and the other states is hereby dissolved”. South Carolina was followed by Mississippi (1/9/61), Florida (1/10/61) and Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas (by February, 1861). Texas Governor 180 Sam Houston was deposed when he tried to prevent the secession of his state. The cottonbelt states were the first states to secede. Secession was opposed by Appalachia and the border states (those slaveholding states that bordered between slave and free states and that remained loyal to the Union.) Formation of the Confederacy In Febryary, 1861, the seceding states met at Montgomery, Alabama and formed the Confederate States of America. 90% of their constitution resembled the Constitution of the United States except that it: a. Emphasized the sovereign and independent character of each state. b. Recognized and protected slavery. c. Forbade the levying of protective tariffs and the use of government funds for internal improvements. d. Gave the President a six-year term and the line-item veto. Leaders: a. Jefferson Davis (of Mississippi), a former U.S. Senator and Secretary of War, took the oath of office as President of the Provisional Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861 as “Dixie,” a minstrel tune written by a northerner, was played. Davis, an insomniac who was blind in one eye, was raised on a farm in Kentucky and educated at West Point. He fought in the Mexican War and lived at Briarwood Plantation near Vicksburg, Mississippi where he resisted secession. b. Alexander H. Stephens (Georgia) became Vice-President. 181 Unlike Andrew Jackson in the 1832 nullication crisis, President Buchanan, a southern sympathizer, took no action to stop the secessionists. He felt that no state had the right to secede but also felt that the federal government could not hold a state in the Union against its will (Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated but he had already stated that he was opposed to the further extension of slavery and that he intended to preserve the Union). Buchanan made no attempt to halt the secessionists’ seizure of federal property. His compromises failed and his other options were not workable (accepting secession or using the military to enforce the Constitution). The Crittenden Compromise was a final attempt at compromise and an effort to appease the South. Senator Crittenden of Kentucky proposed that slavery would be prohibited in the territories north of 36*30’ but federally protected south of the line in all existing and future territories. Popular sovereignty would be employed by future states, north or south of the line, to decide the slavery issue. The proposal failed because Lincoln and the Republicans opposed it. Lincoln was inaugurated on March 4, 1861, protected by guards due to assassination threats and announced to the nation that a. He would not interfere with slavery where it existed. b. No state could lawfully withdraw from the Union. (“The central idea of secession is the essence of anarchy.”) c. He would carry out the laws in all the states. d. He would “hold, occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the government”. e. He would collect the duties and imports to which the government was entitled. In his first inaugural address, Lincoln appealed to Southerners to preserve the Union and prevent the outbreak of war: “In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and no tin mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being 182 yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the government, while I have the solemn one to ‘preserve, protect and defend’ it.” Lincoln intended to carry out his sworn duty and hoped to delay the crisis until a solution could be achieved. Lesson 2: The early stages of the Civil War produced victories for he South against overwhelming odds. Outbreak of War Fort Sumter (April, 1861) In the harbor at Charleston, South Carolina, Fort Sumter was one of the few forts in the South still controlled by the federal government. President Lincoln had to decide whether to turn over Fort Sumter to the Confederacy or to risk war by sending supplies to federal troops stationed there. Lincoln offered to withdraw the troops if Virginia would remain in the Union. When Lincoln attempted to resupply the fort, General P.G.T. Beauregard’s Confederate forces fired on the fort, beginning at 4:30 A.M. on April 12, 1861. On April 14, Major Anderson (The U.S. Commander of the fort and a former gunnery instructor of Beauregard’s at West Point) surrendered, suffering no casualties except one soldier killed during a final salute. War had begun! Reasons for the Civil War In addition to the new issue concerning the extension of slavery into new territories and the earlier conflicts over the protective tariff, national bank and use of government funds for transportation, the industrial North and the agrarian South held opposing views on the nature of the Union. The North felt that the Union was “one nation, indivisible” while the South maintained a state’s rights position that the Constitution was merely an 183 agreement between independent states that could break the compact if so desired. Southerners sensed a clash of cultures between the regions. Economic rivalry existed between the industrial North and the agricultural South. Power had transferred from the South to the North but no single group could prevent disunion. Slavery, as a moral, political, economic, and racial issue, became the focal point of the reasons listed above. Americans ultimately failed at compromise. Lincoln’s options for avoiding war included allowing secession and/or the extension of slavery but neither choice was acceptable to him. Only war would preserve the Union. Alignment Confederate states at the beginning of the war included South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana; and Texas. States that joined the Confederacy after the war had begun and Lincoln had called for 75,000 volunteers included Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas and Tennessee. Territories supporting the Confederate forces included New Mexico and the Indian territory (Oklahoma). The Indians hated the Union. Union States: a. b. c. d. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts 184 e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s. Connecticut Rhode Island New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa California Oregon Kansas Border states were slave sates that were persuaded to remain in the Union because they were assured that the war was being fought, not to destroy slavery, but to preserve the Union and bring back the seceding states. These states included Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri and West Virginia (which broke away from Virginia and Joined the Union in 1863). Territories supporting the Union included Washington, Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Utah and Nevada. Families were torn between sides. Whole towns signed up. Advantages North: a. Population – the North outnumbered the South by a 4:1 ratio of fighting-age men, requiring the South to be efficient. Blacks were rejected from service. b. Manufacturing – New York alone had four times the productive capacity of the entire South. Union armies were the best equipped in history, fighting with the first railroad artillery, land mines, 185 telescopic sights and, most importantly, the rifled musket, invented by French Captain Claude Monet, whose .53 caliber minie ball could kill at five times the distance of other weapons. c. Agricultural and Natural Resources – Northern and western grain was exported in order to pacify foreign countries. d. Transportation – The North had twice as many railroads e. Control of the Ohio River f. Strong navy g. Control of the neutral, border states. South: a. Defensive war – The Confederate forces only had to wait for the North to become tired of the struggle. b. Officers – 313 of the United States Army’s 727 officers resigned their commissions when war broke out. Four days after Fort Sumter, President Lincoln asked Robert E. Lee to command the Union army. Lee, who had doubts about slavery and secession, resigned his commission after the secession of Virginia and took command f the Virginia militia, declaring: “I could take no other course without dishonor.” c. Southerners were used to the outdoors, firearms, and horses and believed that one southerner could beat ten “Yankees.” The confederate government called for 100,000 volunteers and was so overwhelmed that over one-third of the applicants, most of whom did not own slaves, had to return home. d. Economic leverage over Great Britain, France and the North with cotton (not as important as predicted). 186 e. Well-defined goals, aims: i) independence, ii) defense of homeland, iii) preservation of slavery. f. A labor force of 3½ million slaves. Strategies The Southern strategy was defensive, designed to make the Union forces war-weary and to produce an agreement to peace on southern terms. The Confederacy planned to seize Washington, D.C. and strike Maryland and Pennsylvania in order to disrupt communications between the Northeast and Midwest. North: The “Anaconda Plan” consisted of three goals. The Union leadership planned to cripple the South by blocking the region’s coastline. They wanted to split the Confederacy by seizing control of the Mississippi River and the interior railroads in the south by sending an army southward through Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia. Their goal was to seize Richmond, Virginia (the Confederacy capitol since May, 1861) and drive southward, linking up with the Union forces moving east from the Mississippi River Valley. Lincoln waged war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Despite his personal view that slavery violated man’s rights and was essentially evil, Lincoln believed that his primary duty as President was to save the Union rather that to free the slaves. He ordered that fugitive slaves should be returned to their owners and tried to persuade the southern states to voluntarily abolish slavery by 1900. “My paramount object in this struggle is 187 to save the union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery.” Later, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation which stated that the slaves in all states and districts still in rebellion against the United States on January 1, 1863 would be declared free, thus marking the beginning of the end of the institution of human slavery in the United States and, in the process, changing the character of the war. Lincoln would wage war without the consent of Congress, suspending habeas corpus and threatening to jail Chief Justice Roger Taney for questioning the constitutionality of Lincoln’s moves. Jefferson Davis deserves sympathy due to strong states’ rights feelings in the South. He waived his states’ rights views for the good of the confederacy in order to carry out the war. Campaigns and developments in the early stages of the Civil War In May, 1861, Union troops under the command of Ervin McDowell crossed the Potomac River from Maryland into Virginia and seized Arlington, Robert E. Lee’s home, as small skirmishes erupted along a thousand mile front from Big Bethel, Virginia to Booneville, Missouri. On July 16, 1861, a Union army of 37,000 volunteers marched towards Manassas, Virginia with plans to cut the railroad there before moving towards Richmond. After being altered by Washingtonian socialite and Confederate spy Rose Greenough, General Beauregard led 22,000 Confederate troops to met them, setting up on Bull Run Creek. On July 21, with dignitaries in carriages as spectators, Union forces drove the Confederates backwards. Thomas Jackson’s Virginia brigade held the middle of the battlefield for the Confederacy, prompting one General to label him “Stonewall.” Jackson’s resistance was the turning point of the battle. With Jackson’s men shouting the “Rebel yell,” Beauregard’s reinforced army counterattacked, breaking up the union army which retreated, along with the spectators, in the “Great Skedaddle.” 188 The Union was shocked to discover that it had suffered 5,000 casualties and realized that the war would not be a “90 day war.” Five days after the battle of Bull Run, George “Young Napoleon” McClellan, an excellent military trainer took command of the Union’s Army of the Potomac and began to instill pride in the 100,000 volunteers (whose numbers were growing by 10,000 volunteers per week). By the end of 1861, 700,000 soldiers would be serving the Union. On March 9, 1862 the Union’s ironclad ship known as the Monitor, hastily designed by John Erickson with a 2-gun turret and 47 patentable inventions, defeated the Confederacy’s ironclad Merrimac near Hampton Roads, Virginia only a day after the Merrimac sank the U.S.S. Cumberland, set the U.S.S. Congress afire and ran the U.S.S. Minnesota aground. After a 4 ½ hour battle, the Merrimac withdrew and was burned two months later by her own Confederacy to prevent her from being captured. The Appalachian Mountains and the barrier created by the terrain of this region led to the formation of an eastern theater and the western theater of war. The open west offered an advantage for offense while the closed eastern theater was more oriented for defense. In 1862, the Union enjoyed success in the western theater of the war. The west offered an opportunity to union forces for a quick invasio0n deep into the South since the West was difficult to defend. By 1862, Missouri was secured. General hennery Wager Halleck opened his drive into Tennessee. In February, 1862, after capturing Piduka, Kentucky in the fall of 1861, General Ulysses S. Grant (Halleck’s subordinate) captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River of Tennessee and demand the “unconstitutional and immediate surrender” of Confederate general Bucker’s troops at Fort Donelson. Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with over 1000 men from fort Donelson before it was captured. 189 At the Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburgh Landing), Tennessee, in April, 1862, the Confederacy tried to reverse the trend of Union victories in the West. Albert Sidney Johnston, the Confederacy’s Western theater commander, led his evenly-matched army from Corinth to stop Grant, who was waiting for reinforcements led by Don Carlos Buell. The 6th Mississippi Division attacked William Tecumseh Sherman’s Ohio Division. While thousands of union forces fled to the bluffs of the Tennessee River, Union Commander prentiss’ Illinois and Iowa troops held the “Hornet’s Nest” in the center of the attack for six hours before surrendering. Albert Sidney Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death. The Confederacy command passed to General P.G.T. Beauregard (of Fort Sumter and Manassas fame) After the arrival of Buell’s reinforcements, 70,000 Union forces successfully counterattacked 30,000 Confederate troops the next day as Nathan Bedford Forrest led the Confederate retreat, attacking a long the way. The 23,000 casualties incurred at Shiloh (Hebrew for “place of peace”) exceeded the total number of casualties in all previous American wars combined. On April 25, 1862 General Halleck, who was jealous of Grant’s successes, removed Grant from command of the Union army of the West. Sherman, a friend and fellow West Point graduate from Ohio, convinced Grant to remain in the army. In June, 1862 Union Admiral David Farragut captured New Orleans after getting by Confederate Forts Jackson and St. Phillips. He proceeded up the Mississippi River where he joined with an expedition under the leadership of Commodore A.H. Foote and General John Pope. Western Union victories during 1862 were more than balanced by Confederate victories in the East. 190 On April 4, 1862 General George B. McClellan, commanding the 121,500 Union soldiers of the Army of the Potomac in the East, began his offensive against Richmond at Fortress Monroe on the Peninsula of Virginia. McClellan was so hesitant to leave Washington that Lincoln remarked: “If McClellan doesn’t want to use the army, I would like to borrow it for a time.” At Yorktown, 11,000 Confederate troops, outnumbered 10 to 1 and under the command of John MacGruder, waited in the former Revolutionary War headquarters of Lord Cornwallis, moved troops constantly up and down Union lines and convinced McClellan that the Confederate force contained over 100,000 men. As a result, McClellan called for reinforcements and began a siege of Yorktown, bringing in 90,000 pieces of artillery along “corduroy” roads. Confederate commander Joseph E. Johnston couldn’t believe that McClellan (the “Virginia creeper”) had paused. MacGruder’s men withdrew and were following to within the sound of Richmound’s church bells by McClellan. McClellan refused to attack Richmond, calling for 40,000 more troops, even though his 110,000 force outnumbered Joseph E. Johnston’s Confederate troops. After the flooded Chickahominy River divided the Union forces, Confederate forces enjoyed success at seven Pines while the Union won at Fair Oaks. After Joseph Johnston was wounded at Fair Oaks, Robert E. Lee took command of the Confederate army in the east, renaming it the army of Northern Virginia. Lee sent J.E.B. (“Jeb”) Stewart and 1200 troopers on a ride around McClellan’s forces as Stewart’s father-in-law, a Union General, pursued him. In the Seven Days Campaign, Lee, with a much smaller force, surprised McClellan at Mechanicsville and launched other attacks at Gaines Mill, Savage’s Station, Frazier’s Farm and Malvern Hill. Through Lee lost 20,000 men and all but one of the battles, McClellan was shaken and refused to attack. 191 After Lincoln refused to give him 50,000-100,000 more troops, McClellan withdrew from the Peninsula. Meanwhile, Stonewall Jackson fought a brilliant campaign in the Shenandoah Valley, prevent three Union armies, consisting of 120,000 troops, from joining the Peninsula campaign. Through the pious, very religious, fearless Jackson was not loved by his men, they marched 400 miles because he led them to victories. Jackson’s 17,000 outnumbered troops drove Nathaniel Bank’s Union army from Winchester all the way back to the Potomac, attacked Union forces at Front Royal, Cross Keys and Port Republic and infiltration 7000 casualties. Lincoln in replaced McClellan with John Pope. Pope charged into northern Virginia, only to be stopped by Jackson at Cedar Mountain and to have his headquarters attacked by Jeb Stewart. On August 29, 1862 Pope attacked Jackson at the Second Battle of Bull Run. As Jackson’s men were reduced to throwing rocks as ammunition ran out, General James Longstreet attacked the Union forces with five divisions of Confederate troops. 25,000 men were killed, wounded or missing after the battle in which Pope was forced to retreat. Pope was replaced by McClellan and sent westward by Lincoln to confront a Sioux uprising. After enjoying great success in the spring and summer of 1862, Robert E. Lee led 40,000 troops across the Potomac River into Maryland- into Union territory for the first time- as he planned to attacked the federal rail center at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. In September, a Union soldier found a copy of Lee’s battle plans near Fredrick, Maryland. McClellan waited 18 hours to attack, even through he knew that Lee’s forces were divided, with some troops located at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia. Lee’s forces occupied a 3mile ridge near Sharpsburg with the Potomac River behind them and Antietam Creek in front. The battle of Antietam, fought on September 17, 1862, produced three battles. a. On Lee’s left flank, Union forces under Joe Hooker tried to capture a plateau that held a church but Stonewall Jackson’s men fought them from a cornfield. Hooker was wounded in the foot. As Confederate forces fled from advancing Union troops into the forest, Jackson sent John Bell Hood’s troops in a counterattack, forcing Hooker’s men to 192 retreat until reinforcements arrived. By 10:00 A.M. 10,000 men were dead or wounded. b. The second part of the battle at Antietam began as Union forces attacked John Gordon’s Confederate troops waiting in a sunken road. Gordon was wounded five times as New York soldiers found a place from which they could shoot down on the Confederate troops in the sunken road (“Bloody Lane”). The Confederates, whose dead piled 2 to 3 deep, held the road. c. The third part of the battle emerged on the Confederate right as Ambrose Burnside’s 12,500 Union troops, after three bloody attempts, crossed a bridge over Antietam Creek as John Toomes’ 400 Georgians, whom they were fighting, fled to Sharpsburg. AS the Union troops celebrated, A.P. Hill and 3000 weary Confederate troops arrived from Harper’s Ferry and drove Burnside and his troops back across the bridge they had captured. McClellan refused to send reinforcements. d. The bloodiest day in American history produced 2108 dead and 10,293 wounded for the Union and 10,318 casualties for the Confederacy (1/4 of Lee’s army). e. Even though he could claim victory for halting Lee’s advance, McClellan could have won the war at Sharpsburg, as lee was outnumbered 3 to 1. However, McClellan refused to use his vast reserves and Lee’s troops retreated back across the Potomac. f. President Lincoln came to Sharpsburg to convince McClellan to pursue Lee but McClellan responded slowly, taking 28 days to cross the Potomac. Lincoln removed McClellan permanently from command. g. As a result of the victory at Antietam, Lincoln announced his Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, declaring that he would free the slaves in all states still in a state of rebellion against the Union on January 1, 1863, thus changing the nature of the cause for which Union troops were engaged. The Emancipation Proclamation discouraged the image-conscious Europeans from recognizing the 193 Confederacy or aiding it’s cause. Burnside’s Union troops crossed the Rappahannock River and burned and looted Fredericksburg, Virginia in December 1862. As Burnside waited for pontoon bridges to arrive, Robert E. Lee amassed 75,000 troops on a bluff above the city known as Marye’s Heights. On December 13, 1862, Burnside and his troops assaulted Marye’s Heights at Fredericksburg. a. Lee, with Stonewall Jackson’s troops on his right and James Longstreet’s troops on his left, couldn’t believe that Burnside would foolishly storm a stone wall with four rows of Confederate riflemen waiting behind it. b. The Union’s Irish brigade bravely assaulted Lee’s troops in 14 suicidal attempts to capture the ridge before Burnside withdrew. Confederate soldiers cheered the Union troops for their bravery as they fired their guns. Lee was so moved by the valor that he proclaimed: “It is well that war is so terrible. We should grow too fond of it.” c. The Union’s 12,600 casualties included 9000 dead, compared with 5,300 total Confederate casualties. d. Pinned-down Union troops buried their dead that evening by the northern lights. Desiring to destroy Lee, Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joe Hooker who subsequently planned for part of his army to fake an attack while the remainder of his troops would move up the Rappahannock River, cross the river and attack Lee from the rear. a. As Hooker made headquarters at Chancellorsville, Lee, outnumbered 2 to 1 (120,000 to 60,000), split his forces, leaving only one-fourth of his men at Fredericksburg, and sent them to protect his flank. Union troops engaged them, and then withdrew. b. On the next day, Lee split his forces again and sent Stonewall Jackson and 28,000 men around Hooker’s flank. Jackson’s troops attacked the 194 Union soldiers in their camp and drove them back two miles. c. The battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-4, 1863) was the last great Confederate victory. Confederate forces killed 17,000 Union soldiers (13%) while losing 13,000 of their own forces (22%). d. Returning from scouting for a possible night raid, “Stonewall” Jackson was accidentally shot in the left arm by one of his own men. The arm was amputated but Jackson died of pneumonia one week later, a terrible blow by Lee’s army. e. Chancellorsville was the finest hour of Robert E. Lee’s brilliant military career. i) Born in 1807 at Stratford in Westmorelane County, Virginia and raised by his mother after the family was abandoned by his famous father, Revolutionary war her “Lighthouse Harry” Lee, Robert E. Lee graduated 2nd in his class from West Point. ii) In 1831, he married Mary Custis (Martha Washington’s granddaughter) and raised seven children at her Arlington plantation. iii) He received three promotions for bravery in the Mexican War, served as the Superintendent of West Point and captured John Brown at Harper’s Ferry. iv) When offered the command of the Union Army at the beginning of the war by President Lincoln, he declined, saying that his first duty was to his people in Virginia. “I did only what my duty demanded. I could have taken no other course without dishonor.” v) After beating McClellan on the Peninsula, Pope at Second Manassas, Burnside at Fredericksburg and Hooker at Chancellorsville, he cemented his reputation as one of the greatest military geniuses in history. Both armies suffered heavy losses from disease, which accounted for twice as many deaths during the Civil War as combat wounds. 195 Scurvy, dysentery, typhoid, pneumonia and measles were the chief killers. 44,558 soldiers died of diarrhea and dysentery. Soldiers often drank 36 ounces of whiskey/brandy per day to keep alive. Surgeons were forced to concentrate on speed rather than proper procedures. Limbs were amputated in 2½ minutes. Over 400,000 of the 618,000 soldiers that died in the war died from disease. Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix achieved fame for treating the wounded. By the end of the war, the North had 350 hospitals, compared with 150 in the South. Prisoners of war, particularly at the Andersonville prison in Georgia, suffered from malnourishment and disease. Henry Wertz, the commandant of Andersonville, would be hanged after the war for keeping 33,000 prisoners in facilities that were designed to hold 10,000. 13,000 men died at the prison in one year. Opposition to the war emerged in the North and South. Opposition to the Emancipation Proclamation was especially strong among Democrats and Midwesterners in Michigan, Southern Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio. Members of the Knights of the Golden Circle, the Sons of Liberty and other northern opponents were “Copperheads” and led by Congressman Clement Vallandigham. When Lincoln obtained the passage of the draft law in 1863, which allowed the rich to buy exemption for $300 or to hire a substitute, New Yorkers contemplated secession from the Union. On Sunday, July 12, 1863, an Irish mob concerned about the loss of jobs to free blacks as well as the draft destroyed a draft office in New York City, burned buildings and killed more 196 than 100 people before veterans returning from Gettysburg restored order. The New York City draft riots were followed by other riots. Jefferson Davis struggled to organize a war effort in a confederation of states opposed to centralized power. By the end of 1863, two-fifths of the Confederate army was absent with or without leave. By the end of the war, every state except South Carolina had a Union regiment and organizations sympathetic to the Union, including the “Heroes of America” in North Carolina and the “Kingdom of Jones” in Mississippi. Lesson 3: Superior Union manpower and resources ultimately produced victory, at great costs, and the preservation of the Union. Conclusion of the Civil War 1863 brought the turning point of the war in the East while the Union accomplished its objective in the West. As Lee continued his advance into Union territory in the East, the Confederacy was also on the move in the West. a. John Pemberton’s army pushed back Union forces at Chickasaw Bluff’s north of Vicksburg. b. John Morgan’s men captured 2000 prisoners in Kentucky. c. John MacGruder captured a Union flotilla in Texas. d. Nathan Bedford Forrest’s calvarymen attacked Union armies four times stronger, stole 10,000 rifles, destroyed equipment and forced Ulysses S. Grant to retreat by cutting his supply lines. Following 2½ months of failure at the Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg, Mississippi on the Mississippi River, Ulysses S. Grant crossed the river and attacked the city from the East. He won victories at Port Gibson, Raymond, 197 Jackson, Champion’s Hill and Big Black River before being stopped and forced into laying siege in May. The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) was the turning point of the war as well as the largest battle ever fought in the Western Hemisphere. a. Lee decided to attack Pennsylvania, hoping to draw Grant away from Vicksburg. b. As he moved towards Pennsylvania, Lee sent Jeb Steward and his men, who, in May, had engaged in the largest Calvary battle in U.S. history, on a ride around the army of the new Union commander, George Meade. c. On June 16, 1863 Lee’s army crossed the Potomac into James Longstreet, Richard Ewell and A.P. Hill. d. As the Confederate army came into Gettysburg, Pennsylvania from the north, looking for shoes that were supposedly stored there, and the Union forces came in from the South, fighting broke out as Union calvary under the command of John Buford ran into the Confederates. 150,000 troops quickly converged on the town and took their positions on the “First Day of Gettysburg.” i) General Winfield Scott Hancock aligned the Union troops along Culp’s Hill and Cemetery Ridge on the high ground in the shape of a fishhook. ii) When Longstreet urged Lee to get between the Union army and Washington, D.C. to draw an attack from Meade, Lee refused, saying: “I’m going to whip them here or they’re going to whip me.” Lee staked his army and the Confederacy on a bid for victory. e. On the “Second Day,” 65,000 Confederates faced 85,000 Union troops who were overlooked by hills on both ends of their line – Culp’s Hill and Cemetery Ridge on the left (north) and Big and Little Round Tops on the right (south). 198 i) Confederate General Oates’ 15th Alabama Regiment captured Big Round Top and tried to seize the undefended and strategic Little Round Top, despite opposition from Union General G.K. Warren troops. However, four Union regiments arrived to reinforce Warren, including the 360 men in Joshua Chamberlain’s 20th of Maine who, believing they were surrounded, fixed bayonets and charged into the Confederates, who broke from the charge and from reinforcement provided by a Union “Company B” that was presumed lost. Chamberlain’s heroic troops captured 400 prisoners of the 15th Alabama and held Little Round Top. ii) Union General Sickles, who had initially been sent to defend Little Round Top, was caught in the Devil’s Den, ½ mile in front of the other Union troops after disobeying orders. In fierce fighting, 82% of a Minnesota regiment fell in five minutes, suffering greater losses than any other Union regiment in the war. Company F of the 26th North Carolina lost all of their men. The Union left and right still held. f. The “Third Day” began badly for Lee as advances by Ewell and Stewart were stopped. The focus of the Confederate effort now shifted to Longstreet’s corps. i) Longstreet failed to discourage Lee from striking. Lee believed his army was invincible. ii) As Confederate artillery attempted to soften the Union resistance, three of Longstreet’s divisions, led by Generals Pickett, Pettigrew and Trimble, prepared to attack the center of Meade’s Union lines on Cemetery Ridge. iii) 13,000 Confederate soldiers displayed matchless valor as they charged the heavily fortified ridge. As Union artillery from Cemetery Ridge and Little Round Top, as well as Union riflemen behind the stone wall on the ridge opened fire, entire Confederate regiments were lost instantly. The Confederates briefly reached one crook in the stone wall (the “angle”) but were driven back. iv) 6500 of the 13,000 Confederate troops who stormed the wall were 199 casualties or captured. Lee blamed himself and offered to resign. g. 51,000 soldiers fell at Gettysburg – 23,000 for the North and 28,000 for the South. h. Lee’s plans of invading the North came to an end as the Army of Northern Virginia began a slow retreat. i. Lincoln was furious at Meade for not pursuing Lee. j. On November 19,1863 Lincoln commemorated the battle in his Gettysburg Address: “Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” He called upon the nation to continue “the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.” He concluded by saying that “we were highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” Following a 48 day siege in which residents lived in caves and nearly starved, Vicksburg fell to the Union forces on July 4, 1863, the same day that Confederate forces were retreating from Gettysburg. Pemberton surrendered his 31,000 troops on the 4th of July. Vicksburg would not celebrate the 4th of July for 81 years that followed. With the fall of Vicksburg (which formally ended on July 9th when Farragut captured Port Hudson, Louisiana), the Union forces had accomplished their western objective, i.e., the Confederacy was split. On July 18, 1863 the all-black 54th Massachusetts regiment, under the command of a white officer, Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, stormed Battery Wagner on the Carolina coast, losing 40% of their regiment. By the end of the war, 180,000 black soldiers would compromise 1/10 of the Union army. In September 1863 Braxton Bragg’s Confederate forces abandoned Chattanooga in the face of the flanking Union army of General Rosecrans but defeated Rosecrans’ army at Chickamauga, though total defeat was 200 prevented by Union General George Henry Thomas (the “Rock of Chickamauga”). When Ulysses S. Grant was placed in command of all Union forces in the Western theater, he replaced Rosecrans with Thomas who, in the Battle of Chattanooga on November 25, 1863, defeated Bragg’s troops on Lookout Mt. The battle was followed with the capture of Missionary Ridge by Phil Sheridan’s Union troops. Chattanooga was not another victory for Grant. In 1864, the superior numerical and industrial resources of the Union began to move the war towards its conclusion. Ulysses S. Grant received command of the entire Union army of 530,000 men after his victory at Chattanooga. a. Born in Ohio as Hiram Ulysses Grant in 1822 as a tanner’s son, Grant loved horses as a child. b. He was mistakenly registered as Ulysses S. Grant at West Point and the name stuck. c. After marrying Julia Dent, a Missouri slaveholder’s daughter, he fought in the Mexican War (which he opposed). d. He resigned from the army in 1854 after serving in California where depression over absence from his family drove him to drinking. e. After a number of failed business endeavors, Grant was working in his father’s harness shop when the Civil War broke out. f. He enlisted, was promoted to Brigadier General at a time when other Union generals were losing and ultimately became the first lieutenant General since George Washington. Grant’s strategy was four-pronged. 201 a. William Tecumseh Sherman, his close friend, would march from Chattanooga to Atlanta. b. General Siegle would move through the Shenandoah Valley. c. General Butler would move towards Richmond from the James River. d. General Meade’s Army of the Potomac, 110,000 strong, would chase Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Grant would accompany Meade. In the battle of the Wilderness form May-June, 1864, the Union army continued to press forward in an effort to get around the left flank, despite repeated defeats. a. For two days, starting on May 4, Grant lost more men than Hooker’s 17,000 at Chancellorsville. However, for the first time in the war, the Union army moved forward after a defeat. His men proclaimed: “Ulysses don’t scare worth a damn!” b. The two armies fought for thirty consecutive days from Spotsylvania to Cold Harbor, a crossroads on the Chickahominy River where Grant lost 7000 men in seven minutes and where Lee lost Jeb Stewart. c. The Union army continued to advance, even though Grant lost 50,000 men from the Wilderness to Cold Harbor (50% of what the Union arm had lost in three previous years of fighting). Grant’s army crossed the James River on pontoon bridges and marched of Petersburg, Virginia. Only 3000 troops under Beauregard defended the city until reinforcements arrived during the night. The armies dug into 20 miles of trenches as the Union laid siege on Petersburg for ten months. To relieve pressure on the city, Lee sent Jubal Early and 10,000 Confederate troops through the Shenandoah Valley to attack Fort Stevens 202 and then march on the nation’s capitol, Washington D.C. Union troops were moved, as a result, to Fort Stevens. At dawn on July 30th, 1864 Union troops ignited 4000 pounds of gunpowder that had been placed in a tunnel under the Confederate barriers. The explosion left a 30 ft. deep, 70 ft. wide and 250 ft. long crater into Union forces stormed, only to discover that they were trapped without ladders. Confederate forces fired down on the black and white Union soldiers and Burnside was relieved of duty. On August 5, admiral David Farragut attacked Mobile Bay, shouting ‘Damn the torpedos! Full speed ahead!” He rammed the Confederate fleet into submission, the first good news for Lincoln, who was received during the year. Meanwhile, west of the Appalachians, Sherman moved out of Chattanooga towards Atlanta, Georgia, 100 miles away with the goal of seizing the city while smashing Joseph E. Johnston’s Confederate armies of Tennessee and Mississippi, who were outnumbered 2 to 1. Sherman forced Johnston out of Dalton, Resaca, Cassville, Allatoona, and New Hope Church, all in Georgia. On June 27, 1864 Sherman lost 3000 men, compared to 750 Confederates, at Kennesaw Mt., Georgia. Nathan Bedford Forrest, the “Wizard of the Saddle,” the master of the lightning raid and unquestionably the most feared cavalryman of the war, attacked Sherman’s Calvary. Which outnumbered his forces 3 to 1, near Tupelo, Mississippi in June, 1864. Forrest would later be promoted to Lieutenant General. Sherman continued with slow, flanking movements towards Atlanta but stalled in the summer of 1864. Time was running out for President Abraham Lincoln. As the fall election approached, Sherman and Grant were both stalled. Indications were that Lincoln would not be reelected. 203 For two months, Johnston kept his army intact, waiting to attack Sherman as he approached Atlanta, but the opportunity never came. Therefore, Jefferson Davis, who disliked Johnston, replaced him with the reckless John Bell Hood who attacked Sherman on July 22 as the Battle of Atlanta began. Hood lost 20,000 men (1/3 of his army) in less than 20 minutes. Hood retreated, hiding behind ramparts, waiting for Sherman. Instead of attacking, Sherman sealed off the city, cutting off supplies, and began to shell the city. On August 31, Sherman hurled his army at the Macon and Western Railroad. Hood’s army abandoned Atlanta. The victory in Atlanta boosted Lincoln’s campaign. Nathan Bedford Forrest angered Grant when he overran Fort Pillow in Tennessee and massacred 300 black soldiers who had surrendered. Grant retaliated by changing the prisoner exchange program. Phil Sheridan and 45,000 Union soldiers took control of the Shenandoah Valley, stripping it clean, after regrouping after a loss to Jubal Early at Cedar Creek. Lincoln was re-elected in 1864. Lincoln was renominated by the republicans as the National Union Party candidate in 1864. His running mate was Andrew Johnson, a wartime Democrat from Tennessee who was loyal to the Union. Due to Union victories at Mobile Bay, Atlanta and in the Shenandoah Valley, Lincoln received 55% of the vote, including most of McClellan’s former junior officers, and defeated the Democratic ticket of George McClellan (New Jersey) and George Pendleton (Ohio) who advocated peace. In the spring of 1864, as the union cemeteries at Alexandria and Washington were filled, Quartermaster General Montgomery Meggs, a southerner who 204 had remained loyal to the Union, chose Robert E. Lee’s Home at Arlington as the site of the new national cemetery. His own son was buried there. After the fall of Atlanta, Sherman began his “march to the sea” with 62,000 Union troops, leaving a scorched path. John Bell Hood took his Confederate army into Tennessee. At the Battle of Franklin, Hood attacked the Union forces of George (the “Rock of Chickamauga”) Thomas. Hood lost more men than the Union at Cold Harbor. Hood’s army disintegrated after being attacked by Thomas at Nashville. After Hood resigned, Lee appointed Joseph E. Johnston to take command of the remainder of Hood’s army. In 1865, the Confederate States of America only remained in the mind as the end of the war approached. Sherman’s men were harsher in South Carolina as the birthplace of the rebellion. On February 17, 1865 Fort Sumter and Charleston were abandoned. Major Anderson would raise the same flag that he had lowered four years earlier. As hundreds of Confederate soldiers deserted and the state of Georgia was threatening to secede from the Confederacy Jefferson Davis expressed his disgust with the persistent demands for states’ rights, saying that the Confederacy’s tombstone would read: “Died of a theory.” Davis agreed to let Lee arm the slaves, who were promised freedom if they fought. Black hospital orderlies marched through Richmond singing “Dixie.” In his Second Inaugural Address (March, 1865), Lincoln asked the people to forget their bitterness and to reunite: “With malice toward none; with charity for al; with firmness in the right as God gave us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace 205 among ourselves, and with all nations.” Among the spectators was John Wilkes Both who, armed with a pistol, could have easily shot the President that day. In nine months, 60,00 troops deserted from Lee’s army at Petersburg, leaving the Confederate commander with 35,000 troops, compared to Grant’s 125,000 men. a. After briefly capturing Fort Steadman, his last advance, Lee faced a 50 mile long counterattack by the Union forces. b. Pickett’s army was destroyed, Corp Commander A.P. Hill was killed by Union infantrymen and Petersburg fell after a nine month siege. Lee’s army slipped across the Appomattox River, trying to join Joseph E. Johnston’s army in North Carolina. Richmond, VA, (the Confederate capitol) fell to the Union forces on April 2, 1865. Jefferson Davis and the Confederate cabinet fled to the new Confederate capitol at Danville, Virginia. On April 6, Lee suffered 6000 casualties and the capture of his son, Custis, at Saylor Creek. As Lee’s army of 25,000 men moved along the Appomattox River, living off parched corn, they were surrounded on three sides by 125,000 Union troops and facing Phil Sheridan’s troops. On April 9, John Gordon tried a final time to break the army out, but upon cresting the hill, saw the entire Union army waiting below the hill. Realizing it was useless to continue, Lee arranged to meet Grant to discuss the terms of surrender in Wilmer McLean’s House at Appomattox Court House. Ironically, McLean had moved from his first home after the first battle of the war, Manassas, had taken place in his front yard. He witnessed the war’s beginning and end. 206 Grant gave the Confederates generous terms, allowing the officers to keep their swords and arranging for 25,000 rations to be delivered to the Confederate army. Three days later, John Gordon led the Confederates as they surrendered their guns and battle flags to Union troops commanded by General Joshua Chamberlain, who had been presumed dead at Petersburg. The Union troops saluted the Confederate troops as they arrived. On April 14, 1865 while watching the drama “Our American Cousin” in Ford’s theater in Washington, D.C., President Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head while seated in his balcony by John Wilkes Booth, who jumped to the stage and yelled “Sic Semper Tyrannis!” (Thus ever be it to tyrants). a. After being carried across the street, Lincoln died at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. b. Booth, who broke his leg in the leap to the stage, was found by Union troops, hiding in a Virginia tobacco barn. The barn was set ablaze but he died from a gunshot wound in the neck on April 26. c. One of Booth’s co-conspirators, Lewis Payne, stabbed Secretary of State William Seward as previously planned but Seward was not fatally wounded. d. Lincoln’s casket laid in state at the White House, then at the Capitol Rotunda. He was buried on May 4 in Springfield, Illinois. General Joe Hooker led the final procession to Oak Ridge Cemetery. e. On July 7, 1865 General Winfield Scott Hancock gave the order as four of Booth’s conspirators were hanged. Joe Johnston surrendered what remained of his army to General Sherman at Durham Station, North Carolina in late April, 1865. On May 10, Jefferson Davis was captured in Erwinville, Georgia, trying to escape to Texas, and jailed in Virginia. On May 13, Private John J. Williams became the last man killed in the Civil War, in the last battle at Palmetto Ranch in Texas. The war was over. 207 Results of the Civil War The South: The Southern economy was shattered. However, the war brought the Industrial Revolution to the South. $2,000,000,000 in slaves were freed and the social order of the South was destroyed. Confederate currency was invalid. The South was in ruins since it was the scene of most of the battles. The agrarian system changed dramatically. Many slaves were unprepared for the responsibilities of citizenship. Churches in the South would remain split from their northern counterparts until late in the 20th century. The southern population was demoralized, uncertain, bitter, shocked (over the cultural change), resentful (towards freedmen and unionists) and felt betrayed by the British. The federal government’s supremacy over the individual states was finally established. The North: The Civil War brought great prosperity to Northern agriculture and industry. The factory system expanded and cities grew. The National Bank was recreated in 1863, producing a sound uniform paper currency. The population grew with the addition of 800,000 immigrants from Europe. 208 The Homestead Act (1862) stimulated western development. Northern people felt the South had not “played fair” by seceding, etc. The Civil War claimed 618,000 lives. ¼ of the South’s military age men died in the war. Mississippi would spend 1/5 of its 1866 budget on artificial limbs. One out of every ten Confederate soldiers was from North Carolina; two out of every ten that died were from the state (40,000). Lesson 4: Reconstruction programs were designed to reestablish ties with the south, to repair, control, change and punish the region, to care for the freed slaves and to institute land reform programs. Presidential Reconstruction President Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction outlined his plan for restoring the south to the Union. Lincoln felt that the Confederate states had never truly seceded when he proclaimed “With malice toward none, with charity for all…’, i.e., he felt that southerners were still “members of the family”. He offered to pardon all southerners who would take an oath of allegiance to the Union and promise to accept federal laws and proclamations dealing with slavery. Excluded from this offer were: a. Those who had resigned positions in the federal government to serve in the Confederacy. b. Members of the Confederate government. c. High-ranking Confederate army and naval officers. d. Confederates who had mistreated prisoners of war. His plan also provided for the restoration of a seceded state to the Union. After 10% of the state’s voting population (who had voted in the election of 209 1860) took the oath of allegiance and formed a state government guaranteeing the abolition of slavery, the state could draw up a new constitution, elect new officials and return to the Union on a basis of full equality. Opposition to Lincoln’s plan Congress opposed the plan because it was an executive, rather than congressional, plan for reconstruction and claimed that only the legislative branch could readmit the seceded states. Congress was dominated by a group of radical Republicans led by Representative Thaddeus Stevens (Pennsylvania) who believed that the Confederate states, as “conquered provinces,” should be punished for their disloyalty and Senator Charles Sumner (Massachusetts) who felt that the Confederate states had committed “state suicide” and, therefore, should apply for statehood as new states. Sumner, a Puritan zealot who had required extensive medical treatment as a result of the pre-war cane beating he had received on the Senate floor by Preston Brooks in 1856, saw the South as evil. Many members of Congress feared that Lincoln’s leniency would return the “old system” to the south without rights for black southerners. Southern state legislatures had begun to enact laws (“black codes”) that inhibited the residential and occupational mobility of black southerners. Lincoln’s plan would allow former Confederates to hold high office. Some members of Congress were opposed to the idea that only 10% of the voting population in the south had to approve the President’s plan. Republicans in Congress feared that, unless southern blacks were allowed to vote, the southern states and the Democratic party would regain control of the federal government since white southerners were Democrats and black southerners were Republicans. Opposition to Lincoln’s plan for reconstruction was stated in the Wade-Davis Bill (July, 1864) which would: 210 a. Give political power to southerners who had remained loyal to the Union. b. Insure that the new constitutions of the southern states would protect the rights of former slaves. c. Prevent the payment of Confederate war debts. d. Readmit the southern states into the Union under harsher conditions than those proposed by Lincoln, requiring 50% of a seceded state’s 1860 voters to take the oath of allegiance before the state could return to the Union. Lincoln opposed the bill because he felt it would restrict his reconstruction efforts and that Congress was not authorized to make the states abolish slavery without a constitutional amendment. His opposition was tempered in order to avoid completely angering the Congress. Andrew Johnson became President after Lincoln’s assassination and plans for a lenient reconstruction began to wither away. Johnson, born in North Carolina and raised in Tennessee, was a southern Democrat who had remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War. He disliked black Americans and the southern planter aristocracy equally. He was elected as Vice-President on the National Union Party ticket in 1864 as part of a coalition designed to appeal to the South. President Johnson’s plan for reconstruction reflected the new President’s attempt to adopt Lincoln’s plan while trying to pacify the radical Republicans who were demanding a much harsher program. As a result, Johnson’s plan was somewhat less lenient than Lincoln’s. 50% of the southern voting population had to pledge support to the Union. Confederate officers and planters were disenfranchised for five years. 211 Rewards were offered for the arrest of Jefferson Davis and other former Confederate leaders after Lincoln’s murder. The 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery, was enacted. All southerners who took the oath of allegiance were pardoned (with the exceptions listed above) and were to hold constitutional conventions, repeal ordinances of secession, abolish slavery and repudiate Confederate and state debts. a. Confederate leaders and planters who were excluded from the pardon could apply directly to Johnson. b. By 1876, 13,500 of the 15,000 Confederate leaders and planters were pardoned. c. In 1867, Johnson pardoned all but 300 of the remaining group of 1500 Johnson officially recognized the loyal governments already established by Lincoln in four states (Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee and Virginia). Temporary governors were appointed in the seven remaining ex-Confederate states and were empowered to hold elections and form state governments. The Union army, still stationed in the South, interfered in southern political affairs until Johnson declared an end to hostilities in August, 1866. Johnson’s realistic view was more suited for reconstruction. He had previous experience with reconstruction in Tennessee while Lincoln was alive. As a southern Unionist, he was somewhat more willing to punish the south. His unwillingness to compromise with Congress irritated Republican radicals and moderates, led to his impeachment and almost resulted in his removal from office. 212 By the end of 1865 all but one of the southern states (Texas) had established new state governments and elected members to the United States Congress. Johnson announced that these states were restored to the Union. Congress seized control of the reconstruction process at the expense of the executive branch. Radical Reconstruction The Republican-controlled Congress assumed control of reconstruction when it convened in December, 1865. Radical Republicans took steps to insure their control of reconstruction by a. Removing certain civil rights cases from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. b. Disallowing Johnson to fill Supreme Court vacancies. c. Calling for a continuous Congressional secession, ignoring the traditional March-December break in odd years. d. Trying to replace Johnson with Benjamin F. Wade, the President Protem of the Senate. e. Refusing to seat the new southern Congressmen (including Alexander H. Stephens, the former Vice-President of the Confederacy who had since been elected to the Senate from Georgia) in order to prevent southern Democrats from regaining their pre-war domination of Congress. f. Declaring that the new state governments in the South were invalid. Moderate Republicans had controlled Congress until the end of 1865 but Johnson failed to ask for their support (which he may have received). When Congress adjourned, Johnson tried to singlehandedly implemented his 213 program. In the spring of 1866, Congress enacted legislation over the President’s veto that increased the powers of the Freedmen’s Bureau, a wartime organization that had been established by President Lincoln (March 3, 1865) and which was administered by army officers who were given the task of aiding and supervising ex-slaves. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act over Johnson’s veto in order to give black Americans full citizenship and to guarantee them equality of treatment. In the November, 1866 congressional elections, Republicans won two-thirds of both Houses. With the radicals now controlling Congress, a new phase of reconstruction began. Fearing that the Supreme Court might declare the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional, moderate and radical Republicans produced the 14th Amendment which: a. Made black Americans citizens of the United States and of the states in which they lived. b. Excluded former Confederate leaders from holding public office. c. Provided for less congressional representation for states that deprived blacks of their rights as citizens. d. Forbade southern states to repay Confederate war debts. e. Forbade payments to slave owners for losses arising from emancipation. Tennessee ratified the Amendment and was readmitted to the Union while the other ten Confederate states rejected it. The Reconstruction Acts were passed in 1867 over President Johnson’s veto. 214 The ten unreconstructed states were divided into five military districts, each policed by federal troops under the command of a military governor. Southerners who had voluntarily fought in the Confederate armies were disenfranchised (deprived of the right to vote or to hold office). These restrictions emulated the fourteenth Amendment. To qualify for readmission, a state had to hold a convention and frame a new constitution guaranteeing suffrage for black Americans. Delegates were to be elected by all citizens eligible to vote, including blacks. In 1867, black voters were registered in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina where they comprised a majority of the electorate. A state would be restored to the Union when it organized a new government and ratified the Fourteenth Amendment. President Johnson’s Congressmen dislike Johnson because He opposed their reconstruction plans. He vetoed many of their bills and was tactless in dealing with them. He had been a Southern Democrat before the war and was therefore distrusted. Congress adopted the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 which said that the President could not dismiss important civil officers without the Senate’s consent. This measure was passed by the Radical Republicans in order to Prevent Johnson from firing officials that he disliked. Find grounds for impeachment. Reduce the President’s power. 215 President Johnson, believed that the law was unconstitutional, demanded the resignation of Secretary of war Edwin W. Stanton. In 1868, the house of Representatives impeachment the President, i.e., they charged him with wrongdoing, claiming that he violated the Tenure of Office act when he dismissed Secretary Stanton. Actually, Stanton never left office. The Senate, acting as a court, tried Johnson on the impeachment charges. 35 Republicans and 0 Democrats voted for removal while 7 Republicans and 12 Democrats voted against the measure. With a vote of 35 to 19, the radical Republicans failed, by a margin of one vote, to muster the two-thirds vote necessary for Johnson’s removal. Johnson remained in office until the end of his term, but his influence had ended. Public opinion, however, turned against the radical in Congress. The Tenure of Office Act was later repealed by Congress after Ulysses S. Grant succeeded Johnson. The Southern states were readmitted to the Union while under the rule of “carpetbag” governments. Unscrupulous northern politicians who came to the south carrying their possessions in bags made of carpet and who rose to power with the aid of the black vote were known as “carpetbaggers.” Southern whites who cooperated with the carpetbaggers in gaining control of the state governments were called “scalawags.” The government controlled by carpetbaggers, scalawags and black politicians carried the conservative South into the area of public spending (for schools and care for freed slaves), raised land taxes from 400 to 1600%. 216 Many of these political were dishonest. They deceived unsuspecting blacks and grew rich by corruption (reimbursed race track losses, increased salaries, free products) and bribery. Southerners hated scalawags and carpetbaggers. Hiram Revels, an educator and Freeman’s Bureau administrator, admirably served in Jefferson Davis’ Senate seat as the first black Senator. Controlled by carpetbag governments, seven southern states met the requirements laid down by congress and were readmitted to the Union by the summer of 1868. Tennessee had already been admitted as the first state to return to the Union. Three states remained to be admitted. In 1869, Congress passed the 15th Amendment which granted blacks the right to vote. The Amendment stated, “The right of citizens of the united states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of race, color or previous conditions of servitude.” This amendment did not apply to women. The three remaining states (Mississippi, Texas and Virginia) were required to ratify both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments in order to be readmitted. In 1870, Congress approved their readmission after they met the requirements. The Republican Party consolidated its control of the federal government as reconstruction drew to a close. In the Election of 1868, Ulysses S. Grant, the Civil war hero from Illinois, won the election with a large majority of electoral votes but only a very small majority of popular votes. The black vote helped Grant to win the election and, thus, the Republican Party, after the election, successfully secured the ratification of the 15th Amendment to protect their support among black southerners. 217 Beginning with the Election of 1868, the Republican Party, for an entire generation, “waved the bloody shirt,” accusing the Democrats of treason and secession. As President, Grant supported the severe Congressional plan of reconstruction, made unwise appointments that resulted in political and financial scandals, and was beset by economic problems in the Panic of 1873. Despite charges of corruption surrounding his administration, Grant was reelected in 1872. White southerners regaining control of their state governments in the south through the use of violence and other means. Fear of violence kept many freedmen from the polls. Blacks, scalawags and carpetbaggers were threatened with beatings, lynchings and destruction of property by secret societies of white southerners such as the Ku Klux Klan. The power of the KKK was effectively reduced when the Federal government passed the Force Acts which Gave the President power to use federal military forces to control secret societies. Allowed the President to call upon state militias for help. Provided for the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus (which had required government officials to show just cause why a prisoner should not be released). More young whites who had not participated in the war (and therefore had the right to vote) reached the voting age each year. In 1872 Congress restored the rights of suffrage (the right to vote) and office holding to all but approximately 500 former confederates through the Amnesty Act. 218 The reconstruction governments in several states were thus replaced by governments representing traditional white southern rule. “Radical Reconstruction” was drawing to an end. End of Reconstruction By the 1870’s northerners began to lose interest in southern reconstruction. Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner died, reducing Radical Republican leadership. They began to neglect the interests of Black Americans, feeling that blacks perhaps needed supervision (conditions in the north in terms of black/white relations weren’t much better). They also yearned for economic ties with southern businessman. Rutherford B. Hayes won the scandalous Election of 1876 and, shortly after his inauguration, Hayes recalled the soldiers, thereby ending military occupation of the south and bringing the Reconstruction Era to an end. Republican-controlled carpetbag governments in the south were swept out of office with the end of military rule. Results of Reconstruction The south resented the Republican Party and, for the next 75 years, the southern states cast their votes almost solidly for the Democratic Party (the “Solid South”). Black citizens in the south Were not able to share in the agricultural, industrial and educational progress of the new south. Suffered from discrimination. 219 Blacks were prevented from voting in many instances due to the use by white southerners of A. poll taxes B. literacy tests C. grandfather clauses D. intimidation They were kept apart (segregated) from whites through legislation known as: “Jim Crow laws”, which required segregation in housing, transportation facilities, public accommodations, and schools. “Plessy v. Ferguson” (an 1896 Supreme Court decision) in which the court ruled that it was not a violation of the 14th amendment to provide “separate but equal” facilities for black Americans. Thomas Nast attacked white Southern Democrat through cartoons. Despite setbacks, black southerners sought to improve their lives. Booker T. Washington built Tuskeegee Institution in Alabama to offer blacks vocational education which he felt was more vital to their interests in seeking jobs than classical or liberal arts education. Ida Wells Barnett led a crusade against lynchings by whites. W. E. B. DeBois earned a Ph.D. at Harvard University and believed that protests against inequalities and injustices, along with appeals to black pride, could change existing conditions. He wrote The Souls of Black Folk, appealed for broader educational opportunities for blacks and criticizing Booker T. Washington’s emphasis on vocational education. The National Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) worked through the courts to end disenfranchisement and other violations of civil liberties. It remains a viable force in the 20th century. 220 The Urban League secured equal job opportunities for black workers and fought against housing discrimination. This organization continues to function admirably today. Most freeman sought reunion with family members and attempted to create separate churches. South Carolina afforded the opportunity for freeman to purchase land which had been purchased by the state’s land administration from planters and also produced an aggresome referendum of reforms through the efforts of the only black majority to control one legislative house in the South during reconstruction. The “New South’ that emerged from the reconstruction period differed significantly from the Old South. Agriculture was more diversified. Along with the staple crops of cotton, tobacco and rice, new crops such as corn, wheat, vegetables, fruits and peanuts were raised. Plantations were subdivided by the planter and rented to A. tenant farmers, who supplied their own provisions. B. Sharecroppers, who supplied only their labor and who received only a portion of the crop that was raised. Most freedmen preferred to become sharecroppers rather than wage earners because of the freedom and economic independence the system afforded, even though cotton cultivation produced very little money for the sharecropper or the landowner. Most freedmen remained in the South their home. Industrialization developed due to A. and abundance of raw materials B. cheap labor C. low taxes D. abundant water power 221 Cotton mills previously located in New England were attracted to the south in pursuit of cheap labor (over 4 million freed slaves). Cities grew as industrial development occurred. A. Durham, North Carolina B. Richmond, Virginia C. Nashville, Tennessee D. Atlanta, Georgia E. Birmingham, Alabama (the “Pittsburgh” of the South) produced a great iron steel industry. Public spending for education, transportation and other services emerged in contrast to the pre-war South that that had frowned on government-funded projects and real estate taxes. 222 Unit Six: The Gilded Age and Progressive Era Lesson 1: Congress and the Republican Party dominated political developments during the Gilded Age (Twain’s “Age of Excess”). Political parties of the Gilded Age Republicans, usually civil war veterans who won close victories, drew support from New England Protestants, upper Midwestern farmers, industrialists, northern veterans and blacks. They emphasized order and the welfare of the community over the individual rights. During the Civil War the Republican Party had expanded the federal governments power with the A. Creation of the land grant subsidies for the founding of colleges through the Morrill Act. B. Settlement of the Midwest with the Homestead Act. C. Formation of a National Bank. D. Creation of a National Currency. Democrats drew support from southerners, northern bankers, importers, urban Irish Catholics as well as Polish Italian (eastern and southern European) immigrants. 223 Third parties included the Greenback Labor Part, Liberal republicans and the Populists. Although the Republicans seemed to dominate the era, control of the House of Representatives changed six times from 1860 to1890 and Presidential elections were typically very close due to the Democratic Party’s dominance in the South, the Republican advantage in the west and balance between the two parties in the North and Midwest. Fierce competition between the parties led to the highest voter turnout in American History (roughly 80%) during the decades following the Civil War, even though the parties agreed on most issues. The Presidential administration of the Gilded Age have been described as “custodial” due to Congressional control of government affairs. Their weakness has been attributed to a lack of leadership qualities, the absence of strong Congressional majorities and impeachment of Andrew Johnson. Ulysses S. Grant’s administration (Republican, 1869-1877) was characterized by immense corruption at the federal, state and local levels of government. Election of 1868 Ulysses S. Grant, the Civil War hero from Illinois and his running mate, Schuyler Colfax of Indiana were nominated by the Republicans at their convention in Chicago. Grant was the most popular man in the North. The Democratic candidate, Horatio Seymour, a former governor of New York, and his running mate, Francis P. Blair, Jr. of Missouri, denounced the Radical Republican reconstruction program as unconstitutional and condemned the radicals for their attempt to remove Johnson from office. The platform called for war bonds to be redeemed with greenbacks, rather than gold as wealthy easterners wanted, and thus, promised “cheap money” (more currency in circulation) in order to help agrarian debtors in finding loans. However, Seymour, who represented wealthy Eastern interests, lost any change of winning the election after he repudiated this “Ohio idea” in his party platform. 224 Grant won the election with a large majority of electoral votes (214 to 80) but only a very small majority of the popular vote. i. The Black vote helped Grant to win the election and, as a result, the Republican party secured the passage of the 15th Amendment to protect the party’s support among black southerners – Most white voters had supported Seymour ii. Beginning with the Election of 1868, the Republican Party, for an entire generation “waved the bloody shirt” accusing the Democrats of Treason and secession while encouraging northern veterans to “vote as you shot”. The “bloody shirt” directed attention away from the real issues As Grant supported the severe Congressional plan of reconstruction and made unwise appointments that resulted in political and financial scandals a. The Credit Moblier scandal emerged after stockholders in the Union Pacific railway awarded inflated contracts to the Credit Moblier construction company in which they along with several congressmen were stockholders. Two congressmen were censured and the VicePresident was lampooned for accepting shares of stock and dividends from the company b. The “salary grab” (1873) was an attempt by congressmen to grant themselves a 50% pay raise and a $5,000 bonus. Public uproar led to the measures repeal c. Treasury Secretary William Richardson gave John D. Sanborn a contract to collect overdue federal taxes but allowed him to keep half the money as a “commission” d. High public officials, including Grant’s personal secretary were guilty of not paying excise taxes on liquor. Grant successfully convinced the jury to acquit his secretary e. Secretary of War William Belknap extended trading rights with Indians to a friend who paid the secretary of War a bribe to maintain 225 the right to sell junk to the Indians. Belknap resigned in order to avoid the impeachment voted unanimously by the House of representatives f. On “Black Friday,” September 24,1869, Millionaires “Jubilee Jim” Fisk and Jay Gould, in an effort to gain control of the gold market, drove the price of gold upward after receiving assurances from the naïve Grant and his brother, who they had bribed, that the federal government would not interfere in the gold markets. However, as businessmen faced ruin, the Treasury released gold to the public, thus preventing Fisk and Gould from gaining monopoly control over the gold market. A Congressional investigation cleared Grant of any wrongdoing. g. Urban political machines during the Gilded Age maintained their power by rewarding their constituents with patronage (jobs and political opportunities), by controlling the corrupt criminal justice system and improving the infrastructure (particularly transit systems), services and facilities of the cities. They ignored the poor housing conditions of immigrants. In New York, the political machinery was controlled by William Marcy “Boss” Tweed and the Democratic political machine, Tammany Hall. By securing the support of immigrants through the use of jobs, food, money (bribes), threats to opponents and illegal electoral practices, the “Tweed ring” was able to extract close to $100 million from the city of New York. Tweed was indicted after being exposed by the New York Times (which rejected his bribe of $5 million), ridiculed by the cartoons of Thomas Nast and Horace Greeley and ultimately jailed in 1872. h. Grant’s accepted cash gifts exceeding $100,000 as well as houses from admirers and appointed dozens of his family members to wellpaid government positions. Election of 1872 Many Americans, including many Republicans, opposed Grant due to the corruption of his administration (much of which had not yet been disclosed) 226 as well as his reconstruction policy but he was renominated with a new running mate, Henry Wilson. The Liberal Republican Party, composed of Republicans opposed to Grant, nominated Horace Greely of New York and his running mate, B. Gratz Brown of Missouri. Greely, a brilliant writer but poor choice of candidates, called for an end to the military occupation of the South and civil service reform. The Democratic Party supported Greely in an effort to unit with dissenting republicans against Grant, even through Greely had been a severe critic of the Democratic South. Greely’s support suffered because he had signed Jefferson Davis’s bail bond. Grant won reelection (286 to 66 electoral votes) and Greely’s electoral votes were cast for other candidates as he died before the electoral college convened. Liberal Republicans influenced Congress to grant amnesty to most Confederates, reduce tariffs and to institute civil service reform. The Panic of 1873 was the result of widespread business speculation, financed by irresponsible banks that collapsed when their loans were nor repaid. Civil war financier Jay Cooke’s banking firm went bankrupt and thousands of businesses failed, resulting in widespread unemployment. As the economy fell into depression, debtors called for inflationary “cheap money” such as had been poured into the country during the Civil war, even though much of the money had since been withdrawn and the act which had authorized its printing had been declared unconstitutional (a decision later reversed after Grant increased the number of Supreme Court justices to sixteen). “Second” or “hard” money creditors did not want their loans to be repaid with depreciated dollars and successfully opposed the calls for cheap money. They persuaded Grant to veto a “cheap money” bill and, through the Resumption Act of 1875, forced the government to withdrew greenbacks from circulation and to redeem paper currency in gold. 227 Debtors called on the government to adopt the inflationary policy of the free and unlimited coinage of silver. Western agrarian interests felt that monetary inflation- “cheap money” –would raise the prices for farm produce, benefit silver interests with the expansion of silver mining and weaken the power of eastern creditors who supported the gold standard. Despite higher market values, the Treasury argued that silver was worth only 1/16th that value of gold and, in1873, Congress halted the coinage of silver dollars (the “Crime of ‘73”) with the approval of President Grant, a second money advocate. The reduction of silver dollars and greenbacks, known as “contraction,” had a deflationary impact on the economy but restored the government’s credit rating as well as the face value of the greenbacks. The second money policies of the Republican Party adversely affected the party politically as the Democratic party gained control of the House of Representatives in 1874 and led to the creation of the Greenback Labor party. Due to the corruption that consumed his two terms in office, Grant has often been portrayed as the worst President in U.S. history. Henry Adams later wrote that Grant “should have lived in a cave and worn skins.” Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican; 1877-1881) won the controversial Election in 1876 with a minority of the popular vote and, shortly after his inauguration, concluded the military occupation of the south and brought the Reconstruction Era to an end. After Grant was discouraged by Congress from running for a third term, the Republicans nominated former governor and war veteran Hayes of the swing state of Ohio, with William A. Wheeler of New York as his running mate. The Republican Party divided between conservative “Stalwarts” who, led by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, used patronage for votes, and reform-minded “Half-Breeds led by Congressman James G. Blaine, who attacked patronage. 228 The Democratic Party nominated Samuel J. Tilden who had helped to destroy “Boss” Tweed’s corrupt domination of New York politics. His running mate was Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana. The Greenback Labor Party, opposed to the gold standard and calling for “cheap money” to help debtors, nominated Peter Cooper of New York of President and Samuel F. Carey of Ohio for Vice-President. Tilden polled a larger number of popular votes and electoral votes but was one electoral vote short of a majority. The nineteen electoral votes from South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana were not yet counted because of election disputes. The Electoral Count Act of early 1877 called for the governor of any state with more than one set of election returns in the future to approve an official set and it also created an electoral commission comprised of five Supreme Court justices, five representatives and five senators to address the dispute in this election. After the commission of eight Republicans and seven Democrats awarded Florida’s disputed votes to Hayes by a vote of 8 to 7, despite the fact that Tilden had more of the state’s popular votes, Congressional democrats threatened a filibuster. In the “Compromise of 1877,” the Democratic members of Congress allowed Hayes to receive the remainder of the disputed electoral votes, thus becoming President in return for a Republican promise to withdraw any remaining federal troops from the south, to share patronage appointments with southern Democrats and to fund a southern transcontinental railroad line (a promise never kept). Hayes became known as “01’ 8 to 7.” As a result of the efforts of the Greenback Labor Party, the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 called on the Treasury to coin $2-4 million worth of silver bullion each month. Hayes confronted striking railroad workers in 1877 in the nation’s first major strike, the “Great Upheaval,” which began in West Virginia and Maryland. In response to violence by Denis Kearney’s Irish followers against Chinese immigrants, Congress restricted Chinese immigration in 1879. Although 229 Hayes vetoed the Chinese Exclusion Act as discriminatory, the legislation was enacted after Hayes left office. Faced with certain defeat within his own party, Hayes chose not to run for reelection. James A. Garfield won the election of 1880 as a Union veteran and a “log cabin” candidate. The Republican ticket of Garfield, a civil war general from the swing state of Ohio, and his Stalwart running mate from New York, Chester A. Arthur, called for protective tariffs and minor civil service reforms. Garfield was nominated on the 36th ballot after the reform delegates failed to secure the nomination for James G. Blaine. The Democrats nominated war hero Winfield Scott Hancock of Pennsylvania and his running mate, William H. English of Indiana. Although they spent much of the campaign attacking Garfield’s involvement in the Credit Mobilier’ scandal, they called for tariff reform and were opposed to the protective tariff. The Greenback Labor Party also nominated a civil war general, James B. Weaver, with B.J. Chambers as his running mate. Garfield won the election with a slim majority of the popular vote but with a comfortable 214 to 155 electoral vote margin. He was assassinated in June, four months after taking office, by Charles Giteau, a mentally-unbalanced civil service applicant who was frustrated over his failure to secure an appointment as an ambassador. Garfield died on September 19 1881, the second President to die from an assassin’s bullet. Though he was found guilty and hanged, Giteau’s trial brought the insanity defense to the public eye. Chester A. Arthur (Republican; 1881-1885) was Garfield’s Vice-President and seceded him after the assassination. The Pendleton Act reformed the civil service (public jobs) selection process as a result of Garfield’s death. It brought an end to the spoils system through which party loyalists (“spoilsmen”) expected government jobs from 230 their party’s elected officials and required prospective appointees to take a civil service exam. It established a merit and tenure system. Arthur’s reforms surprised his Stalwart wing of the Republican Party. Arthur attempted to crack down on corruption. Grover Cleveland became the-first Democrat to be elected since Buchanan in 1856 by winning the Election of 1884, the dirtiest campaign in American history. Governor Cleveland, of New York, running with Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, was known for his honesty and integrity but was smeared in the campaign when it was revealed that he may have fathered an illegitimate child in New York. Even though the mother had been involved with other men, Cleveland honorably made financial arrangements for her and thus, was branded as the father. The Republicans shouted: “Ma, Ma, where’s my pa?” The Republican nominee, Congressman James G. Blaine of Maine, was accused of supporting “big business” interests and was tainted by his refusal to condemn a Republican minister who referred to the Democrats as the party of “Rum, Romanism and Rebellion,” smearing New York’s Irish-Catholic community as drunkards with an unfit religion and no patriotism. Blaine’s association with a corrupt deal involving a southern transcontinental railroad led many reform-minded Republicans to support the Democrats and they were, thereafter, referred to as “mugwumps” (Indian for “holier than thou”). Blaine, like Cleveland, did not serve in the Civil War and, as a result, the “bloody shirt” was not a big issue in 1884. Blaine’s running mate was John a. Logan of Illinois. Benjamin Butler (of Civil War fame) and his running mate, A.M. West represented the Greenback Labor Party while John P. St. John and William Daniel ran on the Prohibition Party ticket. With the help of the “Solid South,” Cleveland won by a very narrow margin of popular votes and with a 219 to 182 margin in electoral votes. a. Cleveland hated corruption and continued the reform movement in civil service. He fought against patronage, 231 though he ultimately granted the wishes of many office-seeking Democrats. b. He enjoyed the support of the business community as an advocate of laissez-faire philosophy and opposed pension-grabbing veterans, despite the strength of the Grand Army of the Republic, the postwar veteran’s organization. c. The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) regulated, for the first time, the transportation industry and created a federal regulatory commission. The Interstate Commerce Commission prevented the railroads from making “pool” arrangements, giving rebates, charging unjust rates or different prices per mile based on distance. The Interstate Commerce Commission did not have the power to fix railroad rates but did require them to be reasonable and just. The Interstate Commerce Act represented a significant shift from earlier federal policy which granted subsidies to companies building the transcontinental railroad. d. Cleveland retrieved 81 million acres of Western land for the government, much of which had been corruptly grabbed earlier by cattle barons and railroads. e. Cleveland oppose the high tariff rates which had been in effect since the Civil War and which were the source of the government’s embarrassingly high surplus of funds in the Treasury. Despite opposition from big business and his own politically-sensitive Democratic Party, he called for lower tariffs to reduce the surplus and to promote competition in a market dominated by monopolies. Tariff rates became the issue in the next election. Benjamin Harrison (Republican; 1889-1893) was a weak President who reversed Cleveland’s policies after winning the Election of 1888 with a 232 minority of popular votes. The primary issue in the election was protective tariff rates. Republicans argued that high tariff rates encouraged native American manufacturing, protected the jobs of workers and guaranteed higher wages, even though it did not protect them from job competition that came from immigrants. Democrats maintained that a high tariff yielded windfall profits for big business and discriminated against southern and western farmers who consumed finished goods and sold their produce without any government assistance on the world market. Harrison, the Indiana grandson of President William Henry Harrison, and his running mate, Levi P. Morton of New York, argued that the tariffs protected the interests of America over European interests and portrayed the Democrats as pro-British, weakening the traditional Irish support of the Democratic Party. The Republicans also used the tariff issue to scare millions of dollars in contributions out of big business and purchased votes in Indiana and other “swing states” with the money. Though Cleveland, which his new running mate, Allen G. Thurmond of Ohio, polled more popular votes than Harrison (5,540,365 to 5,445,269), Harrison garnered more electoral votes (223 to 168) and won the election. The Prohibition Party nominated Clinton B. Fisk and John A. Brooks while the Union Labor Party nominated Aaron J. Streater and C. E. Cummingham. Harrison, nicknamed the “White House Ice Chest” for his cold handshake, was a witness to Congressional control of the government during his administration. a. Harrison continued the practice of patronage as he appointed James g. Blaine as Secretary of State and filled other key positions with Republicans. b. Despite a bare majority in the House of Representatives, the Republicans were forcefully led by Speaker of the House Thomas “Czar” Reed of Maine, who ignored Democratic attempts to frustrate the legislative process with roll calls for a quorum. Under Reed’s 233 leadership, the “Billion Dollar Congress” (the first Congress to appropriate a billion dollars) funded many projects to eliminate the surplus, rather than cutting tariff rates which were the source of the surplus. i) At the urging of a civil war amputee service as Commissioner of Pensions, Congress dramatically increased the number of pensioners and rapidly eliminated the Treasury surpus. ii) The Sherman Antitrust Act was passed, due to public pressure, to protect the public from monopolies but it was most often used against labor unions (“U.S. v Debs”). iii) The Sherman Silver Purchase Act increased the money supply and pleased indebted farmers by guaranteeing that the federal government would buy 4-1/2 million ounces of silver each month. It was a response to limitations on silver purchased imposed in 1878 by the Bland-Allison Act. Ironically, big business, which hated the cheap money policy, supported it due to a compromise which would also produce higher tariffs, which indebted farmers hated but supported in order to insure the coinage of silver which would help them repay their debts. iv) Congress passed the highest protective tariff in American history up to that point through the McKinley Tariff Act. As higher tariff rates drove prices upward, farmers suffered, resulting in a landslide victory for the Democrats in the 1890 Congressional elections. As the conservative, pro-tariff McKinley and other Republicans left office in defeat, nine Congressmen from the militant Farmer’s Alliance took their seats. Grover Cleveland (Democrat; 1885-1889; 1893-1897) remains the only President to have served non-consecutive terms after winning the Election of 1892. The Democrats nominated former President Cleveland and his running mate, Adlai Stevenson of Illinois. 234 President Harrison and his running mate, Whitelaw Reid of New York, promoted protective tariffs, despite the losses that the Republicans had suffered in the 1890 Congressional elections. The People’s Party, better known as the Populist Party, emerged in the Election of 1892 to express the anger and concerns of southern and western farmers. The party’s Presidential nominee, James B. Weaver of Iowa, and his running mate, James G. Field of Virginia, pronounced the Populist Party’s “Omaha Platform.” a. The Populists, like the Greenback Labor Party, called for an increase in the money supply through the free and unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one. b. The party wanted to nationalize (transfer to public ownership) the railroads, telegraphs and telephones. They believed that western farmers were exploited by eastern bankers and capitalists. c. A progressive income tax would require wealthier citizens to pay a greater percentage of income to the federal government and would reduce the tax burden of the poor. d. Farmers could store their crops in a national system of warehouses e. Political reforms would indicate the direct election of U.S. Senators. f. The Populists wanted shorter working hours. g. Calling for restrictions on immigration, white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants, who claimed to be the “native Americans,” blamed unemployment on cheap, immigrant labor. h. The Populists lost the election of 1892 but made a significant showing. i. Populism failed because its reforms did not appeal to Midwestern middle class farmers or urbanites in all regions, despite having charismatic leaders as well as strong support in the South and West. 235 John Bidwell and James B. Cranfill were the Prohibition Party Candidates. Labor unrest over low wages, which were supposed to improve with the increasing tariff rates, erupted into strikes. The Carnegie Steel strike near Pittsburgh resulted in deaths and injuries before troops were called in to break up the disturbance. Harrison suffered at the polls as Cleveland collected 277 electoral votes to Harrison’s 145. The Populist Party became one of the very few third parties to gain electoral votes as they gathered 22 electoral votes from six Midwestern and western states. White southerners continued to support the Democratic Party while black southerners became increasingly disenfranchised by state governments. Cleveland faced immediate troubles upon taking office and his second term was far less successful than his first. a. The Depression of 1893, the most severe economic downturn of the century, emerged as a result of over speculation, labor unrest, depressed farm prices and the loss of American credit abroad as a result of unrest over silver coinage. The financial panic which precipitated the depression was similar to those which caused the depressions of the 1830’s and 1870’s. i) Unemployment was widespread as business and railroads failed. ii) Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act because, as the government bought large quantities with legal tender notes and the notes were exchanged by the people for gold, the Treasury’s supply of gold fell to dangerously low levels while the supply of depreciated silver increased. iii) The repeal of the Sherman Silver-Purchase Act only partially halted the drain of gold as bank notes continued to the presented for redemption in gold. As the nation was threatened with going off the gold standard and no longer backing its money with gold, a move which would adversely affect foreign trade, a Wall Street syndicate led by J.P. Morgan made a $65 million to the government, restoring confidence in the nations’ currency. However, debtors and others who supported silver coinage cried that the government had sold out to 236 the rich. President Cleveland’s decision to align himself with eastern baking interests who advocated the gold standard and to support the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act led to a loss of support for the President among farmers. iv) Jacob S. Coxey of Ohio and his “Army” of unemployed “Coxeyites” marched on Washington, demanding public works programs for the unemployed and an increase of $500 million in the money supply. Coxey and his “officers” were arrested for walking on the grass. b. Cleveland lost the support of organized labor when he sent troops to keep mail moving during the Pullman strike in Chicago. i) Eugene V. Debs, who would later run for President five times as a Socialist, had organized 150,000 railway workers into the American Railway Union. In 1894 the Supreme Court ruled in the case “U.S. v. Debs” that the provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act applied to labor unions. ii) Attorney General Olney sent troops to Chicago to keep the mail cars running. After defying a court order to halt their strike, Debs and other strike leaders were arrested and jailed for six months for contempt of court. Populists and debtors joined the labor movement in attacking the court’s injunctions which helped big business. c. The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act (1894) kept protective tariff rates relatively high, though it supposedly repealed the McKinley Tariff. Cleveland blasted the diluted bill as a betrayal of the Democratic Party’s promise to lower tariff rates dramatically but signed the bill as it provided rates lower than the McKinley Tariff. The income tax, included in the bill to satisfy the public, was declared unconstitutional in 1895 by the Supreme Court. d. Cleveland countered powerful lobbies and interest groups and stopped “pension grabs” by veterans. 237 e. As a result of the depression, the Republicans won by a landslide in the 1894 Congressional elections and seized control of the House of Representatives. William McKinley (Republican; 1897-1901) defeated the Democratic-Populist candidate, William Jennings Bryan, in the Election of 1896. McKinley, a civil war veteran, experienced Congressman from Ohio and author of the McKinley Tariff, was joined on the Republican ticket by his running mate, Garret Hobart of New Jersey. a. His campaign was bankrolled and directed by a wealthy Ohio iron Manufacturer, Mark Hanna, who took on the role of President-maker. Hanna believed that government existed to serve business and, as business prospered, its wealth would “trickle down” to labor. b. The “Big Business” Republicans campaigned on the depression issue, supported protective tariffs, and, in order to pacify the silver coin advocates, called for internationalism bimetallism, i.e. an international gold and silver standard, knowing that the world community would never support the proposal. c. McKinley conducted a quiet, “front porch” campaign. The Democratic Party nominated the young, magnificent orator and Congressman William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska for President and Arthur Sewall of Maine as his running mate. a. President Cleveland, very conservative and very unpopular due to the repeal f the Silver Purchase Act, Pullman strike and Morgan gold deal, very unpopular, did not attend the convention dominated by the silver interests. b. Bryan’s “Cross of Gold” convention speech remains the most memorable convention speech in American history. He attacked the “sound money” advocates of the gold standard in shouting: “You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.” He joined the debtor’s call 238 for the “free and unlimited coinage of silver” at a ratio of 16 ounces of silver to one ounce of gold, despite the fact that the market ratio of 32:1 would make silver dollars only worth fifty cents. Conservative “sound money” Democrats, feeling that their party had been consumed by un-Democratic interests, nominated John Palmer and Simon Buckner on the National Democratic ticket. The Populists, with their message stolen by the Democrats, endorsed Bryan but named Thomas E. Watson of Georgia as their Vice-Presidential candidate. Bryan forced the public’s attention onto the unlimited coinage of silver as the campaign issue, making hundreds of speeches on its behalf. As a response, Mark Hanna, who had become the Republican National Chairman, joined together with other “Gold Bugs” to raise the most formidable campaign fund in U.S. history - $16 million, compared to the Democrat’s $1 million. Although the Democratic-Populist candidate Bryan mad a strong showing, he lost to the “sound money” Republicans by 271 to 176 electoral votes. The election demonstrated that agrarian votes alone could not win an election, for urban voters, rich and por (who feared the inflation that would come with silver coinage) proved that the political power of the country had shifted from rural to urban areas, to big business, to the urban middle class, and to conservative economic philosophy. The federal government in he late 1800’s followed a conservative, “sound money” monetary policy, refusing to issue currency not backed by gold or silver and reducing the amount of currency convertible into specie. Republicans would dominate American politics until the 1930’s. Tariff rates were raised under the Dingley Tariff of 1897 which “Czar Reed” pushed through the Congress. Prosperity which emerged in 1897 made it easier for the Republican Congress to pass the Gold Standard Act in 1900, assuring the country of the gold standard and burying the cries of the pro-silver, debtor interests. New 239 deposits of gold and moderate inflation eased the problems of debtors as the economy soared. The Gilded Age concluded with McKinley’s election. Lesson 2: The Gilded Age was accompanied by the settlement and industrialization of the western frontier. Western industry was diversified in part, due to environmental influences and became a legendary part of the American experience. Glamorous ‘Wild West” myths have often overshadowed the reality. The railroad industry has been characterized as carving an empire, under constant attack from robbers and Indians. Mining camps and towns, known for prostitutes, saloons, lawlessness and individuals who “struck it rich,” usually afforded wealthy only to those who had the resources for large-scale mining. Vigilantes often provided the only source of justice. The cattle drives of the “Old West” have been the source of innumerous and glamorous myths. Cowboys confronted long, hot days and cold nights more often than rustlers and Indians. Cattle towns were known for their “gunslingers” who provided the thrills of an occasional gunfight. The myth surrounded the pioneers who settled and crossed the Great Plains usually involving Conestoga wagons, Indian attacks and a tranquil farm life. Actually, the pioneers moved westward in much larger Pittsburgh wagons, which could carry up to 5000 pounds of freight, confronted Indians infrequently and faced a hard, difficult life in trying to farm the harsh Plains. Perhaps no entity of the “Wild West” is an romanticized as the outlaw. Jesse James and Billy the Kid were simply bad men broke the law and were killed as a result. 240 The frontier diminished as communication and transportation brought the east and West together. The Pony Express (1860) provided relays of express riders, including William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody, who carried the mail 2000 miles on swift horses from Missouri to California in ten days. The cost was $10.00 ounce. The first telegraph to the Far West was completed in 1861. Stagecoach lines (1858) carried passengers and mail from Missouri, where the railheads stopped, to California. Conestoga wagons drawn by oxen or mules carried heavy freight westward. Two railroad companies were licensed to link the Pacific coast to the east with the transcontinental railroad. Irish immigrants, working for Leland Stanford’s Union Pacific, built westward from Omaha, Nebraska into Wyoming Utah. The Central Pacific pushed eastward from Sacramento, California across the mountains into Nevada and Utah, using many Chinese laborers. During this period, 25% of all of the immigrants to the United States were Chinese. Rough and icy terrain often slowly progress to as little as 8 inches/day. In May, 1869 the two railway lines met at Promontory Point near Ogden, Utah, and drove a golden spike into the ground with a silver hammer, making it possible to travel from the Atlantic coast to Sacramento, California and, then, to San Francisco, by rail on the first transcontinental railway in the Western Hemisphere. By 1893, the Northern Pacific, Southern Pacific, Santa Fe and Great Northern railway companies also completed railroad lines to the Pacific Coast. Railroad mileage in the United States doubled from 35,000 to 70,000 miles in the eight year period following the Civil War. The government provided financial assistance to the railroads by paying per mile subsidies for track 241 laid on flat land ($16,000), hilly land ($32,000), and mountainous land ($48,000). The railroads also received 10 to 20 square miles of land, complete with a 400’right-of-way. The assistance given to the railroads by the U.S. government seemed to dispel the myth of laissez-faire free enterprise during the era. James J. Hill’s Great Northern railroad company was the only company to be built without government aid. Railroads became the nation’s largest industry and the first to use modern corporate management systems. By 1890 the railroad network included 166,000 miles of track. The coal and steel industries emerged as a product of the railroad industry, which would purchase half of the entire coal and steel output produced in America by 1900. The railroad industry divided the nation into times zones in 1883 in order to bring efficiency to scheduling. The railroads stimulated urbanization and immigration. Western farmers benefited from the access to eastern markets provided by the railroad companies. The Mining Industry of the Rocky Mountain frontier Industrialization aided farmers in their efforts to conquer the western frontier. The west reciprocated by providing food supplies, gold and silver to help in the expansion of the Industrial Revolution. Few miners “struck it rich.” Indeed, retailers were the most successful entrepreneurs, catering to the miners with exorbitantly-priced goods ($1.00/egg) Large companies which funded large mining operations were the most profitable mining enterprises. The gold and silver from the western mines, in part, financed the Union war effort during the Civil war and fueled the explosion of industrial growth in the East after the war. 242 In the tradition of the “49’ers” that had flocked to California, more than 100,000 “Fifty-Niners” rushed to Pike’s Peak in the unorganized territory of Colorado (“Pike’s Peak or Bust!”) for gold and silver and to the Comstock Lode, the largest silver mine in the world, in Nevada. Gold and silver led Nevada into statehood in 1864. Silver was abundant in Utah. In the 1860’s gold was found in Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Arizona. Gold found in the Black Hills of South Dakota led the government to abandon its efforts to protect the Sioux Indian living in the region and to open the entire area to white settlers in 1876. Mining communities sprang up and presented an image of lawlessness, saloons and rough living conditions. Law-abiding citizens formed local governments and organized private (vigilante) police forces. In Tombstone, Arizona, a silver mining town, the most famous gunfight in “Wild West” history erupted at the D. K. Corral on October 26, 1881. Wyatt Earp, his brothers and his close friend, “Doc” Holliday (a dentist) went to the corral to enforce a local gun control law among members of the Clanton gang. Shooting began without warning, As a result, Billy Clanton and the McLowerys lay dead. Virgil and Morgan Earp were wounded and Doc Holliday had minor wounds Only the two leaders, Wyatt Earp and Ike Clayton were unhurt Doc Holliday later died at the age of 35 of tuberculosis and alcohol abuse Other “Wild West figures did not always live up to their mythical reputation After the legendary Jessie James was killed near Northfield Minnesota, his brother and fellow gang member, Frank James, became a shoe salesman Bat Masterson became a sports writer 243 “Wild bill” Hickok, a lawman, gunfighter, card player and drinker was shot and killed in a saloon in Deadwood, south Dakota holding a pair of Ace’s and a pair of 8’s, a “dead man’s hand.” Eventually the successful communities formed territories and were admitted as states while abandoned mining towns became “ghost towns” Mining became a permanent industry in the Rocky mountain region. Other rich mineral resources were found, including copper, lead and zinc The mining frontier demonstrated reverse migration as Californians migrated eastward to other rocky Mountain mining communities Additional contributions to the area’s economic development came from timber resources, grazing lands, lumbering and cattle/sheep raising The “Cattle Kingdom” emerged on the Great Plains frontier in the 1860s The vast, grass covered prairie from the Missouri River to the Rockies was thought to be unsuited for agriculture and, thus was ignored by the early pioneers When Americans settled Texas in 1821, the found herds of half-wild cattle roaming the plains By 1865 there were 5 million of these “longhorns’ descendents of vast herds left behind by the Spanish pueblos (plantations) a. The Texans rounded up the longhorns, established ranches and raised the animals for beef, hides and tallow The cattle industry remained a local industry for many year due to prohibitive costs and difficulties transporting cattle to Eastern markets 244 b. The Texans learned how to handle cattle from the Mexican vaqueros (cowboys) and Indians Mexican and black cowboys accounted for one-third of the cowboys These cowboys made their living with the aid of a hourse, a saddle, a rope and a revolver c. The Civil War and Northern industrial expansion created a demand for beef By 1866, Texas cattle ranchers rounded up 250,000 longhorns, branded them with the owners mark and drove them to the nearest Railroad, located in Sedalia, Missouri There the cattle was loaded on to cattle cars and shipped eastward – this netted huge profits for the cattlemen The era of the huge cattle drives began as cattle men rounded up their cattle in the spring and drove them northward across the Great Plains to the “Cow Towns” at the Rail centers Along the way the cowboys could face; stampedes, rustlers (cattle thieves) and hostile Indians along the way The Cattle industry of the Great Plains facilitated the development of other industries a. The railroads profited from carrying cattle to the eastern markets The Kansas Pacific Railroad served the cow towns of Abilene, Ellsworth and Ellis while the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway served Dodge City and Wichita (all of which were located in Kansas) 245 The railroad companies competed for territory close to trails like the famous “Chisholm Trail” (leading from San Antonio, Texas to Abilene) Cow towns became famous for their lawlessness, saloons, gunslingers, crowded jail and “boot hill” cemeteries Dime Novels as well as the Buffalo bills Wild West Show promoted the myths of the cowboys, Indians and cowtown gunslingers of the Old West b. Prices fell as supply exceeded demand and cattlemen who arrived in Cow towns in the fall suffered losses Therefore they began to allow their herds to graze on “open range” (unfenced, unpopulated and government owned grassland) near the cattle towns in order to take their fattened cattle to the spring market before cattle drives arrived c. Refrigerated railroad cars stimulated the growth of the cattle industry in the 1870s and facilitated the emergence of the meatpacking centers in Kansas city and Chicago i. Meat Packers like G.F. Swift and Philip Armour avoided the problem of weight loss during shipment by butchering cattle in the Midwest and shipping meat eastward on refrigerated railcars ii. The Union stockyards, opened in Chicago in 1865, was the worlds largest meatpacker until surpassed by the Armour company in 1900 iii. Early in the 20th century, unsanitary methods of the meatpacking companies became the subject of progressive legislation iv. Slaughter houses also produced soap, glue and fertilizer 246 The open-range cattle industry only lasted for about twenty years (1860s1880s) and declined due to overproduction and falling prices due to the huge supply of cattle i. From 1869 to 1879, four million longhorns were driven to Kansa ii. Overgrazing, severe winter weather and a severe drought in 1885 that led many cattle to starve, creating huge losses for cattlemen iii. Conflict with homesteading farmers, who fenced in their claims on the open range with barbed wire, invented by Joseph Glidden The Farmers Frontier 1) The Homestead Act of 1862 was enacted in order to encourage the settlement of the Midwestern territory ( the remainder of the Louisiana Territory) Settlers filed claims to a quarter-section (160 acres) of public land The Homesteader could keep the land in return for living and working on the land for five years The act was less successful than desired due to environmental hardships as well as loopholes in the law The Homestead Act did not generate vibrant agriculture in the Midwest because farmers need more of the region’s dry land than the 160 acres afforded by the Homestead Act By 1900 two thirds of the farms that had been created by the Homestead Act on the Great Plains had failed 2) Western farmers used products of the new industrial age including steel plows, railroads, barbed wire, factory made windmills. 247 McCormick reapers as well as techniques such as “dry farming” and new methods of irrigation 3) As more farmers arrived, the open range became enclosed fields of corn and wheat. By 1890 cattle raising was restricted to fenced ranches in areas unsuited for crops 4) Houses were built of sod or dug out of hills in the early stages of settlement on the Great Plains. Goats often grazed on the tops of Houses 5) One of the most difficult problems faced by the Plains Farmer was the environment. Freezing winters and burning summers were characterized by droughts, tornados, plagues of insects, constant annoying wind and a scarcity of water 6) In April 1889 Oklahoma was open to homesteaders referred to as “Oklahoma Sooners” or the “89ers.” Lands previously owned by Indian tribes were confiscated and redistributed in a wide open land rush The Frontier was declared closed by the Census Bureau in 1890 A. In 1893 Fredrick Jackson Turner’s The Frontier in American History would pronounce the frontier experience as good for America He stated it was good because of the values like equality and individualize which were displayed by the westward pioneers who were extending the nation’s Manifest Destiny He stated “Up to our own day American History has been in a great degree the colonization of the Great West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American development” Turner felt that the West would serve as an outlet for discontented eastern workers, but the West was actually settled in large part by Midwesterners and southerners 248 Turner also rejected the idea that America’s national character and democracy were shaped by European political institutions B. States joining the Union after 1865 included Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1867), North Dakota (1899), South Dakota (1899), Montana (1899), Washington (1899), Idaho (!890), Wyoming (1890), Utah !896), Oklahoma (1907), New Mexico (1912), and Arizona (1912). (Of course, Hawaii and Alaska were added to the Union in 1959) Lesson 3: An American tragedy unfolded as the status of western Indian tribes deteriorated during the late 1800s due to the Transcontinental Railroad, the extermination of the buffalo, military campaigns by the U.S. Army and alcoholism Government policy towards the Plains Indians changed as westward expansion increased the demand for Indian Lands In the 19th century, the Great Plains region was seen as the “Great American desert” unsuitable for farming, and given to the Indians as “One Large Reservation” 1. The large, separate reservations of the “Concentration” policy were eventually replaced by the “Small Reservation “ policy which isolated the Native Americans in an effort to teach them the ways of the white man a. 54,000 Northern Plains Indians were moved to the Black Hills, a South Dakota Wasteland b. 86,000 Southern Plains Indians were sent to Oklahoma to live on lands confiscated from the formally Eastern Indians (that had moved there in the 1830s) because the Eastern Indians had supported the confederacy during the Civil War 2. Attempts by the United States government to settle the various tribes onto “reservations” did not initially succeed because 249 a. Many tribes refused to surrender their hunting grounds b. The Indians resented being confined to specific areas c. White settlers seized reservation land for farms d. Dishonest government agents cheated the Indians in terms of food and allowances 3. During the western railroad boom after the Civil War farmers began to move westward while miners migrated toward the East As both groups merged on the Plains, by the 1860s, the Indians began to leave their reservations in order to defend their homelands a. The Plains Indians were great horsemen and warriors Using ash bows of three feet in length, they could drive an arrow through a buffalo They could fire twenty five arrows in the time that was required for a soldier to fire two musket shots Soldiers equipped with Colt six shooters, first introduced in the 1850s, were no match for a skilled bowman b. Skilled warriors attacked Wagon trains, burned settlements and fought federal soldiers in an effort to save their homes and way of life c. The soldiers and settlers attacked the buffalo, upon which the Plains Indians were dependent on , and, as a result, threatened the Indian way of Life i. Hunters such as William “Buffalo Bill” Cody popularized the sport of shooting buffalo Some buffalo were shot for the five dollars that each fur would bring, while others were shot by train passengers for “sport” 250 ii. From 1872 to 1874, three million buffalo were killed each year. Their bodies littered wagon routes and railroad tracks iii. 13 million buffalo roamed the Great Plains in 1865, after the railroad divided the buffalo range North and South The southern herd disappeared by 1878, by 1883, the northern herd was reduced to 200 By 1903 there were only 34 buffalo remaining on the plains Most of the Indian wars were a result of broken promises by white settlers and the government Many Americans echoed the sentiments of General Phil Sheridan (of Civil War fame) who proclaimed “The only good Indian is one with a bullet between his eyes” The tragic conflict came to an end in 1890 A. The Sioux had been promised territory in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming But they were pushed from the land when gold was discovered in the region Resistance reached a peak under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse when… A force of 2,500 Sioux and Cheyenne warriors ambushed 276 Calvary under the command of General George Armstrong Custer This occurred at the Little Big Horn River in Montana in 1876 1. The flamboyant Custer had graduated at the bottom of his class at West Point and fought bravely in the Civil War 251 He became the youngest Brigadier General (age 23) in U.S. Army History He refused to drink alcohol, designed his own uniform and always traveled with 2-3 dozen dogs He once disobeyed orders in order to visit his wife 2. After slaughtering Cheyenne Indians and 875 Indian ponies at the Washita River Massacre, he was almost court-martialed because the event claimed the lives of 20 of his men 3. With his eyes on the presidency, Custer disobeyed direct orders to avoid direct engagements with the Indians In June 1876, he attempted to “ride through the Sioux Nation” Although Custer’s Last Stand was a decisive victory for the Indians, the rebellious Sioux and Cheyenne were forced to surrender in the next four months B. The end of the Plains Indian resistance came after three centuries of fighting against Europeans and Americans 1. The Navaho were defeated by Colonel Kit Carson in 1864-65 2. Most of the Apache surrendered in 1873, after two years of fighting Geronimo, typically a peaceful farmer, led a few Apache in fierce resistance until 1888 3. The Nez Perce, led by Chief Joseph, fought a brilliant four month campaign across rugged terrain in Idaho and Montana 252 They surrendered a few miles from Canada, their destination 4. The last Sioux, under Sitting Bull, surrendered in 1881 5. The Indian wars came to an end in the northern plains at Wounded Knee, South Dakota in December 1890 The Sioux, despondent over their wretched living conditions, embraced the teachings of Wovoka, a Paiute “messiah” These ceremonies included the Indian Sun “ghost dance” feared by whites Soldiers opened fire on the Indians after disarming them, slaughtering 90 men, 200 women and children 6. By 1890, the Indian Wars had subsided, the tribe had been forced into reservations and the government tried to “Americanize” the Indians Helen Hunt Jackson published A Century of Dishonor in 1881, drawing attention to the persecution that the Indians had faced Despite the resettlement of the Indian population onto reservations, often characterized by mistreatment, many Americans still felt that there was an “Indian problem” They placed demands on the government to “Americanize” the Indians, despite their centuries old Indian culture Partially in response to A Century of Dishonor the Dawes Servility Act of 1887 granted citizenship and 160 acres of farmland 253 This was awarded to each Native American head of family or single adult male that abandoned his tribal government and way of life and took up farming Many Indians refused the offer Although the legislation was intended to help the Indians by assimilating them into “American Culture” It would later be viewed as a travesty because it almost destroyed tribal integrity Indians suffered from discrimination for many years Lesson 4: The Rise of Industrialism in America in the late 19th century produced remarkable growth under “Captains of Industry” the migration of the American population from rural to urban areas, soaring levels of immigration and abuses which adversely affected laborers and farmers The Rise of Industrialism A. Industrial growth (1850-1900) was tremendous in the second half of the 19th century 1. The Civil War stimulated industrial expansion 2. Technical improvements and inventions led to the introduction of new machinery into business and industry 3. Wealthy Europeans and Americans eagerly invested capital in American industry 4. High tariffs protested American industry from foreign competition 5. A network of railroads opened up national markets 254 6. Abundant natural resources afforded raw materials 7. A continuous flow of new immigrants provided industry with an ample, cheap labor force 8. An increasing population offered an expanded market for manufactured products B. The Gilded Age produced many inventions that contributed to the industrial growth in America 1. Telegraph (Samuel B. Morse) 2. Telephone (Alexander Graham Bell) 3. New Power sources (Oil and Electricity) 4. Life improving inventions: motion pictures, phonograph, light bulb, tickertape, kinescope, D.C. Current – Thomas Edison (1,300 U.S. and International patents) 5. Bessemer Process ( a new process for making large quantities of steel cheaply) – Henry Bessemer 6. Mass Production (Henry Ford) including the techniques of: a. standardization of parts (first invented by Eli Whitney in 1798) b. assembly lines, first used by Ford in automobile production, conveyor belts carried manufactured articles as workmen attached parts to the article c. labor saving machinery d. division of labor through which each worker preformed only one operation instead of producing the whole article himself 255 7. Urban innovations – the trolley and skyscraper C. New products were merchandized through a variety of new retail techniques 1. Specialty shops emphasized a single type of product 2. Chain stores (F.W. Woolworth) passed on savings from large scale purchases to consumers The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company produced the first grocery store chain (A & P) 3. Department Stores sold goods in separate departments within the store (John Wannamaker, Marshall Field) 4. Mail-order houses with catalogs sold products by mail (Montgomery Ward, Sears, Roebuck) 5. Advertising in newspapers and magazines promoted interest 6. Packaging eliminated the need to measure the product being sold and helped create an awareness of brands 7. Recent 20th century developments include supermarkets, shopping centers, credit sales and discount houses D. New Forms of business organization emerged with industrialism 1. Single Proprietorships were small enterprises owned by individuals. Most wage earners in the 1860s and 70s worked in these enterprises characterized by close relationships with employers 2. Partnerships offered the advantage of greater capital resources but liability remained with the individual in the events of lawsuits or other civil action 256 3. Corporations consisted of three or more persons that applied for a charter from the state government, sold shares of stock (certificates of ownership) and paid dividends (sharing the profits of the company with the stockholders i.e., the owners) Corporations were seen as individuals by the law and , therefore, entitled to 14th Amendment protections A corporation provided many advantages, including: Limited liability to the individual stockholders, who cannot be forced to pay off a bankrupt company’s debts Perpetual Life A corporation dies not end with the death or resignation of the owner The ability to raise large sums of money by selling stock Corporations created some distinct disadvantages by creating monopolies and consolidations which stifled competition Corporate leaders often wielded excessive power over government officials i. A monopoly consisted of a group of corporations which gained control over an area of business, leading to the restraint of free trade and subsequently, the loss of competition which is required to keep prices low ii. Pools were companies who shared opportunities among themselves. Pools had no legal charter like corporations and were declared illegal in interstate commerce in 1887 257 iii. Trusts combined several corporations into a single organization that issued trust certificates of ownership iv. Holding companies controlled several companies but did not engage in production v. Interlocking directories occurred when directors of one company were board members of another company vi. Mergers emerged in the 20th century as companies absorbed other companies E. Business leaders that emerged with the industrial revolution believed in individualism, the “Gospel of Wealth” and “Social Gospel,” feeling that, in a competitive society, only the fittest survived The theory of Natural Selection was applied to the late 19th century industrial giants 1. “Captains of Industry” also known as “robber barons,” drove competitors out of business and overworked their employees The 19th Century, particularly the Gilded Age, created sharper class distinctions 2. “Big Business” also embraced laissez-faire economics, calling for limites on government’s role in the economy in order to allow the “invisible hand” of supply and demand forces to steer the economy forward However “big business” did not complain when the government helped the railroads. The states were the first governmental entity to regulate the railroads and 258 large corporations often used the 14th Amendment to defend themselves against state regulations Defined as a “legal person” a corporation could not be denied rights without due process of law 3. Big Business owners typically created their enterprises through either “horizontal” and “vertical” integration Horizontal Integration combined several firms in the same business into a single corporation Vertical Integration involved the acquisition of all of the various businesses upon which a corporation relied to function as a business 4. Andrew Carnegie, the “Steel King” along with his associate, Henry Clay Frick, dominated the iron and steel industry from his vertically integrated Pittsburg based company Carnegie expressed the Gospel of Wealth philosophy in the North American Review in June 1889. stating “Thus is the problem of Rich and Poor, the laws of accumulation will be left free. Individualism will continue, but the millionaire will be the trustee for the poor; intrusted for a season with a great part of the increased wealth of the community, but administering it for the community far better that it could or would have done for itself.” Carnegie and others would contribute large portions of their wealth to philanthropy 5. John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company (the nations first trust) controlled 90% of the American oil business and made Rockefeller the world’s first billionaire 259 Prior to the emergence of holding companies, his Standard Oil Trust was a large mechanism whose trustees controlled oil companies in several states in order to evade the laws of states like Pennsylvania and Ohio which restricted corporation Rockefeller also invested in banking 6. Philip D. Armour, Nelson Morris and Gustavus Swift built the meat packing industry 7. J.P. Morgan, head of the largest private banking and securities house in America, purchased Carnegie’s steel company in 1901 Through mergers, created the nations first billion dollar company, U.S. Steel, a 14 billion interlocking directorate that controlled most of the nations steel production He gave money to the U.S. Government in 1896 and 1907, bought bankrupt railroads and contributed a large collection of artwork to the Metropolitan Museum 8. James B. Duke formed the American Tobacco Company, a trust that dissolved in 1911 and reorganized 9. The Dupont family became the leading producers of gunpowder, chemicals and dyes, plastics and synthetic fibers 10. George Westinghouse invented the airbrake and later worked with Nikola Tesla or Croatia who invented the D.C. motor 11. Isaac Singer patented his sewing machine in 1851 and created one of the first modern manufacturing companies 260 The growth of the transportation industry contributed to the rise of industrialism 1. Railways spread throughout the country and became the nation’s largest industry by 1900. Cornelius Vanderbilt (New York Central), James J Hill (Great Northern), Leland Stanford (Union Pacific), Edward H. Harriman and Collis R Huntington became Railroad giants 2. Charles and Frank Duryea constructed the first gasoline powered vehicle in America in 1903 3. Henry Ford pioneered the automobile industry which became the nations largest industry in terms of product value His introduction of the moving assembly line in 1914 into his automobile factories revolutionized the process of mass production It also reduced the number of hours and costs required to produce his famous Model T (while enabling him to raise wages) 4. The first successful flight in a heavier than air machine by Orville and Wilber Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1903 led to the development of the aircraft industry 5. Fredrick Winslow Taylor pioneered the principle of scientific management, asserting that reorganizing the production process by subdividing tasks would accelerate production It also lessened dependence on any individual employee due to the emergence of modern machinery which required less training 261 The Labor Movement emerged in America from abuses produced by industrial society Problems associated with Industrial Workers 1. New owner-worker relations: in huge factories, owners very seldom knew their workers, their families or the condition of their life Because of a readily available labor market and the absence of close relationships, it became very difficult for workers to “bargain” with employers over wages and working conditions 2. Company towns, Many companies owned entire towns and tied the factory workers to the company through a structure of indebtedness to company stores 3. Technology created structural unemployment and boring, repetitious labor by replacing manpower with machines The mechanization of factory work during the last half of the 19th century required semiskilled labor that provided by skilled workers as well as unskilled workers who received training Mechanization produced lower prices but did not produce more leisure time for the labor foce 4. railroads gave factory workers access to large markets thus increasing competition between goods and for wages 5. The “business cycle” with its periodic peaks (boom periods) and troughs (recessions) caused “periodic unemployment” that its not structurally permanent but rather, dependent on economic conditions 262 6. The closing of the Frontier (1890) drove many families to the cities, subsequently causing wages to decline as Low wages/long hours David Ricardo’s “Iron Law of Wages” stated that, in a capitalist economy workers would exist on subsistence wages due to the laws of supply and demand Karl Marx viewed industrial workers in a capitalist economy as slaved to the production line, because industry owners were becoming wealthy “off the sweat of another man’s brow” He also stated that this type of labor alienated the worker from his inner self and his creativity 7. Immigration (from Europe, China) drove unemployment and housing costs upward as “native” Americans competed for jobs and housing with the immigrants Important Terms relating to Labor 1. Arbitration: The Process of an impartial person judging a dispute and whose decision bound both parties 2. Blacklist: A list circulated by employers to keep union agitators from obtaining employment 3. Boycott: An organized effort by labor to discourage the purchase of goods or services from a company involved in a labor dispute 4. Checkoff: The deduction of union dues by an employer from the wages of union members 5. Closed Shop: A plant where only union members may be hired 263 6. Collective Bargaining: Discussions between representatives of labor and management for the purpose of peaceably settling disputes 7. Company Union: An organization of employees dominated by the employer 8. Featherbedding: The practice of forcing an employer to use more workers than the job actually needs 9. Fringe Benefits: Gains for labor other than wage increases and improved working conditions (employer-supported pension plans, free medical care, paid vacations) 10. Injunction: A court order requiring a party to do, or refrain from doing, a certain act (a strike) 11. Jurisdictional Strike: A strike arising from a dispute between two unions fighting to represent the workers 12. Lockout: The shutting of a plant by an employer for the purpose of forcing the workers to meet his terms 13. Mediation: An attempt to settle a labor dispute through the efforts of an impartial person or agency 14. Open Shop: A plant that employs both union and nonunion labor 15. Picketing: Parading by union members around a factory or store in order to inform the public of a labor dispute and to discourage persons from entering the building 16. Scab: A nonunion worker hired to replace a striking employee 17. Secondary boycott: A boycott aimed at a company not directly involved in a labor dispute 18. Seniority: Right attained by a worker through length of service 264 19. Shop Steward: A person chosen by the workers of a particular shop or department to represent them in handling of grievances 20. Strike: An organized work stoppage by employees to compel an employer to meet their demands 21. Union Shop: A plant that may hire both union and nonunion workers but may retain nonunion workers only if they agree to join the union within a given time 22. “Yellow Dog” Contract: Am agreement in which an employee promises not to join a union Solutions to Labor Problems 1. The National Labor Union, founded by William Sylvis in 1866, successfully bargained for an eight hour workday for Federally –employed laborers and mechanics 2. The Knights of Labor a. Was founded by Uriah Stephens in 1869 among Philadelphia Garment workers b. Tried to unite American workers into one great union and to “secure to the toilers a proper share of the wealth that they create, more of the leisure that rightfully belongs to them” The Knights of Labor wanted to replace capitalism with workerowned businesses organized as cooperatives Anyone could join the Union including skilled and unskilled workers, radicals, farmers, blacks and women 265 c. Used strikes and boycotts as weapons against management but preferred settling disputes between mangers and laborers through arbitration d. Induced Congress to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) and to repeal the Contract Labor Law (1885) e. Witnessed the explosion of growth to 700,000 members under Terrance Powderly’s leadership f. Failed because they lacked an effective political agenda due to their commitment to traditional American republican ideology rather than the view that they were an oppressed proletariat, because of the use of force by business leaders, ethnic divisions and the upward mobility of many workers g. Lost many skilled workers to the American Federation of Labor after the Haymarket Square Bombing of 1886 This happened in Chicago during the McCormick Harvester Company strike An event in which policemen were killed, many people were injured and which led to executions and the labeling of the Knights and other labor groups as violent anarchists 3. The American Federation of Labor a. Was founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, who remained its leader until 1924 b. Became the leading organization of workers in the United States c. Was a federation of separate national craft unions composed of skilled workers who were organized by craft or tade rather than by industry 266 d. Bargained collectively, called strikes, managed its own affairs and remained aloof from politics, preferring to emphasize pure unionism e. Called for an eight hour workday, six day work week, improved working conditions, workmen’s compensation and higher wages f. Later in 1955, merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations which believed that all the workers in an industry – skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled should be organized into a single industrial union, regardless of craft The CIO was formed in 1938 with John L Lewis, the head of the United Mine Workers, as its first president Unions often faced Public Opposition 1. Many Americans felt that employers had the right to hire and fire at will 2. “Closed” shops only permitted a business to hire union members 3. Union leaders were perceived as power hungry 4. The Haymarket affair, in which policemen were killed during a union protest, turning public opinion against the unions 5. Immigrants were not received well by the unions and felt that the United States despite problems, offered relatively good working conditions vis-à-vis Europe 6. Women and blacks were excluded from many unions 7. Unions were considered to be bastions of radical ideology (Anarchism, Socialism and Communism) 267 8. By 1900, organized labor’s image became more positive Bitter Struggles took Place between Labor and Big Business as the Labor Movement was involved in a Number of Violent Strikes in the Late 1800s 1. In the Railroad Strike of 1877, the nations First Major Strike, eastern railroad workers tried to prevent the trains from running Eventually, they were forced to return to work and accept a wage reduction 2. The Homestead Strike (Homestead, Pennsylvania) occurred when workers of the Carnegie Steel Company struck in 1892 Strikebreakers were hired to resume steel production under the production under the protection of the state militia After five months, the strike collapsed when the men accepted the company’s terms 3. Workers at the Pullman Company’s sleeping-car manufacturing plant near Chicago went on strike in 1894 with support of railroad employees who refused to handle any train hauling Pullman cars After the strikers halted trains, violence erupted and President Cleveland dispatched Federal troops to restore order and keep the mail service from being disrupted Strike leaders were arrested when they refused to obey an injunction forbidding them from interfering with mail transportation and interstate commerce The strike was broken 268 4. In the Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902, the United Mine Workers struck after mine owners refused to recognize the union or to discuss a wage increase When President Theodore Roosevelt threatened to seize and operate the mines with federal troops to avert a fuel shortage The owners agreed to allow an impartial commission to arbitrate the dispute and the miners called off their strike The miners were awarded an increase in wages but their demand for union recognition was rejected The Plight of the Farmer during the Gilded Age Farmers faced many problems during the rise of industrialism 1. Overproduction due to new lands, machinery and agricultural technology, caused the price of farm products to decline while other prices remained high This was the primary cause of the farmer’s problems in the late 19th century, the supply of agricultural products increased as the price decreased 2. High operating costs and, as a result, farmers had specific grievances against railroads, banks, state governments and grain elevator operators 3. High Mortgages 4. High Interest Rates 5. Shortage of money, farmers were advocating an increase in the money supply (cheap money) 269 This position was stated in the platforms of both the Greenback Labor Party and the Populist Party Farmers believed that the shortage of money was their primary problem 6. Low prices received from the farm product distributors The Farmers responded to their Problems through Organization and Legislation 1. The Farmer’s Alliance was a militant political party 2. The Patrons of Husbandry was the first major farmers organization 3. The Grange, a national organization with local chapters in every community, provided farmers a place to meet to discuss problems and enjoy recreation Founded by Oliver H. Kelly in 1857, the Grange influenced legislation that fixed maximum rates for… Grain storage in elevators and warehouses and regulated railroad freight rates When the Supreme Court ruled that a railroad, as an interstate carrier, could not be regulated by a state Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act The Grange also attempted to reduce costs and increase the income of the farmers by organizing cooperatives 270 A group of farmers could sell directly to the consumer (thus avoiding the distributor) and buy equipment in large quantities at lower prices Cooperative failed due to big business resistance, poor management and no capital 4. The “Granger Cases” led to the Supreme Court ruling (Munn v Illinois 1877) that state legislatures had the right to regulate business that affected the public, namely railroads 5. Farmers learned the key to power was organization 6. Farmers attempted to capture control of the Democratic party from the reactionary “Bourbon” Democrats 7. The Populist Party addressed the needs of farmers, as did eloquent speakers like Mary Elizabeth Lease of Kansas 8. The Homestead Act of 1862, gave the farmers free land 9. The Morrill Act (1862) gave land to the states to create Agricultural and Mechanical colleges 10. The Department of Agriculture (1862) helped the farmer by… Conducting research on animal and plant diseases, Fighting destructive insects Discovering new crops and plant varieties Operating experimental farms Analyzing Soil composition and Publishing literature on farming 271 11. The Hatch Act (1887) granted agricultural research money to the states 12. The Smith Level Act (1914) provided county extension agents Life for the Farmer improves at the Turn of the Century Farm prices rose due to demand for American farm produce from abroad and due to our expanding urban population After the discovery of Gold in Alaska increased the amount of currency in circulation, the farmers lost interest in the silver question and other political movements Life in the New South after the Civil War During the 1800s the economy of the New South continued to be dominated by agriculture This was characterized by a dependence on cotton cultivation and a system of black labor as most free slaves remained in the South Most engaged in tenant farming and sharecropping The New South produced, however, the diversification of agriculture as well as the emergence of urban and manufacturing centers The textile industry finds a home in the South due to the regions tax benefits and cheap, non union labor 272 Immigration Soared at the Opening of the 20th Century 1. Most of the immigrants who came to America earlier in the 19th century moved from northern and western Europe Irish and German immigrants who faced extensive discrimination upon arrival, particularly Catholics, were often portrayed as alcoholics 2. Most of the immigrants who came to America after the Civil War came as unattached adults They lived in highly mobile, highly populated ethnic neighborhoods in the urban centers that were rarely segregated by race or religion Family ties usually determined their choice of occupation. Most were Catholic or Jewish 3. From 1900 to 1910, immigration reached it highest level in American history as close to 9 million immigrants (over twice the figure for the previous decade) came to America These immigrants came mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe (Pole and Italians) They arrived at Ellis Island in New York and other ports, often with nothing but the clothes they wore The Slavic eastern Europeans who immigrated to America in Midwestern cities because the regions mass production industries, including steel and meat packing, offered employment for unskilled labor 273 Many women joined the workforce during the Gilded Age 1. Native-born white women who moved to cities during the Gilded Age usually found employment in administrative positions (as clerks or typists) and sales positions 2. Black women worked as maids, seamstresses or in laundries 3. Semiskilled immigrant women worked in factories 4. Educational opportunities also improved for women in the late 19th century The condition of black Americans as the century drew to a close was defined by the debate between Booker T. Washington, who advocated accommodation, and W.E.B. DuBois, who called for confrontation 1. Washington, born a slave who was self-educated and self-made, was America’s most prominent black American during the era I his speech in 1895 in Atlanta, he proposed the “Atlanta Compromise,” asserting that blacks should concentrate on self help instead of equal rights He stated: “In all things that are purely social we can be separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand all things essential to mutual progress.” 2. DuBois, who grew up in New England, believed a “talented ten” should provide leadership to the black community and, thus, he split with Washington over the path that black Americans should follow DuBois later helped to form the NAACP 274 3. Large members of blacks migrated to northern cities from 1890 to the outbreak of World War I because they faced terror, racism and economic difficulties as sharecroppers in the South The North provided freedom as well as the opportunity to gain new work, often as scabs, in Northern industry. However, economic opportunity was not a guarantee for each generation of northern blacks Lesson 5: The Progressive Era ushered in reforms to address the abuses produced by the excesses of the Gilded Age Formation of the Progressive Movement 1. The 1896 election victory of William McKinley and other “big business” Republicans suggested that the reform movement had no future Prosperity and overseas expansion weakened the reform movement from 1896-1900 2. By 1900 the Progressive Movement was succeeding the Populist movement with new reforms in a bipartisan effort to restore control of the government to the people This was to correct the abuses of urban industrialism and to define rules of conduct for business in order to insure equal economic opportunity a) The Australian ballot (the secret vote) placed all candidates on a single sheet of paper (printed at public expense) and voters were required to mark and cast their ballots secretly 275 b) The initiative enabled voters in a state to introduce legislation at any time c) The referendum compelled the legislature to place a bill before a state’s voters for approval or disapproval d) The recall allowed voters to remove an elected government official before the expiration of his term e) Direct primaries provided a nominating election in advance of the regular election to prevent candidates from being nominated by a few professional politicians f) The 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th Amendments which were ratified during Wilson’s administration brought success to decades old reform movements (Populists, suffragettes and prohibitionists) g) City governments were reformed through the adoption of the commission form of government h) Jane Addams launched settlement houses which served as temporary tenements for newly arrived immigrants: allowingthem a period of adjustment to their new world i) Many businessmen supported Progressive Era regulations because the order which emerged from the intervention of the federal and state governments produced stable orderly industry The opposed socialism and subsides j) During the Progressive Era the Supreme Court struck down several state laws which restricted the work week and working conditions as violations of the right of contract 276 Progressive Era Leaders Progressive Era reformers at the State Level 1. Governor Robert “Fighting Bob” Lafollette of Wisconsin sought support from farmers and working people in breaking the power of the Wisconsin political machine He taxed railroads and utilities, created regulatory commissions, instituted a conservation movement employed scholars to improve state government 2. Other progressive leaders at the state level included Joseph W. Folk (Mississippi), Charles Evans Hughes (New York) and Hiram Johnson (California) Progressive Era Presidents produced a Wealth of Reform 1. Theodore Roosevelt, an Independent, energetic and politically astute President (1901-1909), proposed several reform programs in his “Square Deal” program a) Election of 1900 i. Republican incumbent William McKinley chose Theodore Roosevelt of New York, a war hero from the Spanish American War, as his running mate The Republican Party stressed Republican prosperity and nationalism based on the empire acquired by the United States in the 1898 War against Spain 277 ii. The Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan, who stressed free silver while criticizing American imperialism and the growth of trusts iii. Eugene V Debs (Indiana) was the nominee of the Socialist Party in five elections, including 1900 iv. Following the Republican victory, President McKinley was shot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz at the Pan American Exposition in Buffalo McKinley died on September 14, 1901 Upon hearing the news, Senator Mark Hanna, a fervent admirer and financier of McKinley’s campaign exclaimed: “Now look – that damn cowboy is President!” v. Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest president in U.S. History (at age 42) b) Roosevelt claimed that he was “unhampered by any pledge, promise or understanding of any kind” and that he would assure that “every man has a square deal, no less and no more” c) In 1902, the federal government, for the first time, stepped into a labor controversy (in which striking coal miners were requesting a nine-hour day and wage increase with the idea of protecting all concerned interests – wage earners, the owners and the public) Roosevelt threatened to use military force if the owners did not agree to the use of impartial arbitration d) Roosevelt supported the claims of black politicians to federal office, often for political advantage 278 He pushed for black delegates to Republican national conventions and consulted Booker T. Washington However, the status of blacks declined during the Progressive Era due to the government’s lack of concern about racial equality e) In the Election of 1904, the popular president Roosevelt and his running mate Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana easily defeated the Democratic challenger Judge Alton Parker f) Roosevelt’s antitrust activity earned him the nickname “Trust Buster.” Under Roosevelt’s leadership, the federal government began to regulate business practices in the interest of the public welfare g) Under Roosevelt’s direction, the Department of Justice succeeded in dissolving the Northern Securities Company, a powerful railroad holding company h) In the interest of public health, the Meat Inspection Act (1906) required government approval of all meat shipped from one state to another and was produced by Congress with President Roosevelt’s support The Act was the result of Upton Sinclair’s book The Jungle which disclosed the unsanitary conditions of meatpacking plants in Chicago The Pure Food and Drug Act protected the public by prohibiting the marketing of poisonous food and medicines. Roosevelt also broke up the “beef trust” i) In regulating railroads, the Roosevelt administration strengthened the Interstate Commerce Act with the Elkin’s Act (1903) which made it illegal for a shipper to accept a rebate 279 The Hepburn Act (1906) which increased the power of the Interstate Commerce Act in regulating other interstate interests, rate fixing, free passes and accounting methods j) Roosevelt rushed antitrust cases ahead of other Federal cases with the Expedition Act and initiated 44 antitrust suits Roosevelt believed that the size of a business combination was not the primary factor in determining “good” or “bad” The Supreme Court echoed this position when it ruled that the Sherman Anti-Trust Act prohibited “all unreasonable combinations in restraint of trade.” k) The Department of Commerce and Labor was created l) Conservation of natural resources was a high priority during the Roosevelt Administration i. The Newlands Reclamation Act provided money to build irrigation projects that would reclaim wasteland ii. Roosevelt met with state governors in a natural conservation conference to discuss the preservation and development of America’s natural resources iii. The National Conservation Commission conducted the first scientific study of the country’s water, forest, soil and minieral resources 2. President William Howard Taft continued the reform movement when he took office, despite his conservative nature a) Election of 1908 i. The Republican Party, acting on Roosevelt’s recommendation nominated Secretary of War William Howard Taft of Ohio for President 280 The Republican Platform emphasized: 1.) strengthening the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887; 2.) strengthening the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890; 3.) Conservation of natural resources; 4.) Highway improvements and 5) Tariff Revisions ii. The Democrats once again, turned to William Jennings Bryan iii. Eugene V. Debs was renominated as the Socialist candidate iv. Taft won a dull race and Bryan became the only major party candidate to lose three races for the presidency b) The Taft administration launched 90 antitrust suits, dissolving the Standard Oil Company and reorganizing the American Tobacco Company’s tobacco trust c) A postal savings bank system and a parcel post service were undertaken d) The Department of Labor was created e) Civil Service was expanded f) The Publicity Act required that contributions to campaigns for federal election be made public g) The Mann-Elkins Act placed telephone, cable and wireless companies under the supervision of the Interstate Commerce Commission (a function later given to the Federal Communications Commission). h) The 16th Amendment, ratified in 1913, authorized Congress to impose an income tax i) Taft created the Bureau of Mines 281 j) The Speaker of the House, “Uncle Joe” Cannon, conservative who tried to block progressive legislation, was stripped of many powers k) Although under criticism, Taft provided assistance in the conservation of natural resources, removing millions of acres of land from public sale 3. President Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom programs produced reforms a) Election of 1912 i. A split in the Republican Party between the supporters of Taft and Roosevelt The Roosevelt supporters were unhappy with Taft This led to the formation of a third party during this election – The Progressive Party (The Bull Moose Party) The Bull Moose candidate, Theodore Roosevelt advocated New Nationalism which called for… Labor Reforms (including the eight hour workweek and prohibition of child labor Tariff Reduction Government control of unfair business practices The initiative The Recall The Referendum ii. The Republicans renominated Taft and Sherman 282 iii. The Democratic candidate, Governor Woodrow Wilson of New York, a brilliant lecturer and authority in the fields of law, government, politics and history, won the election The Democratic Platform included: Tariff Reduction Banking reform Laws benefiting workers and farmers and Enforcement of stronger antitrust laws b) Woodrow Wilson who saw “one third of the nation ill housed, ill clad, ill nourished,” introduced progressive reforms at the national level through his program of reform known as New Freedom i. Wilson emphasized equality of opportunity ii. Tariff Reform: The Underwood Tariff Act of 1913 reduced import duties to the lowest level since 1860 in order to increase competition and thus decrease prices and weaken monopolies iii. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) provided for 12 Federal Reserve Banks to cater to member national and state banks and to control the money supply iv. The Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) defined certain unfair practices and strengthened the power of the federal government to deal with them Some of the items that were dealt with were… The selling to favored purchasers at lower prices to create monopolies, “tying” contracts that restricted 283 purchasing opportunities, interlocking directories for companies that had more than a million dollars in capital assets and monopolies created by stock purchases The Clayton Antitrust Act endorsed labor unions and farm organizations v. The Federal Trade Commission was established to investigate and stop unfair practices vi. Several farm programs Like the previously mentioned Smith –Lever Act) were passed during Wilson’s administration along with programs to aid workers (Adamson Act) vii. The Progressive Income Tax was the product of the 16th amendment which was passed during Taft’s administration but ratified during Wilson’s term Income taxes eventually become the chief source of federal revenue viii. The direct election of U.S. Senators came with the Ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, replacing the Constitution’s Article I procedure of having them selected by state legislatures ix. The 18th Amendment (1919) established prohibition of alcoholic beverages. national Prohibitionists during the early 1900s believed that alcohol consumption led to family problems, lower productivity at work, prostitution and gambling c) The 19th amendment (1920) granted women suffrage – the right to vote – was the result of decades of effort by American women to achieve greater rights 284 i. Suffragettes had worked for women’s throughout much of the 19th century suffrage ii. Progressive Era supporters of female suffrage argued that women’s traditional role in the home and family justified the call for women’s influence in the government, as well iii. Many men feared that women’s suffrage would lead to role reversal as men would be expected to perform traditionally female duties in the home iv. Other reforms reflecting issues that affected women emerged, Margaret Sanger, also a suffragette, led a crusade for birth control during the Progressive Era, was indicted in 1914 for mailing contraceptive literature and , in 1921, founded the American Birth Control League 4. Wilson’s reform programs were popular and enabled him to be reelected in the Election of 1916, in a close contest with his Republican opponent, Charles Evans Hughes 285 Unit Seven: The United States becomes a World Power Lesson One After a century of isolationism, the United States entered the world political arena at the turn of the century with the victory in the Spanish American War and its acquisition of an empire I. The Spanish American War (1898) Historiography; Historians have seen the Spanish American War as a clear departure for the past because it represents the point of American emergence into world politics (actually, a point where the United States and the European powers assumed that American had any interest in any world crisis) The War brought an end to U.S. isolationism The United States had not been involved in the international political scene since the Treaty of Ghent (1814) Reasons for the involvement of the United States Forces in the Spanish American War 1. Political liberty in the Western Hemisphere (most significantly) 2. Foreign Markets. Underdeveloped countries could “supply” countries rather than targets for sale. Cuba produced $100 million worth of sugar each year 3. “White Man’s Burden.” Josiah Strong felt that it was the historic duty (manifest destiny) of “Anglo Saxon America” to “uplift and civilize” other lands 286 4. Social Darwinism. Many Americans believed that “strong races” need warlike competition to remain strong 5. Increase the U.S. Sphere of Economic Influence 6. Create a political balance of power 7. Aid anti-monarchial revolutions Events prior to the Spanish American War 1. The United States almost intervened in a Cuban revolt against Spain from 1868-1878 2. The McKinley Tariff (1890) made sugar duty-free, thus producing huge profits for Cuban planters and American Sugar importers 3. In 1894, the Wilson-Gorman Tariff placed a duty on sugar which crippled the Cuban economy and led to revolts in the nation against the mother country, Spain 4. Spain began to tighten its control in 1895 because Cuba was an essential part of the Spanish Empire 5. Throughout Latin America, Spain had established a. Mercantilism, an economic system designed to increase the wealth and power of the mother country through the strict control and economic exploitation of colonies and other nations b. Bullionism, i.e. the accumulation and storage of precious metals (gold and silver) due to the belief that the world’s wealth is limited c. Haciendas (huge plantations) at which the native population was enslaved to produce agricultural products for Spain 287 6. The Spanish exploitation of Cuba was sensationalized in the United States by Newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer 7. Jingoism (intense nationalism that is usually accompanied by a hostile foreign policy resulted from the publications of the “yellow press” 8. President McKinley remain committed to peace, despite his expansionist views and pressure from the public Events of the Spanish American War Two incidents served as “sparks” Number One Cubans intercepted and gave to the American press a letter from the Spanish minister to Washington (the De Lome letter) which described President McKinley as a “cheap publicity seeker” Number Two The Battleship Maine blew up on February 16, 1898 and sunk after paying a “courtesy visit” to Havana Harbor in Cuba during anti-American riots by Spanish Loyalists 260 American lives were lost The battle cry of the American citizens became “Remember the Maine” (Actually, evidence suggests that the explosion was due to mechanical failure rather than mines planted by Spain) 288 Neither the United States nor Spain wanted war but, due to public pressure, President McKinley requested authority to use American troops on April 11, 1898 in order to create a stable government in Cuba Congress declared Cuba independent and demanded Spanish withdrawal, despite the fact that Spain had already conceded to previous American demands for mediation In its declaration of war, congress proclaimed the Teller Resolution which stated that the United States would leave the government and control of Cuba to its people (popular sovereignty) Other rebellions and uprisings against Spain began in the Far East and the Philippines as the war erupted a. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet of 10 ships in the Philippine harbor of Manila without losing a single life b. Teddy Roosevelt’s “Rough Riders” conquered San Juan Hill overlooking Santiago Bay, the location where the remaining Spanish fleet surrendered c. General Nelson Miles conquered Puerto Rico d. Secretary of State John Hay called the “splendid little war” Results of the Spanish American War 1. 5462 Americans died during the war, 379 died in combat; the others died from disease 2. In the Treaty of Paris (October 1898, the United States forced Spain to withdraw from Cuba and acquired the Spanish territories of Puerto Rico, Wake Island, Guam and the Philippines The Senate ratified the Treaty in 1899 289 There were mixed opinion about the Treaty: Many Americans did not want a colonial empire and opposed the treaty The groups that most opposed the treaty were Anti-Imperialists, northern Democrats and Reform minded Republicans Libertarians argued that colonialism would violate the Declaration of Independence and the Monroe Doctrine Many noted that the Constitution provided no means of governing territories that were not destined to become states Racists said that Filipinos could not be assimilated (blended) into our culture Strategists argued that the Far Eastern possessions would endanger American security Blacks opposed expansion because the “White Mans Burden” concept suggested white superiority Many people expressed support of the Treaty Some people felt that the United States should not remove the flag from a territory because this action may be interpreted as a sign of weakness Manifest Destiny advocated suggested that it was the will of God for America to Christianize the Philippines Some worried about competition for these properties from Japan and Germany The business community wanted to expand trade in the newly acquired territories 290 Perhaps the strongest argument for keeping the territories (especially the Philippines) was that there was no alternative i.e., the United States could not give the territories back to Spain or to Germany and Japan Some also argued that the U.S. Had no alternative because the natives in these territories were “uncivilized” and therefore incapable of self-rule A constitutional question arose… Did the people living in the territories acquired from Spain have constitutional rights equal to U.S. citizens? The Insular Cases of 1901 distinguished between tow types of possessions 1. Incorporated territories destined for statehood (Hawaii, Alaska) received constitutional rights 2. Unincorporated territories can be organized (Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands) and governed by congressional legislation OR 3. Unorganized (American Samoa, midway Island, Wake Island) with no governance. These territories do not receive full constitutional rights Post War developments in Asia 1. Philippines a. Filipinos rejected domination by the United States but an uprising was defeated in 1902. The Philippines were initially an unincorporated territory 291 b. The Philippine Government Act of 1902 provided for an assembly with veto provisions for the United States c. The Jones Act of 1916 gave Filipinos the right to elect members to both houses in their assembly d. The Filipinos gained independence after WWII 2. Hawaii a. Pearl Harbor was leased by the United States as a naval base in 1887 b. Responding to Queen Liliuokalani’s threat to end foreign influence in Hawaii… c. American sugar and pineapple trades started a revolution in Hawaii which resulted with intervention by the U.S. Marines and a new government in 1893 d. Hawaii was annexed to the United States as a territory in 1898, during the Spanish American war 3. Samoa a. After sharing ownership of the islands, the U.S. got complete control of Samoa after WWI, with Pago Pago serving a s a chief naval base 4. China 292 a. The United States secured the same trading privileges of the other nations b. Extraterritoriality allowed American citizens in China charged with violations to be tried in American courts in China c. Open Door Policy (1899-1900); U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent a note to the six leading world powers He asked them to agree that, within their sphere of influence in China, there would be commercial equality The nations agreed, insuring that all treaty ports would be kept open and that tariff rates would be equal Boxer Rebellion - The Boxers, a secret Chinese society attempting to purge foreigners from their country, caused the entry of foreign and American troops into China While some nations seized land, the United States refused and therefore maintained close ties with China 5. Japan a. After Commodore Matthew Perry sailed an American fleet into Japanese waters in 1853, he exchanged gifts , met rulers and opened ties between the U.S. and Japan – Japan tried to adopt Western ideas b. Increasing technology lowered the death rate and led Japan to search for colonies as sources of food c. Japanese imperialism resulted in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan claimed the Russian controlled territories of Korea, Manchuria, and the southern half of Sakhalin 293 Through the Treaty of Portsmouth with strengthened the Open Door Policy Lesson Two: The Caribbean has often been called the “American Lake” following the Spanish American war because the United States “spilled over” into the Caribbean I. U.S. Influence in the Caribbean after the Spanish-American War A. Puerto Rico Became a U.S. territory in 1917 with citizenship , an elected assembly, a constitution, control of their own financial matters and protection by U.S. defenses Puerto Ricans formed a self-governing commonwealth in 1952 and therefore, lack voting representation in Congress and the right to participate in Presidential elections As U.S. citizens they are subject to military service and most Federal laws but pay no Federal income tax on local earnings B. Cuba After the Spanish American War a centralized republic was created by the newly elected assembly The Cuban constitution provided for church/state separation Platt Amendment 294 The United States enacted the Platt Amendment which gave the United States the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence The Cuban assembly adopted the amendment in their 1901 constitution Provided for U.S. Naval bases in Cuba Established Debt guidelines Reconstructed Cuba as an American “protectorate” C. Panama and the building of the Panama Canal Panama was a Columbian province at the turn of the century and one of the “Banana Republics”, resented America racially and culturally The first attempt to build a canal across the isthmus of Panama in the 1870s Frenchman Ferdinand Delessop tried to duplicate his success in building the sea level 105 mile long Suez Canal Lacking the technology, money and medical advances to build the canal through the Panamanian jungles, the French effort was the largest business collapse in history up to that point The effort claimed the lives of 20,000 diseased and snakebiten victims The united States became interested in a canal as alternative to two navies In the Pacific and Atlantic, the U.S.S. Oregon’s trip around South America during the Spanish-American War demonstrated that a problem existed 295 The Hay-Pauncefote treaty was signed with Great Britain in order to overturn restrictions against exclusive American ownership of a canal that had been incorporated in the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty The United States government approached the Columbian government (which controlled the Isthmus of Panama) and signed the Hay-Herran Treaty This treaty agreed to pay $10 million in advance for the right to build a canal across Panama – followed by annual payments of $250,000 The treaty was rejected by Columbia President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed “We’ll teach these jackrabbits a lesson” He helped Philippe Banau-Varilla (of Ferdinand Delessop’s bankrupt French canal company) organize the Panama Revolution of 1903 Roosevelt then sent in the U.S.S. Nashville to prevent the landing of Columbian troops – Consequently, Panama gained its independence The Hay Bunau-Varilla Treaty gave the United States a 10 mile right of way across the Isthmus of Panama The U.S. gave Panama the $10 million and $250,000 a year that had been offered to Columbia Because Columbia agreed to recognize the loss of Panama and the future canal, the U.S. granted Columbia “favored nation” status They also agreed to give them the first ten $250,000 payments Additionally, the U.S. signed the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty (1921) which gave Columbia $25 million as further compensation 296 Canal construction was completed by Colonel George W. Goethals from 1904 to 1914 at the cost of $352 million The project produced the largest man made lake in the world Led to the eradication of the region’s mosquito-born yellow fever by Colonel William C. Gorgas The project was completed under budget, ahead of schedule and corruption free by 50,000 workers The 50,000 workers included American skilled labor and English speaking West Indies unskilled labor 5,609 workers died during the construction of the 50 mile canal The “gunboat diplomacy” used in the acquisition of the Panama Canal might represent “Yankee Imperialism” This is illustrated by Teddy Roosevelt’s belief that America should “Speak softly and carry a big stick” Imperialism is the establishment of colonies and building of an empire The practice of one nation extending its power by acquiring territories or by controlling the political/economic life of other nations D. Mexico The U.S. perceived “progress” in Mexico when modernization occurred under Diaz, a late 19th century ruler who served as the dictator-president for 35 years The railroad, agricultural and mining industries in which U.S. businessmen had invested seemed to be growing 297 Actually the conditions were unstable and the country was regressing The Mexican Revolution of 1910 occurred during the Huerta administration (Huerta ineptly followed Madero, a reformer) When American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government, the U.S. sent Marines to Vera Cruz Pancho Villa attacked Huerta’s government in Mexico City from the North Carranza closed in form the Northeast, and Zapata approached from the south These leaders that attacked Huerta were “social bandits” When Carranza became recognized as the new leader of Mexico with assistance from the United States Pancho Villa became angry and threatened Americans, hoping to provoke intervention President Wilson sent in troops under General John J. Pershing into Mexico but failed to capture Villa Wilson learned what all U.S. presidents in the 20th century have learned: its difficult for the U.S. to refrain from participating in international affairs E. The Virgin Islands The Virgin Islands were purchased by the United States from Demark in 1916 U.S. Foreign Policy towards Latin America has been determined by selfinterest since the mid-nineteenth century Reasons for U.S. involvement in Latin America 298 1. The need for law and order in neighboring countries 2. Self-Interest (political and economic) 3. Defense of the Panama Canal As previously seen, the Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned the European Powers to avoid further colonization in the Americas Also not to interfere with independent nations in the Western Hemisphere and, as a policy, was not driven exclusively by self-interest, but rather, by an effort to insure liberty for other American nations The Roosevelt Doctrine was a response to the Drago Doctrine The Drago Doctrine in which the Argentine minister of Foreign Affairs, Luis Drago, supported by other Latin American leaders, declared that Argentina could not agree to any nation using force to collect debts from a Latin American nation President Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary which stated that, if it became necessary for any European nation to interfere in the affairs of a Latin American country, the United States would take the necessary steps and that the European nation would be prohibited from any action Roosevelt’s statement on the exercise of international “police power” by the United States prevented European intervention but insulted the citizens of Latin American nations The Roosevelt Corollary reinforced the Monroe doctrine and exceeded its power Through “Dollar Diplomacy” American bankers lent money to the Caribbean governments with encouragement from the state department 299 If the Debts were not repaid the U.S. government intervened, using private funds to promote the aims of U.S. diplomacy President Taft preferred Dollar Diplomacy but he did send in troops into Nicaragua in 1912 Influenced by Alfred Mahan’s 1890 book entitled The influence of Sea Power upon History 1660-1783 The book argued that sea power and colonial naval bases facilitated national greatness Congress authorized the construction of the “Great White Fleet” The “Great White Fleet” would later be sent by President Roosevelt on a world tour from 1907 to 1909 as a demonstration of American power Lesson Three: American involvement in World War I brought the United States closer to a position of world leadership Though America initially viewed the conflict as a “European Problem” and insured American dominance of the global economy in the 20th century Events leading up to World War I Europe enjoyed a dominant role in the world, politically, culturally and economically as the 20th century opened 1. The industrial revolution brought prosperity and material progress to Europe 300 2. The patriotic, Victorian (serious-toned) middle class dominated the economic and political arenas 3. Representative governments produced greater political democracy and constitutions 4. Europe was confident, progressive and embracing Social Darwinism, Rationalism and Pacifism The first Hague Conference, held in the Hague in the Netherlands (1899), called for the use of mediation and arbitration in settling international disputes The second Hague Conference (1907) drafted rules for the conduct of war and adopted the Drago Doctrine employed by Argentina Flaws produced a crisis in European civilization 1. Growing international insecurity a. Germany had small wars during its unification process (1871) Bismarck emerged as the Chancellor of Germany b. Social Darwinism emphasized struggle and conflict, with the fittest surviving c. Nationalism (especially in Germany) worked against international cooperation d. Militarism: the amount of money spent on military armaments doubled from 1900-1914, despite the Hague peace conferences 301 e. The Schlieffen plan developed by Germany suggested that Germany, in the event of war, would strike against France, then Germany Origins of World War I 1. Economic Imperialism (especially 1871-1914) led to conflict between Europeans (Examples: Russia v Britain for Persia (Iran); Britain v France for the Sudan) 2. Militarism: The doubling of armaments and formation of war plans created a warlike environment 3. The press excited public opinions with sensationalism 4. Nationalism Serbia was the most nationalistic of the Balkan States and wanted to expand In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and blocked Serbian expansion In 1912 Serbia wanted to annex Albania but Austria helped the Albanians form an independent government The Serbs thus hated Austria and realized at the same time, that Serbian and Russian interests were similar (culture, alphabet, religion, etc.) 5. Intermingled (Entangling) Alliances a. The conflict between Austria and Serbia produced a split between Germany and Russia. A treaty between Germany and Russia was not renewed b. Britain isolationism ended as Germany insulted the British with poor diplomacy and a naval build up c. France brought Russia and England together 302 The Spark that produced the war 1. On June 1914, Gavrillo Princip, a member of a Serbian terrorist organization known as the “Black Hand” assassinated Archduke Ferdinand f Austria in S Sarajevo The initial plan involving a bomb failed – Princip shot the Archduke and his wife at a stop sign 2. Austria issued an ultimatum with ten specific demands, some of which included, Cash, full confession, northern lands between Serbia and Bosnia, the right to oversee the investigation etc Serbia accepted all but two of the demands but Austria found this partial acceptance unsatisfactory Declared war on Serbia on July 28, sent troops in on July 29th 1914 3. Russia mobilized, as promised, behind Serbia 4. Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm, issued demands for Russia to demobilize, when Russia refused, Germany declared war on Russia Then, after crossing Luxemburg, declared war on France 303 5. When Germany informed the government of neutral Belgium that it intended to march on France through Belgium… The Belgium government asked the signatories of the Treaty of 1839 to guarantee Belgium neutrality as agreed Britain declared war on Germany after Germany refused to recognize Belgium’s neutrality 6. Opponents of the war included Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, whose opposition led to the formation of the Nobel Peace Prize Highlights of World War I A. The Character of World War One differed from the previous wars 1. A war of science and technology emerged - poison gas was used at the Battle of Xpres The introduction of the Tank, flame thrower, airplane and submarine into warfare began during WWI 2. World War I was “total war” which was fought on home fronts, affected economics as well as morale and produced propaganda 3. Military leadership predominated over political leadership The War Characterized by Three Phases 1. Movement (August-November, 1914) The Schlieffan Plan broke down for Germany in Belgium as the Battle of the Marne River produced Trench Warfare 304 2. Stalemate (December, 1914 -Summer 1918 a. Italy withdrew from the Central Powers Germany, AustriaHungary and, later Turkey and Bulgaria)because of Germanys aggression and joined the Allied Powers (England, France, Russia and later Japan) b. Between 1915 and 1916, British troops failed to capture the Dardanelle Straits, which connected the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, after battling the Ottoman Turks who controlled the region c. The battles of Verdun and Somme settled the war in 1916 Verdun – 1, 000,000 casualties (250,000 dead) Somme – 1,100,000 casualties (400,000 British, 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans) War would never be considered a “gallant” endeavor. character of war changed forever The d. 1917 was a year of decision for Wilson and the United States The Russian effort collapsed with the victory of the Bolsheviks and the negotiation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk President Wilson sent in troops in a failed attempt to overthrow the Bolsheviks Germany moved eastern forces to the west and resumed submarine warfare with their U-Boats On May 7, 1915 the sinking of the Lusitania which claimed 128 American lives among the 1198 dead, changed American sentiment about the war In March, 1916 the “Sussex Pledge” resulted from the sinking of the Sussex (a French ship) 305 German subs would issue warnings Wilson was re-elected on the campaign slogan, “He Kept us out of War”, in November, 1916 The United States had remained neutral as the war in Europe erupted Wilson broke diplomatic relations with Germany when it abandoned the Sussex pledge and resumed unrestricted submarine warfare In the Zimmerman note, Germany offered an alliance to Mexico in the event of war with the United States, promising to return Texas, New Mexico and Arizona to Mexico as a result of the alliance The note, which was intercepted by British intelligence as it being sent across the trans-Atlantic cable, shocked Americans Due to fears of a German dominated Europe and economic ties with Britain, in addition to unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman note… The United States entered the war “to make the world safe for democracy” in April 11, 1917 Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, who wished for the United States to stay neutral, resigned in protest To facilitate the war effort, “Liberty Bonds” were purchased by over half of the American population Farmers planted “fence to fence” to increase food production Industry was retooled to produce weapons 306 Propaganda was employed by the government to build public support for the war effort War Boards created during World War One to increase cooperation between business, labor and government 3. Movement in 1918 a. With the collapse of the Allied eastern front , the Germans, under the command of General Ludendorff, launched an offensive on March 21, 1918 He was trying to bring an end to the war before the Americans could be come involved They reached the Marne River, 37 miles from Paris b. American ships traveled in convoys for safety, an idea introduced by Admiral William Sims, as the navy began to exert its force in the North Atlantic The American Expeditiary Force, two million strong, moved into Europe under General John J. Pershing, who had gained fame as an Indian fighter Pershing had been the commander of African American troops at San Juan Hill and for halting a Filipino Revolt Pershing would visit Lafayette’s grave and remark “Lafayette we are here” as an acknowledgement of the debt owed to the French for their assistance during the American Revolution c. American Heroes earned distinction for their bravery 307 Alvin York, a conscientious objector, who resolved his crisis of religious conscience through prayer, became America’s greatest war hero during World War I, capturing many German prisoners single-handily. He was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor and the French Croix de Guerre Eddie Rickenbacker became America’s greatest ace aviator with conformation of the twenty six enemy planes that he shot down d. The Allied counter offensive, consisting of American, French and British troops under the leadership of French Commander Marshal Foch, led to an armistice on November 11, 1918 Some of the important battles of the counter offensive were: St. Mihiel, Cantigny, Château-Thierry, Belleau, Riems (The second Battle of the Marne) and in the Meuse-Argonne offensive (Where the Americans suffered 120,000 casualties in victory) e. Following the collapse of the Turkish, Bulgarian and Austrian war efforts, Germany signed an armistice on November 11, 1918 Kaiser Wilhelm fled to the Netherlands The Germans agreed to… Evacuate France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Alsace-Lorraine and allow the occupation of all German territory west of the Rhine River Renounce the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia and the Treaty of Bucharest with Romania Surrender War materials 308 Results of World War I The results of the war dictated the terms of peace 1. The loss of 10,000,000 allied lives led to calls for a harsh settlement 2. Political Results Three empires were destroyed (belonging to Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Turks A new political force emerged (Bolshevism) Liberalism declined 3. The old social order of class differences and female subordination was understood 4. 19th Century culture was undermined 5. European economies were fractured 6. New Nations that were created (or recreated) including Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia The peace conference held at Versailles France included the “Big Four” leaders, including Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George o f Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy President Wilson’s plan for peace (Fourteen Points) proposed democratic principles, self determination for Europeans, Freedom of the Seas, Tariff-Free Markets, International Control of Colonies, military reductions and lasting peace 309 The plan was too general, contradictory, void of a plan for economic recovery and it illustrated Wilson’s naiveté about the nature of democracy and ignorance of central European conditions and history The Terms for Peace with Germany were harsh as Europe sought to punish Germany The Treaty: Returned Alsace-Lorraine to the French Transferred German colonies to the Allies Established the Polish Corridor through German territory Limited the German army to 100,000 men Demilitarized the Rhineland Examined the problems of relief, reconstruction, reparations and the international economy Made Germany pay $32 billion in Reparations Humiliated, demoralized and decolonized Germany and blamed Germany for the War (article 231) Most nations were unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles President Wilson’s League of Nations was rejected at home by Congress, led by isolationists under the leadership of Henry Cabot Lodge In November 1919, the League was implemented without American support 310 Wilson was unable to fight fro its approval after suffering a stroke earlier in September The League of Nations solved minor political disputes, confronted economic problems, established the World Health Organization, which fought tropical disease, and the International Labor Organization, which gathered information on wages It was a weak organization, however, because it had no economic or military power and its international agenda often came in conflict with national interests The United States returned to a position of Isolationism following World War I 311 Unit Eight: Boom and Bust – The “Roaring Twenties,” The great Depression and the New Deal Lesson 1: The Political developments of the “roaring twenties” reflected the nation’s desire for isolationism, order and a government guided by laissez fair philosophy Political Developments in the postwar period A post war depression adversely affected farmers and wage earners who had enjoyed prosperity during the war Inflated prices and unemployment resulting from demobilization led to labor unrest 1. Coal Strike (1919): The United Mine Workers, led by John L Lewis, struck for higher wages and a shorter work week a) An injunction secured by United States Attorney General Mitchell A. Palmer that ordered the U.M.W. officials to stop their pro-strike activities was ignored by the miners b) The government’s board of arbitration gave the miners a large wage increase 2. Steel Strike (1919): Discontent with 12 hour workdays and lack of union recognition, 350,000 steelworkers went on strike under the direction of the American Federation of Labor When public opinion turned against them, the steelworkers returned to their jobs with no gains but later secured an eight hour workday 312 3. The “Red Scare” (1919-1920) was a result of the public’s fear that revolution was emerging from labor violence and that American radicals might follow the example set by the Russian Bolsheviks in 1917 Consequently, federal and state governments began arresting, fining and deporting hundreds of suspected anarchists, communists and socialists a) Bombs mailed by terrorists to important officials heightened public fear b) States passed laws against advocating violence. Socialists were prohibited from their elected seats in the New York state legislature c) In the fall of 1919 with the Espionage Act (passed in wartime to punish treasonable activities) still in effect, Attorney General Mitchell Palmer arrested radicals in “Palmer Raids” throughout the country often searching their premises without warrents Many aliens were deported until growing public concern about the violation of civil liberties prompted Democratic and Republic leaders to end the crackdown d) Anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were arrested for murder in 1920, convicted and executed in 1927 Many Americans felt that their radical ideology was the real reason for their conviction 313 Political Developments of the 1920s Harding’s Administration (1921-1923) 1. Election of 1920 a) The Democrats nominated Governor James M. Cox (Ohio) who supported the League of Nations and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt (New York) Wilson probably desired a third term but lacked both the physical fortitude and political popularity to succeed b) The Republican candidate, Senator Warren G. Harding (Ohio) and his running mate, Governor Calvin Coolidge (Massachusetts) The Republicans were able to deter Democratic attempts to portray the election as a “solemn referendum” on the League of Nations c) Eugene V. Debs gathered almost one million votes, the highest total ever for a Socialist candidate, while imprisoned in Atlanta for “violating” the Espionage Act d) Harding won the election of 1920 wioth 60.3% of the popular vote and 404 electoral votes (compared to 127 for Cox) Harding got elected by calling for: 1) Low Taxes, 2) Higher Tariffs, 3) Restrictions on immigration 4) Aid to Farmers and 5) a “Return to Normalcy” His victory demonstrated the public’s desire to abandon the politics of sacrifice and idealism 314 Due to President Wilson’s involvement in the postWorld War I peace process, Democratic candidates were viewed as unsympathetic about economic matters at home The political arena of the 1920s will be dominated by the Republican Party 2. Domestic events of the Harding administration a. A separate Veteran’s Bureau (later called the Veteran’s administration) was established to supervise programs to aid exsoldiers b. Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon lowered income taxes, cut spending, lowering the national debt and balanced the budget i) Through the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the Bureau of the Budget was created to coordinate federal receipts and expenditures, with Charles G. Dawes as is first director The Act also required the President to submit an estimated budget to Congress each year and it created the General Accounting Office ii) The Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act reversed the Wilson administration’s tariff policy by raising tariffs to a new high level c. Concerns about Post-war increased in Immigration led Congress to enact restrictions, aimed particularly at eastern/southern European and Asian immigrants The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 sharply limited immigration into the United States by introducing a Quota System which limited immigration into the United States 315 It limited the number of Europeans and other immigrants to 3% of the total number of persons of their perspective nationality residing in the U.S. in 1910 d. Several scandals involving appointed officials marred the integrity of the Harding administration i) In the Teapot Dome Scandal, the most famous of the scandals, Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall was fined and sentenced for taking large bribes from oil operators to whom he had leased Teapot Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California naval oil reserves under favorable terms ii) The head of the Veteran’s Bureau (Charles R. Forbes) and the Custodian of Alien Property (Thomas Miller) were imprisoned for defrauding the government out of huge sums of money iii) Attorney General Harry M Daugherty, a member of Harding’s corrupt “Ohio Gang” was charged with accepting bribes in return for liquor licenses and was force to resign from office 3. American foreign policy during Harding’s administration was isolationist, partially as a result of the post-war depression At the 1921-22 Washington Conference, Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes proposed a 5-5-3 ratio of American to British to Japanese ships Also to continue the status quo in the Pacific in terms of territorial possessions for the United States and Great Britain while conceding no limits to the Japanese 4. Harding’s health declined, partially due to the strain of the scandals, and he died in office in 1923 of thrombosis and pneumonia He was succeeded by Vice-President Coolidge 316 The Coolidge Administration (1923-1929) 1. Election of 1924 a. The Democratic Party nominated conservative corporate lawyer John W. Davis (Ohio) for the presidency b. The Republicans nominated President Coolidge, who believed that the government should not regulate business and who was opposed to legislation designed to help workers and farmers c. The Progressive Party, representing the interests of labor, farmers and socialists, nominated Robert “Fighting Bob” Lafollette He called for laws to protect the rights of labor and government ownership of railroads and water-power resources Lafollette received nearly 5 million votes d. Coolidge won the election by a landslide on his laissez-faire platform (386 electoral votes to 136 for Davis and 13 for Lafollette) 2. President Coolidge believed “the business of America is business”. Symbolizing thrift, Coolidge opposed government interference with private enterprise, worked to reduce the public debt, the cost of government and taxes and further restricted immigration a. The Immigration Act of 1924 lowered the quota of 3% that had been established under the Emergency Quota Act to 2% It also changed to the 1890 census since the 1910 census had favored Eastern and Southern Europeans with their huge wave of immigration in the first decade of the 20th century Japanese Immigrants were prohibited by the Act while Canadians and Latin Americans were exempt 317 b. Coolidge vetoed the Soldiers Bonus Act on 1924 which Congress passed over his veto to provide veterans below the rank of captain with a paid up 20 year life insurance policy c. He signed the Revenue Act of 1926, cutting taxes for the wealthy d. He twice vetoed the McNary-Haugen Bill which was proposed by Congress to stabilize farm prices with subsides 3. Coolidge’s foreign policy reflected continued isolationism a. Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and the French foreign minister Aristide Briand signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, asking all nations to sign a pledge outlawing war as an instrument of foreign policy The countries would agree to resolve their differences by peaceful methods The Pact was ineffective because it could not be enforced b. Another indication of U.S. isolationism was the absence of U.S. representation of the World Court, even though Harding and Coolidge had both supported the concept c. Relations with Latin American countries improved during Coolidge’s administration through the successful diplomatic efforts of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Dwight W. Morrow “Yankee Imperialism” declined as the United States declared during the 1920s and 1930s that it would not act as a police officer in the Western Hemisphere” Thus, it would no longer enforce the Monroe Doctrine and its Roosevelt Corollary 318 d. The Dawes Plan of 1924 rescheduled German reparation payments and opened the way for loans to Germany, so that Germany could pay reparation payments to France and Britain Those countries in turn, could pay their war debts to the United States European economies were stagnant due to the absence of trade with the protectionist United States 4. Even though the United States enjoyed prosperity and relatively peaceful conditions during the Coolidge years, the President chose not to run for reelection in 1928 “Silent Cal” Coolidge (the Sphinx of the Potomac) was not seen as a strong leader Hoover’s Administration (1929-1933) 1. Election of 1928 a. The Democrats nominated colorful New York Governor Alfred E. Smith, the “Happy Warrior,” who faced tremendous opposition due to the fact that he was a Roman Catholic He opposed prohibition and he was also associated with New York City’s political machine b. The Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover (California) a mining engineer and capable Commerce Secretary under Harding and Coolidge Hoover believed that experts in fields other than government could help government and that government should display only a moderate amount of social and economic guidance (laissez-faire) 319 c. The prosperity of the Coolidge Administration and the opposition to Smith’s Catholicism helped the Republicans win an impressive victory The election results indicated that the nation was not ready to confront issues of church and state The heavily Protestant “Solid South” for the first time since the Civil War, produced Republican victories in several states due to Smith’s Catholicism This was the first election in which campaigns were conducted by radio 2. Domestic developments during the Hoover administration a. Tariffs on imports were increased by the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act of 1930 Americans witnessed a decline in exports to other countries when these nations reacted to the highest tariff in American history b. The National Origins Act went into effect, shifting the base year for figuring immigration to 1920 but also reducing the yearly limit on immigrants to 150,000 c. The Twentieth Amendment was proposed during Hoover’s administration (though not ratified until 1933), limiting the term and power of a “Lame Duck” President between the election and the inauguration of his successor d. The Agricultural Marketing Act created the Federal Farm Board, which loaned money to farmers in an effort to assist them in organizing producers cooperatives 320 e. When 15,000 World War I veterans marched into Washington as the “Bonus Army” in 1932, demanding early payment of war bonuses which they were scheduled to receive in 1945 President Hoover ordered General Douglas MacArthur to drive them out of Washington after the Senate refused to pass a bill on their behalf 3. Foreign Policy of the Hoover administration a. The United States participated in the London Conference on Naval Disarmament in 1930 This conference marked the high point of Japanese cooperation with the west because Japan agreed to extend the “naval holiday” that had been implemented for a ten year period at the Washington Conference of 1921-22, agreeing to build no new warships b. Through the Hoover-Stinson Doctrine, the United States refused to recognize Japan’s seizure of Manchuria in 1932 by declaring that it would not recognize any territorial acquisition by force 321 Lesson 2: The “roaring twenties” ushered in great changes on America’s economic, social and cultural landscape Industrialization changed American society during the “Roaring Twenties” A. The 1920s marked a transition from rural to urban America. As industrialization increased opportunities, most Americans moved to the cities, seeking employment and upward mobility as the 1920 census indicated B. The U.S. economy, fueled by mass advertising and installment buying, was characterized by an increase of 40% in the Gross National Product and an increase in per capita income American society changed as a result The 1920s was a period of advancing technology a. Technology increased the number of consumer goods to the 1920s, such as the radio, washing machine, electric iron and toaster Advertising sought to change products from necessities to status symbols b. Automobiles, radios and motion pictures contributed to the standardization of American life Al Jolson starred in The Jazz Singer, the first American talking motion picture c. Moral standards declined in the 1920s as materialism emerged and as the automobile and motion picture theaters moved romance out of the front parlors of homes 322 American promiscuity was also driven by the work of Freud and Jung d. The automobile industry stimulated the growth of the petroleum, glass, steel, and rubber industries, suburbs and improvements in the environment e. New sources of power emerged 2. The demand for skilled labor produced widespread unemployment among unskilled workers 3. Some groups of Americans were excluded from realizing the benefits of the economic boom, including minorities (Indians, Blacks and Hispanics), the structurally unemployed who lost their jobs to advanced technology Certain industries such as coal, which were eventually replaced by other sources of power and farmers, who watched prices fall due to a drop in immigration and loss of European markets C. Beginning in 1920, the labor movement declined in strength due to 1) improved economic conditions; 2) strike failures; 3) injunctions; 4) campaigns by industrial management to appeal to labor, including offers of profit sharing and retirement plans and 5) Identification with socialism and communism (ironically, because Marx disliked unions) The Commerce Department also encouraged the creation of trade associations to promote standardized products and to combat labor unions 323 Racism and Nativism Nativism emerged as intense opposition to internal minorities on the grounds of their foreign “un-American” connections and was closely related to the religious fundamentalism of the period A. The “Red Scare” demonstrated intense anti-radical sentiments in the United States that were manifested through the immigration restrictions of the 1920s B. Anglo-Saxon racism was rampant in the 1920s 1. Blacks who migrated to northern cities faced discrimination in jobs and housing as well as racial violence in 1919 2. The “100% American” Ku Klux Klan, with 4 million members, exerted significant influence, particularly in several southern and Midwestern states a. The KKK discriminated against Jews, Blacks, Catholics and immigrants, blaming them for unemployment and other social ills The Klan marched in parades, carrying American flags, issued warnings with burning crosses and used beatings, lynchings and tar and feathers to make its point b. Public outrage led to a decline in the orgainization’s membership in 1925 3. Some American authors also joined with Adolph Hitler in citing the virtue of “Nordic qualities” 324 Prohibition The “Prohibition Experiment” was enacted with the ratification of the 18th Amendment in January 1919 1. The federal government prohibited the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors” 2. The Volstead Act of October 1919 (also known as the Prohibition Enforcement Act) defined “intoxicating liquor” as any beverage containing more than one half of one percent alcohol, thus making beer and wine illegal As a result, prohibition changed the drinking habits of Americans from beer and wine to hard liquor, which was the primary product of the “bootleggers” who manufactured and sold illegal booze Eastern city dwellers resisted the act 3. Illegal bars called “speakeasies” prospered as prohibition gave rise to notorious gangsterism and gang warfare A. In 1925 “Scarface” Al Capone began a six year campaign of gang warfare in Chicago to protect his bootlegging interests which netted him hundreds of million so dollars Over 500 gangsters were killed, including the seven disarmed men who died in the “St. Valentine’s Day Massacre”, for which Capone was never convicted “Public Enemy Number One” (Capone), served eleven years for tax evasion and died of syphilis shortly after his release B. Organized crime would soon control billions of dollars from other illegal activities, including prostitution, narcotics and 325 gambling and would take their racketeering activities into labor unions C. The Lindberg Law of 1932 made certain types of interstate kidnapping a capital offense, punishable by death, as a result of the ransom-motivated abduction and murder of hero-aviator Charles Lindbergh’s infant son 4. “The Noble Experiment” reduced absenteeism in the workplace, despite estimates that consumption of alcoholic beverages soared by 25% during its era 5. The 21st Amendment repealed prohibition in 1933 Evolution At the 1925 “Scopes Monkey Trial” in Dayton, Tennessee, Clarence Darrow defended a high school science teacher indicted for teaching evolution in violation of a state ordinance The prosecuting attorney, William Jennings Bryan, based his argument on fundamentalist religious beliefs and won a guilty verdict from the jury Bryan would die several days after the trial ended Cultural changes of the “Jazz Age” Despite the obstacles presented by discrimination, women and minorities made significant gains in the 1920s and contributed enormously to the cultural changes of the era 1. The “new woman” that emerged in the 1920s was more carefree, provocative and willing to challenge the old customs of society 326 a. Women gained the right to vote with the adoption of the 19th Amendment in 1920 b. The Women’s Party, a militant feminist organization ( by 1920s standards), set as its goal an equal rights amendment to the constitution c. “Flappers” were daring young women who wore short haircuts and skirts, drank in speakeasies and smoked in public d. Margaret Sanger, a champion of women’s rights promoted birth control, the U.S. birthrate declined in the 1920s 2. Black pride emerged during the 1920s and 30s a. Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican immigrant, proposed a “back to Africa” movement and formed the United Negro Improvement Association, which subsequently declined after Garvey was deported following his mail fraud conviction b. Alain Locke encouraged the rise of young black leaders in his book, The New Negro c. Oscar de Priest of Chicago became the first black elected to Congress in 28 years in 1928 d. The NAACP began to show progress in civil rights lawsuits e. Blacks shifted to the Democratic Party in the 1930s due to the beneficial actions of the New Deal f. Black writers and artists celebrated a cultural rebirth known as the “Harlem Renaissance” g. Jazz music and the blues dominated the 1920s and found its roots in the joy and pain of black Americans. Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong’s trumpet contributed to the growth of jazz 327 h. James Weldon Johnson’s God’s Trombones poetry was based on the sermons of black ministers i. Poet Langston Hughes’ The Weary Blues focused on the suffering of black Americans 3. Native Americans were granted citizenship in 1924 Literature blossomed as writers focused on the materialism of the Jazz Age 1. H.L. Mencken was a premiere social critic and satirist of the era 2. Sinclair Lewis became the first American to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1930. His works included Main Street, which satirized provincial small town life, and Babbitt, which mocked American business practices 3. F. Scott Fitzgerald portrayed materialism through the Great Gatsby 4. Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises told of disenchanted American expatriates in Europe while A Farewell to Arms vividly portrayed World War I 5. Theodore Dreiser’s An American Tragedy told the story of a murdered mother-in –law 6. William Faulkner masterfully focused on southern life in novels such as The Sound and the Fury 7. Willa Cather’s One of Ours won a Pulitzer Prize as she reflected on the virtues of life on the Great Plains 8. Poet T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land criticized modern society 9. Poet Ezra Pound abandoned America for Europe and influenced T.S. Eliot with his “Make it new” theme 328 10. Poet Robert Frost wrote about New England 11. e.e. cummings was known for his unconventional style 12. Playwright Eugene O’Neill won the Nobel Prize in 1936 for his plays, including Strange Interlude Frank Lloyd Wright revolutionized architecture with the Empire State Building and other structures John Dewey promoted progressive, experience based education American Heroes Emerged 1. Babe Ruth, the New York Yankee slugger who hit a record 60 home runs in a single season (1927), became the first athlete to appear on a box of Wheaties 2. Jack Dempsey fought in the first “million dollar bout” of the 1920s 3. Native American Jim Thorpe, who won two Gold Medals in the 1912 Olympics, was named by sportswriters as the greatest athlete of the first half of the century 4. Red Grange left the fighting Illini to star for the Chicago Bears 5. Flying the Spirit of St. Louis, Charles Lindbergh became the first solo pilot to fly nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927 Lesson 3: The “boom” of the “Roaring Twenties” came crashing to a halt as the “bust” of the 1930s brought despair and new challenges to the American people 329 The Great Depression A. The prosperity of the Twenties came to an abrupt end in October 1929 with the collapse of the stock market 1. Curing Coolidge’s administration the United States enjoyed an unprecedented business boom. Tremendous economic growth abounded (in an undisciplined manner) 2. The United States became the ”financial center of the world” as Great Britain’s dominance crumbled in the post-World War I era 3. High production and employment levels created prosperity and happiness for many people, the national wealth soared, real wages increased and the nation went on an optimistic buying spree 4. The “Twenties” produced tremendous investment. Many Americans invested in the stock market with their surplus income, hoping for big returns as industrial prices boomed upwards A large percentage of these investors bought stocks on credit by borrowing money from lending institutions, i.e., they bought on “margin” On “Margin” the investor puts up part of the investment and borrowed the rest of the balance When their margin was lost, they were forced to sell their stock at whatever price they could get 330 B. Events of the Great Depression 1. Stock prices rose to an artificially high level due to the high demand by investors 2. On October 24, 1929 frantic selling began on the New York Stock exchange. As a result, 16,000,000 shares of stock were dumped on October 29 at very low prices 3. Prices fell drastically as “marginal speculators” rushed to sell their shares, hoping to cut their loses 4. By mid-November, stockholders had lost $30,000,000,000.00. Many people were facing foreclosure on their homes and businesses. 5. Banks and investment firms went bankrupt and depositors and investors lost their savings. 6. Factories and mines closed, unemployment spread and wages were cut sharply as those businesses that remained open cut back on production. a. Cutbacks in production increased unemployment which led to a subsequent decline in the demand for products. b. With decline in demand, businesses had to create additional cutbacks which led to more unemployment. c. A downward spiral of the economy resulted as each cutback and unemployment in related or consumer industries. 7. In summary, the stock market crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The great “bull market” of the 1920’s had symbolized prosperity; the “crash” symbolized despair and was a blow to morale. 331 8. The “Great Depression” was a natural course in the economic cycle of the American economy governed by the forces of supply and demand. Peaks (boom period) and troughs (depressions) and minimized in modern America. C. Causes of the Great Depression 1. the Stock Market Crash was the result of: a. Overproduction, as the exceedingly high prices down which, in turn, affected the profitability of companies and the attractiveness of their stock. b. Overspeculation, Stocks were overinflated or worthless. Some corporations only existed “on paper” with no assets. (Today, we have controls on borrowing money, investing, etc.) 2. President Hoover claimed that the post-World War I international economic disorder was the culprit. 3. High tariffs prevent foreign countries from selling goods to the United States and, thus, from securing money from the U.S. with which to buy American goods. A surplus of goods resulted in the United States as the foreign markets diminished. 4. Excessive borrowing and overextension of credit created an unstable financial environment. 5. Overproduction drove prices down as competitors literally produced their companies out of business. 6. A maldistribution of wealth prevented most people from buying consumer products. 7. An ill-coordinated bank structure and irresponsible financial manipulation by monopolies may have contributed to the depression. 332 D. Symptoms of the Depression 1. Unemployment produced great suffering, particularly among industrial workers. 2. Stock prices declined sharply. The rich lost fortunes and many committed suicide. 3. Evaporation of confidence was evident. 4. Manufacturing production was cut in half. 5. Construction halted. 6. Banks and businesses failed. 7. Farm income was cut in half. E. President Hoover rejected the republican, laissez-faire approach of the 1920’s in responding to the Great Depression. 1. Hoover faced widespread misery of people without jobs, farms, money or hope, as well, as the collapse of business and agriculture. 2. Hoover responded with unprecedented federal programs. a. The president suggested that local communities were responsible for helping those in need. b. He instructed the Farm Board through the McNary-Haugen Bill to buy agricultural surpluses in an effort to raise falling farm prices. c. Several federally- financed public works programs were created. 333 d. Hoover urged Congress to form the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (February, 1932) and to pass the Home Loan Bank Act (July, 1932) which created financial assistance for lending institutions such as savings and loan banks and insurance companies. e. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was designed to loan large sums of money to businesses in an effort to reduce foreclosures. 3. With Hoover’s actions, the government assumed certain responsibilities due to the setback in the nation’s economy. Hoover’s program, however, was unsuccessful and his image was tarnished by his expulsion of the Bonus Army. II. The “New Deal” A. Election of 1932 1. President Hoover blamed the Great Depression on international conditions. 2. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate from New York, and his running mate, John Garner (Texas) blamed Republican policies and proposed a “new deal” for forgotten Americans, promising to experiment with bold programs for economic and social reform. He also called for the repeal of Prohibition and the 21st Amendment would accomplish the task early in his administration. 3. Roosevelt won the election (479 electoral votes to 59) and took office in 1933, proclaiming that “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself”. The Democrats also won control of both houses of Congress, thus allowing the new President to secure much of his legislative agenda. B. Early life and political career of Franklin D. Roosevelt 334 4. A distant cousin of Theodore Roosevelt, FDR was born into a wealthy family in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York. 5. He attended prep school, graduated from Harvard and studied law at Columbia. In 1905 he married Eleanor Roosevelt, a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. 6. As a state senator in New York, Roosevelt opposed political bosses and displayed an interest in the reform movements of the Progressive Era. 7. As the Assistant Secretary of the Navy during Wilson’s administration, Roosevelt helped to reorganize naval shore installations and to prepare the navy for World war I 8. He was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for VicePresident in 1920. 9. Roosevelt was stricken with infantile paralysis in 1921 but continued his political career. 10. Twice elected governor of New York (1928, 1930), Roosevelt attracted national attention as a good administrator and an overwhelming liberal. 11. Overwhelmingly elected as President in 1932, Roosevelt shattered the two-term tradition established by George Washington by serving four terms, dying in office at the beginning of his fourth term. C. The “New Deal” was a continuous experimental response to the demands of various groups suffering as a result of the Depression (from bankers to the unemployed) Roosevelt had no set program when he took office and tended to rely on intuition and optimism 335 In the “hundred days” after taking office, 15 of Roosevelt’s programs were enacted by Congress D. The three general aims of the New Deal were relief, recovery and reform 1. Relief for the unemployed was administered by Harry Hopkins, one of Roosevelt’s closest advisors a) Sounder banks reopened at weaker banks remained closed b) Programs of Relief i. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the most popular of the New Deal programs, put males between 18 and 25 years of age to work on reforestation and other conservation projects ii. The Workers Progress Administration (WPA) gave grants to states and put forth plans for public works iii. The National Youth Administration was concerned with the needs of the youth. Black educator Mary McLeod Bethune directed an agency in the administration iv. The National Negro Congress promoted the interests of Black Americans v. The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) improved the treatment of Indians c) These relief programs were often hampered by bad management and waste 336 2. Recovery for agriculture, industry, commerce and labor Agricultural Legislation i. The Farm Credit Administration (1933) was established to make available huge sums of money to farmers in order for them to avoid foreclosure and to cover operational costs ii. The Agricultural Adjustment Act began to raise farm prices by reducing production and lowering tariff rates Subsides were paid for each acre not planted The Act was declared unconstitutional in the 1936 Supreme Court decision known as “U.S. v. Butler” because the court ruled that the power to tax did not apply to agriculture Banks Witnessed many Changes i. Roosevelt closed all the banks and reopened only the sounder banks after a “run” on these institutions forced many of them to close ii. The gold standard was abandoned under the New Deal The Construction industry was the Target of “Pump Priming”, the administration’s attempt to Fuel the Economy i. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation continued to pour money into the nation’s economy under Roosevelt 337 ii. The Public Works Administration (PWA) provided public construction projects iii. The Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Authority (FHA) assisted the housing industry with low interest loans for refinancing and building Industry and Labor Recovery Measures i. The National Recovery Act, the most complex New Deal Legislation encouraged businesses to end competition and to form cooperative trade unions This act was later declared unconstitutional in the Supreme Court decision known as Schechter vs. the United States ii. “Section 7A” of the NIRA formally guaranteed “collective bargaining” between employers and workers and outlawed “yellow dog” contracts iii. The National Labor Relations Board settled labor disputes iv. The Wagner Act (the National Labor Relations Act) incorporated the ideas of the NIRA after it was declared unconstitutional 3. Reform measures to remedy certain weaknesses in the nation’s economic system a. The Social Security Act provided in 1935, i. ii. iii. Unemployment insurance Old age pensions Aid to the handicapped 338 b. The Public Utility Holding Company Act (the Wheeler-Rayburn Act) regulated public utilities c. The Tennessee Valley Authority was designed to develop power sources, flood control and soil conservation along the Tennessee River TVA was the New Deal’s most radical program and its plan for publicly-owned electrical power was controversial It built 20 dams on the Tennessee River and its tributaries d. The Supreme Court reform efforts of Roosevelt failed as he tried to increase the number of judges from 9 to 15 e. The Fair Labor Standard Act provided a minimum wage and a maximum work week f. The Bankhead Jones Act (1937) created the Farm Security Administration to lend money at low interest rates to tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and farm laborers wishing to buy farms g. The Second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938): i. Paid farmers for acres withdrawn from production and planted in soil-conserving crops ii. Authorized the government to decide the amount of staple crops that could be marketed each year iii. Allowed the government to give commodity loans on all surplus crops that were stored for later use in lean years iv. Authorized the government to insure wheat crops against loss from bad weather or disease h. The Wagner Steagall Act (The National Housing Act of 1937) aimed at stimulating business through government spending for home 339 construction and tried to address the problem of unsatisfactory housing for low income families i. The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) required adequate testing of new drugs j. The Wheeler-Lea Act (1938) prohibited false advertising k. The Hatch Act attacked improper political practices by prohibiting non-policy making officeholders from taking an active part in political campaigns or from soliciting funds from workers on relief and influencing Presidential or Congressional elections l. The Glass-Steagall Act created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (1933), thereby insuring depositors bank accounts m. The Federal Securities Act (1933) required disclosure of all information for new stocks and bonds n. The Securities and Exchange Commission (1934) was created to supervise stock exchanges and to protect investors against dishonest practices In 1938 John L. Lewis (the head of the United Mine Workers) and other labor leaders formed the Congress for Industrial Organization (the C.I.O.) and launched a drive to organize all workers, skilled and unskilled, in the automobile, steel, rubber, oil, radio and other industries This massive industrial organization was organized due to impatience with the American Federation of Labor Since the Wagner Act had given organized labor the guarantee of collective bargaining, the A.F.L and the C.I.O. forged ahead, occasionally in conflict with each other 340 The New Deal Ended amidst Criticism and Praise 1. Election of 1936 a. The Democrats nominated President Roosevelt and Vice President Garner, who were content to run on their New Deal record b. The Republicans nominated Alfred “Alf” Landon who attacked the New Deal as a wasteful bureaucracy c. Radical critics of the New Deal, led by anti-Semitic Father Charles Coughlin, Dr. Francis Townsend and Gerald L.K. Smith, formed the Union Party in Cleveland and nominated William Lemke d. Roosevelt was overwhelmingly reelected with almost 61% of the popular vote (5223 electoral votes to Landon’s 8) His landslide victory was the largest in modern history as he carried every state but Maine and Vermont 2. Roosevelt began to feel pressure during the 1938 congressional elections when many Democrats and Republicans who opposed his programs won seats in the Congress Congress became more conservative as the Supreme Court became more liberal 3. By 1938-1939, Roosevelt began suspending earlier New Deal Programs 4. Criticism of Roosevelt’s New Deal came as many Americans argued that the Government was wielding too much power over business and agriculture and was straying towards socialism The cost of the New Deal was high, as the national debt rose from 19 and one half billion in 1932 to 49 billion in 1941, despite tax increases 341 Critics also argued that money was being wasted and that the New Deal had not eliminated unemployment (8 million workers were out of work in 1939) a. Father Charles Coughlin was an anti-Semitic priest in Michigan that called for inflationary policies and who attacked communists, unions and bankers on the radio He organized the National Union for Social Justice b. Huey “Kingfish” Long of Louisiana called for the seizure of annual incomes in excess of one million dollars as well as guarantees of housing and income for every American family c. Dr. Francis Townsend of California called for a federallyfunded $200/month income for every American over age 60, if they spent the money during the month 5. Praise came for the New Deal as F.D.R.’s supporters claimed that the New Deal had saved the nation from disaster, restored the confidence of the people and had spurred the nation’s progress toward economic and social democracy Blacks and labor unions gave Roosevelt his strongest support, partially as a result of his wife Eleanor’s efforts on behalf of the “dispossessed” Roosevelt had also instilled confidence in the people through hundreds of his famous “Fireside Chats” 342 Indian Legislation Other domestic legislation which emerged during the Roosevelt administration included the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (Wheeler-Howard Act) which halted the redistribution of tribal lands and encouraged a return of tribal self-government 6. Election of 1940 a. Roosevelt decided to seek a seek a third term in office despite the fact that his influence was weakening and the two term tradition was generally accepted as an unwritten part of the Constitution At his insistence Henry Wallace (Iowa) replaced Garner as his running mate He won the Democratic nomination with a platform that promised to i. ii. iii. iv. Extended social security Stress the low cost housing program Advance government ownership of public utilities Keep the United States out of the war in Europe unless the nation was attacked b. The Republican candidate was Wendell Wilkie, a very capable , wealthy, progressive New York attorney Wilkie promised a more efficient administration of the New Deal Though he agreed with most of Roosevelt’s domestic and foreign policy, he felt that Roosevelt’s attempt to serve a third term threatened democratic government in America 343 Roosevelt won the election by a smaller margin by a similar majority than he had enjoyed in previous elections He began his third term as war raged in Europe 344 Unit Nine: World War II Lesson 1: Totalitarian governments expanded in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s prior to World War II I. The nature of European society was permanently changed by the mid 1930s The “Old World” of 1914 no longer existed due to A) World War I; B) Bolshevik Communism in Russia; C) the destabilizing effects of the Great Depression; and D) challenges from both extremes of the political spectrum: Communism and Fascism II. Totalitarianism emerged in Italy, the Soviet Union, Germany, Japan and Spain by the late 1930s A. Fascism in Italy 1. Historian H.S. Hughes has labeled the reactionary Fascist movement as “radicalism on the right” 2. Marxists view Fascism as the “last desperate effort of capitalism to survive 3. Fascism, like Bolshevik Communism, it Totalitarian, the only similarity between these two movements that lie on opposite ends of the political spectrum 4. The characteristics of Fascist regimes include: a. Dictatorial rule (state domination) b. Violence, terror and the elimination of rights c. The failure of the regimes to survive their leaders 345 5. In 1922 Benito Mussolini (known as Il Duce) seized power and created a Fascist state in Italy 6. He destroyed free speech, independent labor unions and political parties 7. Trying to establish a new Roman Empire in the Mediterranean and Middle East, Mussolini rearmed Italy and practiced aggressive expansion 8. Mussolini and the Fascists came to power by taking advantage of the failure of liberalism in Italy and the population’s fear of Bolshevism. The Fascists defended national interests, restored order amidst the post-WWI chaos – They offered a “new way,” an alternative to capitalism and socialism 9. The Fascist regime enforced collectivism with everyone subordinate to the state. Mussolini’s “Black Shirts” became the national militia. The continuation of the Italian Monarchy and the preservation of the church indicated that Italian Fascism lacked Nazi brutality 10. Fascism was widespread due to propaganda, fear and apathy 11. The Fascists industrialized, modernized and militarized Italy. State controlled capitalism (corporationism) created a highly bureaucratized system 12. Italians became tired of Mussolini’s Fascism and failed to support much of his interventionism. In 1943, Mussolini would be assassinated and hanged by his feet on Public display 346 B. Communism/Socialism in the Soviet Union 1. Early Socialism merely meant “organization of society” while early communism implied that the community’s interests exceeded the interests of the individual 2. Karl Marx modified Hegel’s “dialectic” which showed how change takes place through a continuous clash of values between good and bad, form which a higher order of “life” a synthesis, emerges a. Marx viewed history as a struggle between material classes only b. Communism, according to Marx, would be the final synthesis. All class struggles would be eliminated and there would be no room for future change c. Marx maintained that relationships between classes of people had changed throughout history i. Out of the Master/Slave relationships of the Roman Empire, medieval society produced nether slave or master but rather, aristocratic lords and their serfs ii. A new class, the bourgeoisie (capitalists, business owners – the middle class) emerged concurrently with the overthrow of the feudal aristocracy and the ultimate abolition of serfdom, beginning with the French Revolution iii. The creation of factories in the bourgeois capitalist economy dictated the need for a new labor force. The proletariat (industrial working class) was a synthesis of economic conditions created by the bourgeois class 347 d. Marx felt that the final synthesis in human history would occur when capitalism fails and the bourgeois class is overthrown worldwide by the proletariat i. He maintained that capitalism is self-defeating due to inevitable flaws that would bring the system down. He felt that overproduction created by capitalists trying to maximize profits would drive prices down, thus leading to the failure of many competitors. Oligopolies would emerge in each industry, followed by monopoies. In essence competition would produce a competition free industry ii. Discontent among the workers would be evident as monopolists suppressed wages and earned profit from the “sweat of the worker’s brow” (surplus value of labor). Workers would feel enslaved to the production line and alienated from their true “species-being” (inner creative spirit). Marx envisioned a “class conscious proletariat” rising in revolt. Overthrowing the bourgeois class and establishing a worldwide proletarian society iii. The proletarian revolution would be followed by a transitional stage in which a “dictatorship of the proletariat” would guide and educate society about socialism. Marx said the government led by the dictatorship would eventually “wither away” with the elimination of human greed and the rise of the “new socialist man” e. Problems with Marx’s interpretation and theory i. Capitalism has demonstrated flexibility with antitrust legislation to prevent monopolies and labor unions to protect the workers 348 ii. The dictatorship of the proletariat cannot “wither away” because human greed will never be eliminate (a naïve assumption) iii. Many workers may not want to work iv. Totalitarianism has now emerged in the 20th century on the left extreme of the political spectrum due to the “proletarian dictatorship concept, contrary to Marx’s vision of Utopia where government can wither away 3. Stalin’s rise to Power in the Soviet Union began with his revolutionary youth a. Joseph Stalin was born Joseph Dzhugashvili on December 21, 1879 of Georgian, not Russian origin b. Although not a childhood Marxist, he came to revolt against social injustice early in his life and secretly read Marx while attending the church school from which he was expelled in 1899 for revolutionary activity As a deformed child (small pox scars, withered arm) he learned to coldly plot revenge against those that offended him and developed extraordinary organizational abilities c. Influenced by organizations like Messame Dassey and intellectuals like Plekhanov, the father of Social Democracy in late 19th century Russia, and Lenin, father of the Russian Revolution, Stalin became involved in the underground, plotting the downfall of the Tsar while working for the secret press as a lecturer As a member of the Bolsheviks, the most militant of the social Democratic wings, Stalin remained Lenin’s most avid supporter. Stalin’s ideas were simply the Leninist ideology reproduced 349 d. As editor of Pravda (the Bolshevik Newspaper) prior to the October Revolution in 1917, Stalin eventually advocated armed seizure of power by the Bolsheviks After the revolution, Stalin remained a fanatic follower of Lenin until Lenin’s death in 1924 In 1923, Lenin wrote a testament calling for Stalin’s removal from the secretary generalship, but Stalin was able to have it discounted (Lenin stated that Stalin was too ambitious) e. As Secretary-General of the communist Party from 1922 until his death, Stalin outmaneuvered his more intellectual rivals (Trotsky, Zinoviev, Bukharin) by interlocking many bureaucratic positions into a power base for his dictatorship As an administrative and organizational genius, he substituted opportunism for intellect, deporting, executing and assassinating his political rivals f. Stalin, unlike his rival Trotsky, believed that it was possible to have ‘socialism in one country” without a worldwide revolution. His crash industrialization program (adopted from Trotsky) transferred the Soviet Union into the third most industrialized nation in the world during the first five year plan (1928-1933) g. In the mid-1930s, Stalin launched four waves of purges against the communist party members who had brought him to power He also executed a large percentage of his officer corps, a move that posed a problem for the Red Army with the outbreak of World War II h. Guided by political pragmatism rather than ideology, Stalin often changed the revolution’s direction 350 Indeed he changed the structure of Communism in the Soviet Union, as the state never “withered away.” “Socialism in one country” sustained the revolution, where “permanent revolution” may have failed Totalitarianism became an effective means of promoting Communism However, Stalin successfully stopped Hitler and produced a turning point in World War II. He died in 1953 C. Differences in Fascism and Communism 1. Consistency: Fascism has middle class appeal while communism has working class appeal 2. View of Mankind: Fascists see mankind as irrational and in need of guidance while communists view man as a rational, perfectible human being 3. Promise to Mankind: Fascists emphasize idealism while communists stress material well being 4. Attitude towards international affairs: Fascism stresses national domination in the world while communism is an international movement 5. Fascists and Communists are arch enemies D. Nazism (National Socialism) 1. The tree concepts that formed the basis of Adolf Hitler’s world view included Social Darwinism, Anti-Semitism and “Lebensraum” (Living space) a. Social Darwinism 351 i. According to Darwin, life is a struggle between species as only the strong survives ii. Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s theories to social relationships iii. Hitler said that life is a struggle between racial groups iv. Hitler had a rooted belief in the inequality of races and individuals v. The Nazi leader felt contempt for democracy and internationalism vi. Hitler said” Struggle is the father of all things, virtue lies in blood, leadership is primary and decisive…always before god and the world, the stronger has the right t carry out what he wills.” b. Anti-Semitism (Hatred for the Jews) i. When he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle) in 1923, Hitler did not mean “kill the Jews” when he said “remove them” but the initial “persecution” exploded into terror as the Jews became “non-persons” and ultimately targets for the “final solution” (extermination) ii. Hitler felt that, in order for the German race (Aryans) of the lush, green forests of Germany to survive, the Jews had to be removed because they were nonproductive parasites from the dry arid wastelands of Palestine who might weaken the superior German race iii. Through his “Volkish” ideology, Hitler said that the German volk (community) was “rooted” in the soil and bound together by the bond of its common blood.” 352 He used this idea of racial superiority to justify German rule over inferior people and Nazi rule over Germans iv. Hitler felt that his power was rooted in the people and that the German people wanted him to rule over them through “democratic Caesarism.” c. “Lebensraum” (Living space) expressed Hitler’s belief that any vibrant, growing race needed “living space” in which to expand and, thus, he justified the German invasion of the Soviet union as an effort to secure the “breadbasket of the Ukraine” 2. Hitler’s world view (Social Darwinism, Anti-Semitism and Living space) motivated him to “bring the Germans home to the Reich” to join all persons of Germanic Heritage in other lands together with the citizens of Germany 3. The “little man with the moustache” was not “mad” (insane) because his actions coherently reflected his ideas He was evil and attempted to implement the ideology he expressed in Mein Kampf Adolf Hitler was power hungry 4. The road to Hitler and the Nazi revolution (1900-1933) a. Liberalism (democracy, individual freedom, free enterprise, etc) remained weak in Germany from the autocratic rule of Chancellor Bismarck during German unification (1871) through the Weimar Republic’s mediocre leadership, weak constitution and unstable coalition government of 31 political parties Liberalism was also undermined by Germany’s militarism, expansionism and Volkish ideology, which stressed German unity 353 b. Hitler’s Early Years i. Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau, Austria on April 20, 1889 ii. As a member of the Austrian social Democrats, he derived the idea the masses respected and needed authority iii. From the Pan-German Nationalists, he acquired extreme German nationalism, anti-socialism, anti-Semitism, hatred of the Hapsburgs (of the Austro-Hungarian Empire) and the notion of unifying all of the Germans iv. He also learned the importance of winning over the middle-class and making an ally of the church (from the Christian Social Party) v. In May 1913, at the age of 24, Hitler left Vienna Austria and moved to Munich Germany vi. When WWI broke out in 1914, Hitler was rejected from military service due to poor health but he enlisted in the Bavarian army. He resented draft-dodgers, socialists and Jews after the war and felt that an alternative to Marxism was necessary. Hitler was very enthusiastic about the war vii. Hitler emerged from the early years with hatred for the Jews, contempt for democracy, internationalism, equality and peace; preference for authoritarian types of governments; intolerant nationalism; belief in the inequality of races and people; and, faith in the heroic virtues of war c. Hitler’s Political Ascension i. After joining the German Worker’s Party in 1919, Hitler left the army and became a full time worker for his party in 1920 354 ii. On November 9, 1923 Hitler marched into the Odeonsplatz (town square) in Munich and attempted to establish himself as dictator of Germany He was arrested by police loyal to the government of the Republic and received the minimum sentence of five years in prison but only served nine months While in Prison he wrote Mein Kamph although the putsch failed , Hitler displayed an incredible sense of organization ability iii. From 1925-1929, Hitler cloaked his revolution in tradition, Christianity and legalism, presenting the façade that he wasn’t a revolutionary He established authority and loyalty His Nazi Organization, headquartered in Munich, established contacts with middle-class interest groups, publishes propaganda in their own newspaper, created respect for the party, and began appealing to the non-socialist, non-trade union masses iv. On January 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, Hitler’s rise to power was the result of the failure of the Weimar Republic and the unique appeal of the Nazis v. By 1934, the Nazis effectively seized control of Germany. Non-Nazis in the cabinet were replaced, the civil service was overhauled, local and state governments were taken over, trade unions were replaced by Nazi Unions, opposition parities were closed, censorship was enacted, economic activities were coordinated and social groups were overtaken by the Nazis Socialists and other radical elements were removed from the Nazi Party in the 1934 “Blood Purge” 355 On august 2, 1934 President Hindenburg died, within an hour of his death, the offices of President and Chancellor were merged with Hitler as Head of State and Commander in chief of the armed forces vi. By 1935, Germans generally accepted Hitler Hitler assimilated the concepts of the “New Order” into the aims of the Party From 1932-36 he relied on his political skills, frm 1937-1939, he evoked the threat of force vii. Adolf Hitler used legality as a front to obtain power, but, after obtaining it, he demonstrated that strength lay with the masses, not legal proceedings He healed the economy by violating the Treaty of Versailles with rearmament He destroyed the Republic, persecuted Jews and Catholics, drove out or killed his political foes and abolished freedoms His sense of opportunity and timing were incredible. Hitler combined calculation, fanaticism, charisma and cynicisim E. Differences between Nazism and Fascism 1. Unlike fascist Italy, Nazi Germany was violently racist 2. Hitler was bent on War 3. Hitler looked back, while Mussolini looked forward, even though Mussolini’s movement was reactionary F. In the late 1920s, Japanese warlords seized control of Japan and began to implement militarism and expansion under Prime minister Tojo and Emperor Hirohito 356 G. In 1936, the Spanish civil War broke out when Spanish army leaders, led by General Francisco Franco, revolted against the Republican government. Aided by troops, supplies and planes sent from Germany and Italy, Franco established a Fascist dictatorship in Spain Lesson 2: Events of the 1930s led to the outbreak of World War II and, ultimately to U.S. involvement in the horrible conflict I. Events leading up to the outbreak of the war A. In 1931, Japan invaded and conquered the Chinese province of Manchuria and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo When the United States and the League of Nations condemned the action, Japan withdrew from the League and prepared new conquests B. In 1935, Mussolini’s army conquered Ethiopia while Hitler declared that Germany would ignore the Treaty of Versailles and begin a program of rearmament. Japan began a naval buildup in violation of its pledge at the Washington Naval conference in 1921-22 C. 1936 1. German Troops occupied the Rhineland, along the French border, in violation of the Locarno Pact in which Germany had pledged to keep the territory demilitarized 2. The Spanish Civil War broke out and Franco emerged as the Fascist dictator of Spain 3. Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis and were later joined by Japan to form the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis (the Axis Powers during the war) 357 D. In 1937, Japan invaded mainland China and bombed the American gunboat Panay as well as American oil tankers on the Yangtze River in China, When the U.S. protested that Japanese violations of the Open Door Policy, Japan retorted that the “open door” was closed E. 1938 1. Hitler annexed Austria to Germany in March, 1938 (the Auschluss) and soon after demanded the western section of Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland) for Germany. The Czechs resisted 2. England’s Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain appeased Hitler by persuading Czechoslovakia to yield to Hitler’s request at the Munich Conference on September 30, 1938 Chamberlain naively declared “I believe it is peace for our time” F. 1939 1. Italy invaded and conquered Albania 2. Germany annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939 3. On August 22, 1939 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. This ten year pact was initiated by the U.S.S.R. due to inadequate military preparation and the apparent lack of western determination to stop Hitler Privately, Germany and the Soviet Union carved up Poland The U.S.S.R. also got control of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland On September 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland, France and England declared war on Germany as previously promised and World War II officially began 358 G. 1940 1. After the invasion of Poland, France prepared for an attack along the Maginot Line but Hitler didn’t attack prompting many people to proclaim that the war was only a “Phony War” 2. On April 9, 1940, Hitler began his “blitzkrieg” (“Lightning Strike”), overrunning Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and, in six weeks France Marshal Petain became the leader of the new German controlled French government at Vichy and Charles de Gaulle commanded the French resistance movement 3. The British, who carried out a heroic evacuation of their troops from Dunkirk during the fall of France, braced for an invasion, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, proclaimed “Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will say, ‘This is our finest hour’” 4. In the summer and fall of 1940 the first Battle of Britain began with fierce air fighting between Hitler’s fighters and bombers and the Royal Navy and Air Force Germany abandoned its plans to invade England H. Summer, 1941 1. The Axis leaders turned to the Balkans. German forces occupied Rumania and Greece after the Greeks had stopped the Italians. Germany then conquered Yugoslavia 2. In North Africa, axis troops began to drive eastward toward Egypt and the Suez Canal 359 3. Ignoring the non-aggression pact, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, overran the Ukraine and reached the outskirts of Moscow in Operation Barbarossa II. Events leading to the entry of the United States into World War II A. The guiding principle of American foreign policy in the 1930s was isolationism 1. Americans were disappointed that World War I had not resulted in a lasting peace 2. The League of Nations proved weak and ineffective 3. Most Americans felt protected by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 4. Pacifism was strong in many areas of the country 5. Many citizens believed that the government’s first responsibility was to combat the depression B. America wanted to broaden its relations with other countries in the 1920s and 1930s 1. In 1933 the United States recognized the Soviet Union 2. Gradual independence for the Philippines was planned 3. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor policy strengthened relationships with Latin America a. Through the Montevideo Pact, the United States announced that it was opposed to armed intervention into the affairs of other countries (specifically Latin American countries) 360 b. In 1934, the United States canceled the Platt Amendment through which it claimed the right to interfere in Cuban affairs 4. Roosevelt extended the protection of the Monroe Doctrine to Canada in 1938, making the document a multilateral agreement C. Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935, 36 and 37 to prevent U.S. involvement in foreign wars. Supported by most Americans, the acts 1. prohibited the export of arms to warring nations 2. forbade loans to any nation at war 3. barred American citizens from traveling on ships of warring nations D. In 1939, as Americans feared the pattern of Axis conquest, the neutrality laws were revised, with the Neutrality Act of 1939, to permit the sale of munitions on a “cash and carry” basis E. In the summer and fall of 1940, the United States strengthened its defenses 1. The Alien Registration Act (Smith Act) made it illegal for any person in the United States to advocate the violent overthrow of the government. It also required aliens to register and to be fingerprinted 2. American nations planned the defense of the Hemisphere 3. Congress appropriated billions of dollars to strengthen the army, navy and air force 4. The Selective Service Act (September 6, 1940) required several million men between 21 and 35 years of age to register for America’s first peacetime draft, a break from the nation’s “peace at any price” isolationist past 361 F. In March 1941, congress passed the Lend-Lease Act which authorized the President to sell, exchange, lease or lend articles of defense to any nation whose defense he considered vital to the security of the United States (including the U.S.S.R. despite the non-aggression pact). America became known as the “arsenal of democracy” G. In August, 1941 Roosevelt and Churchill drew up the Atlantic Charter in which they pledged themselves to work for a world free of aggression, a world in which every nation would have the right to adopt its own form of government. This ideological and moral commitment to defeat Germany was not a formal commitment to England because of American isolationism H. As Japan made plans for an attack on the United States, the Japanese government’s “peace mission” to Washington demanded that the United States unfreeze Japanese assets, supply Japan with unlimited amounts of gasoline and cease aid to China. The U.S refused their demands On December 7, 1941 (“a day that will live in infamy”), squadrons of Japanese planes made a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii Over 2,000 Americans were killed, another 2,000 were injured and a large part of the American naval fleet and air force were destroyed On the same day the Japanese also attacked the islands of Wake, Midway, Guam, the Philippines and other American bases I. On December 8, 1941, the United States declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the united States and the American Congress reciprocated. Total war had begun J. World War II was total war and affected every phrase of Ameican life 1. All men between the ages of 18 to 45 were subject to call for military service 362 2. Women served in noncombative positions to release men for battle 3. Industry produced war materials (airplanes, guns, tanks and ships) 4. Taxes were increased 5. War bonds were sold to raise billions of dollars 6. Food and Gasoline were rationed 7. Price controls were established to control inflation resulting from the shortage of consumer goods 8. Though the federal government never questioned the patriotism of German and Italian Americans, 110,000 native born Americans with Japanese ancestors were unjustly relocated to internment camps on the West coast after the invasion of Pearl Harbor The internment cost those Japanese American citizens hundreds of millions of dollars The Supreme Court, in the Korematsu v. U.S. ruling, upheld the constitutionality of the action Later, in 1988, the U.S. government officially apologized and gave reparation payments to the internment camp survivors 363 Lesson 3: World War II produced victory for the Allies in Europe and in Asia I. Highlights of World War II A. Victory in Europe 1. When the United States entered the war in December 1941 the Allied forces were suffering major setbacks in the Atlantic and in Europe. These defeats continued through 1942 German u-boats, planes and mines were sinking supply ships bound for Great Britain Great Britain was isolated and awaiting a German invasion. However, Hitler couldn’t decide to invade England The “Battle of Britain” began in 1940. Heavy air raids battered London and other British cities despite the fact that Germany was suffering heavy losses due to British Technology i. A radar system along the British coastline warned of attacks ii. A ground to air communications system helped the British response iii. The “Ultra” secret, a mechanical computer hooked up to a German decoding device, decoded every German code and radio command from 1940 to the end of the war 364 d. The soviet union was largely occupied by the Nazis and many Russian cities were under siege 2. After the united States entered the war in December, 1941 Hitler’s strategy shifted to a position of “hold” by 1942-1943 because of the possibility of defeating the Soviet union was slim after the soviets defeated the German forces at Stalingrad The Fuhrer felt that , if Germany could postpone defeat, the capitalist and communist alliance would collapse or German scientists might develop a miracle weapon (”The Bomb”) 3. The allied strategy developed piecemeal. Roosevelt supported British strategy in 1942 of attacking the peripheral areas rather than launching a “head on” invasion. After a series of African and Mediterranean successes in 1942, the Allied leaders met a Casablanca in Morocco to decide the future course of the war, agreeing to a. Postpone a cross channel invasion until 1944 b. Continue the Mediterranean strategy c. Adopt the doctrine of “unconditional surrender” to placate Stalin. It was directed against the Nazi government, and not the German people, and may have prolonged the war by forcing the Germans to “fight to the end”, hoping to avoid surrender under such conditions. (Hitler probably would not have surrendered anyway) 4. The allies began to march toward victory in Europe in 1942. a. From May until August of 1942 the Allied counter-offensive brought massive bombing raids on German industrial and military centers b. Roosevelt and Churchill decided to attack the Axis powers in their “soft underbelly”, north Africa 365 i. The British Eighth Army, led by General Bernard Montgomery defeated Marshal Rommel’s Africa korps at El Alamein, Egypt and pursued the retreating German Panzer divisions as they fled westward across Libya (October 1942) ii. On November 8 American troops under General Dwight Eisenhower landed at Casablanca, Oran and Algiers in enemy occupied French North Africa. The 500 troop transports and 350 warships that landed the forces represented the largest land, sea and air combination of the war to that time iii. Trapped in Tunisia in May 1943, 250,000 Axis troops surrendered. The Allies gained control of North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea c. After a series of bombing raids on Sicily and Italy, Allied forces consisting of American, British and Canadian troops landed in Sicily in July 1943. the quick capture of this island led to the forced resignation of Mussolini. Italy surrendered unconditionally on September 8, 1943 following an Allied invasion of the Italian mainland. Bloody fighting broke out at Salerno, Cassino and Anzio between Allied forces and German troops sent to Italy to fill the void left by the Italians. Mountain terrain, bad weather and determined German resistance turned the Italian campaign into one of the most difficult encounters of the war. The Allies entered Rome on June 4, 1944 and advanced northward. The victories in Italy strengthened the Allied control of the Mediterranean, depleted German troop strength in the Soviet Union and provided bases from which Allied planes could attack Germanheld territory d. Victory in the Atlantic Ocean enabled the Allies to sent military supplies to Great Britain and the Mediterranean. Allied planes took control of the skies by early 1943 as 366 bombing raids against military, industrial and transportation centers in Germany lowered German morale e. In the east, the soviet army defeated a 300,000 man Nazi army at Stalingrad in 1943 following a six-month battle that became a turning point of World War II. The Russian counteroffensive drove the Nazis from Russia and through Rumania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland f. In November-December, 1943 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met at Tehran and agreed to launch a cross-channel invasion. This conference would be the last time the “big three leaders would reach such a level of agreement g. The liberation of western Europe began with the Invaison of France on June 6, 1944 (D-Day). American and British forces, led by General Eisenhower – the Supreme Commander of the Allies in western Europe, crossed the English channel and landed in Normandy in Northern France. The invasion was known as “Operation Overlord”, was the greatest waterborne invasion in history and established a second front against Hitler. The Germans had anticipated the attack and had heavily fortified the region, but the Allied army of 2 million troops pushed the Germans back. Joined by the 7th Army coming from southern France, the Allied troops liberated Paris on August 25, 1944 h. The Allies paused after freeing France in order to regroup and resupply the troops. Meanwhile, Franklin D. Roosevelt won an unprecedented forth term in office in 1944. Roosevelt defeated Thomas Dewey, on a platform that stressed the importance of uninterrupted leadership in the war i. In December, 1944 24 German divisions led a counteroffensive towards the sea in the Ardennes Forest and created a “bulge” in the Allied lines. At the “Battle of the 367 Bulge” the German forces were finally driven back after fierce fighting j. The Allied armies crossed the Rhine River in the invasion of Germany in March 1935 and advanced towards the Elbe River. They joined the Soviet army marching from theeast. Due to a previous agreement, the Soviets were allowed to enter Berlin ahead of the Allies k. Hitler committed suicide on May 1, 1945. the soviet army stormed into Berlin and the German troops in Europe surrendered unconditionally. The War in Europe formally ended on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day; “Victory in Europe”) B. Prior to the end of the war, an environment of suspension and distrust existed between Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt 1. Churchill worried about future Soviet influence in Europe. He made a deal with Stalin, giving him control of Rumania, Hungary and half of Yugoslavia in exchange for British control of Greece 2. Roosevelt postponed important political decisions to avoid irritating Stalin because he wanted the Soviets ot enter the war against Japan 3. Stalin was suspicious of the western allies because… a. The Munich agreement of 1938 suggested that the Allies lacked the will to deal with Hitler b. A second front against Hitler didn’t open up until 1944 c. He worried about the structure of the postwar world 368 d. Ideological differences strained their alliance 4. In August, 1944 the Soviet forces allowed the Nazis to crush thousands of Poles in Warsaw because Stalin wanted the Polish “freedom fighters” eliminated so they would not pose a threat to his plans for Poland after the war 5. In February, 1945 Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin met at Yalta in the Crimean area of the Soviet Union to discuss the post war world a. They agreed to create a new world organization whenever the war ended b. They planned for the postwar treatment of Germany i. ii. iii. iv. Total, unconditional surrender De-Nazification De-militarization Dismemberment into four military zones with the U.S. , Britain, France and the Soviet union each controlling a zone c. They agreed to support free elections in Poland and throughout Europe. No final agreement was made on extending the Polish border 150 miles west d. In exchange for a promise from Stalin that the soviet Union would enter the war against Japan within three months after the war in Europe ended, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to “give” Stalin Outer Mongolia, the Kurile Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin Island, an occupation zone in Korea and certain privileges in 369 Manchuria. Most of the territories had been controlled by the Soviet Union prior to the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. Critics charge that Roosevelt violated the Atlantic Charter, appeased Stalin and solidified Communism in Poland and China but Roosevelt simply acted realistically C. President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945 at his retreat in Warm springs Georgia less than a month before the war in Europe ended. He was succeeded by Harry S Truman who joined the nation in mourning Roosevelt’s death D. Victory in the Pacific 1. The Japanese successfully launched their initial offensive in 1941-1942 a. Japan attacked the Malay states, the Dutch East Indies, portions of New Guinea, the British Colony of Hong Kong, Thailand, Borneo, Singapore, Rangoon and Burma b. The Battle of the Java Sea resulted in a naval victory for Japan c. The American Islands of Guam and Wake were captured and the Japanese also attacked the Philippines and Midway Island. In January 1942 Japanese troops entered Manila. Philippine and American troops commanded by General Douglas MacArthur defended the Philippines against overwhelming odds but were forced to retreat to the Bataan Peninsula where they were captured along with the outnumbered troops defending the Corregidor fortress 370 d. In mid-1942 Japan prepared its attack against India, Australia and the Pacific Coast of the United States 2. The Japanese offensive was halted by American naval forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea just north of Australia. A second major naval victory at Midway Island proved to be the turning point of the war in the Pacific. The Japanese were able to capture Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska 3. The Allied strategy in the Pacific was developed by 1943 and directed by Admiral Chester Nimitz. The Allies planned to a. Strike west by land, air and sea against Japanese-occupied territories in the central Pacific b. Drive the Japanese from the Solomon islands under the leadership of admiral Halsey c. Liberate New Guinea and the Philippine Islands under the guidance of General Douglas MacArthur d. Advance into Japan, the ultimate objective 4. The Allied counteroffensive began to turn the tide as General Douglas MacArthur led mostly American troops from island to island towards Japan. From August 1942 until August 1945 Allied forces captured or re conquered territories held by Japan a. In the Fall, 1942 Guadalcanal was captured while Admiral Halsey repelled a huge Japanese naval attempt to regain the Island 371 b. In 1943, Allied forces drove the Japanese from the Aleutians, in the Northern Pacific, the Solomon Islands in the south Pacific and the Gilbert, Marshall and Caroline Islands in the Central Pacific c. In 1944, the Allies seized New Guinea, Saipan and Guam in the Mariana Islands and began reconquering the Philippines d. The allies liberated Manila after the American Navy won a decisive victory at Leyte Gulf. The U.S. Marines then conquered Iwo Jima and Okinawa, from these island bases , American pilots attacked ht Japan islands 5. The Allied victory came in the Pacific when President Truman approved the use of the Atomic bomb against Japan, hoping to save an estimated one million American lives that would have been lost in a seaborne invasion. The decision may have been designed to send a warning to the Soviets as well as the Japanese a. Japan rejected an Allied ultimatum on July 29, 1945 that was issued at Potsdam, Germany by Truman, Stalin, and, Clement Attlee, the new British Prime Minister, which called for Japan’s unconditional surrender b. On the morning of August 6, 1945, the Japanese city of Hiroshima, which contained army headquarters and munitions factories, disintegrated from the atom bomb (named “Little Boy”)dropped by an American B-29 bomber , the Enola Gay. 130,000 Japanese 372 were killed or injured. Japan failed to surrender c. On August 8 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria d. After the United States Destroyed the city of Nagasaki with a second atomic bomb (“Fat Man”) on August 9, the Japanese government surrendered, V-J Day (Victory in Japan) was announced on august 14 and the formal surrender was signed aboard the U.S.S. Missouri on September 2, 1945. World War II are over World War II served as a Major Turning in World History A. Internationally 1. The United States and the U.S.S.R. became world powers 2. The war accelerated the decline of Europe as a power in the world (Great Britain and France) 3. World War II produced the last great redrawing of borders 4. The soviet Union acquired an empire of communist satellite nations (which prompted Stalin to advocate “Socialism in one zone”) 5. The Asian and African colonial peoples became intensely nationalistic and hastened the downfall of western imperialism 6. International control of atomic energy becomes a necessity 7. An international organization, the United Nations, emerged 373 B. Politically 1. The Totalitarian political superstructures of Germany, Italy and Japan were overthrown while the Czechoslovakian structure experienced political changes, as well 2. the victory of the Allies renewed faith in democracy 3. Power became increasingly centralized in many nations C. Economically 1. World War II – the most costly war in history – was devastating in physical destruction as it exacted military expenditures of over $1100 Billion and caused property damage of $230 billion (far exceeding the damage of World War I) 2. European and Asian nations faced the problems of economic recovery. These problems, however, were more easily overcome by the Marshall Plan 3. Soviet Communism spread to eastern and central Europe and to several Asian nations D. Socially 1. As the most destructive war in history, World War II left over 22 million servicemen and civilians dead, over 34 million wounded and over a million American casualties 2. Several million refugees and displaced persons needed assistance after being uprooted by the war 3. The War destroyed the elite status of the military 4. Officials who had cooperated with Hitler were discredited 374 5. Wartime resistance leaders replaced the ruling elite in France and Yugoslavia 6. Social classes became homogenous in Great Britain because a social welfare state in the process of reconstruction and the Labor Party defeated Churchill in the postwar election due to these social changes E. Psychologically 1. Although World War II led to the formation of a new psychological outlook in Europe, British Morale may have been strengthened by the bombing of England 2. Jewish concentration camp survivors could never forget the holocaust and are still haunted by its horror F. Other significant facts 1. World War II was “total” war. Civilian populations were affected as they worked in the factories, raised money with War Bonds and collected materials 2. The global war was fought on all major seas in Africa, Asia and Europe. It involved at least 60 nations 3. Science “progressed” with the invention of radar, guided missiles, jet propelled planes, atom bombs, and new drugs, The airplane played a major part in the war 4. World War II produced less great literature than World War I due to its more “mechanical” nature and the control held by governments over cultural expression 375 The Holocaust, 1933-1945 (An outline) Adolph Hitler, the Nazification of Germany, and the Jews of Germany, 19331938 Adolph Hitler became Chancellor of Germany January 30, 1933 and began using those powers given him in the German constitution to Nazify the country. Part of his scheme was to remove the German Jewish community from all facets of German life A. Laws passed that deprived Jews of Legal, Professional, Economic and social Rights 1. “Ordinance for the Protection of the German State and Nation” (February 28, 1933) – Most Civil Liberties were suspended in Germany 2. “Law for Restoration of the Professional Civil Service” (April 7, 1933) Non-Aryans (Jews) could be dismissed from their Government jobs 3. April 1-3 1933 boycott of Jewish businesses in Germany. Stopped because of international outcry over the indiscriminate violence associated with the boycott 4. Nuremburg Laws September 15, 1935 a “Reich Citizenship Law”; differentiated between a German citizen (Aryan) and a “subject” or Non-Aryan b “Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor” Outlaws marriage between Jews and Germans 5. July 23, 1938: Jews required to begin carrying special identity cards 6. November 5, 1938: Jewish children can no longer attend school 376 7. November 28, 1938: in the aftermath of Kristallnacht (November 910, 1938), the following sanctions were placed on Jews a A curfew that restricted their movements b Jews cannot enter any public place in Germany c Jews cannot own, manage or work in any retail or mail order business d The Jewish Community is required to pay a billion marks penalty because of its “hostility towards the German people and the Reich.” B. Acts of violence Against Jews in Germany 1933-1938 1. March 21, 1933: Dachau Concentration Camp opened in the suburbs of Munich (51 days after Hitler takes power) 2. March 1935: Wave of anti-Jewish violence, accompanied by a Boycott of Jewish businesses sweeps Germany 3. May 1938: Another Wave of anti-Semitic outbursts spreads through out Germany, accompanied by the mass arrest of Jews, who are “temporarily” sent to concentration camps at Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen 4. Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass), November 9-10, 1938: In response to the assassination of a minor German diplomat in Paris by a young Jewish refugee. Joseph Goebbels (Hitler’s Propaganda Minister) orders a campaign of terror against Germany’s Jews that results in the death of 100s, the destruction of 7,000 businesses, numerous synagogues and other Jewish religious centers destroyed or seriously damaged. 20,000 Jewish males were sent to concentration camps, 150,000 German Jews will be encouraged to flee the country, the same number had left between 1933-1937 377 Holocaust in the First Two Years of World War II September 1941 The German attack on Poland brought the Germans to grip with Poland’s large Jewish population (3 million before the attack, it was now reduced to less than 2 million because 1.3 million Polish Jews had fled the Soviet Territory) The Ghettoization of Polish Jewry begins with the formation of the Government General (Warsaw and the portions of eastern Poland not under soviet control). The rest of Poland becomes a part of Germany The government General and particularly the Warsaw Ghetto become the principle German “dumping ground” for German occupied Europe’s Jewish population Euthanasia Program In his earliest writings in Mein Kampf, Adolph Hitler emphasized the concept of racial purity and the need to use medical means to keep sick, deformed, or emotionally disturbed individuals from passing their ailment on the next generation In late 1938, Hitler personally authorized the “mercy killings” of mentally deficient and physically deformed children Hitler regulated this process with the Reich Committee for Scientific Research of Hereditary and Severe Constitutional Diseases, which he formed the following spring From 1939-1944, 5,000 non-Jewish German children were killed under this program At this juncture, Hitler decided to expand the program. Operating out of his personal Chancellery in Berlin the “T-4 program” which officially began on the date of the outbreak of World War II (September 1, 1939), 378 oversaw a growing network of killing centers throughout Germany that resulted in the deaths of up to 100,000 non-Jewish Germans As the number of patients to be euthanized grew, new means of death were tried. German specialists shifted from injections to carbon monoxide poisoning, which Hitler favored, to the infamous Zyklon B gas. Gas chambers were built a six sites throughout Germany to handle the increasing number of German patients. When the public outcry over these types of killings forced Nazi leaders to stop them, they transferred their experts and technology to Poland and began the “Final Solution” The Holocaust in context of the German War in Russia: 1941-1945 The German attack against the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, brought the Reich in contact with over 4 and a half million Jews in the U.S.S.R (over a million were Polish refugees) It was in this context, and in the atmosphere of the violent GermanRussian struggle that the most destructive phase of the Holocaust takes place German Plans for Destruction: 1. The Einsatzgruppen: Months before the attack on the U.S.S.R. German officials organized special SS (Schutzstaffel) killing squads or Einsatzgruppen that were ordered to enter Russian territory with front line units with orders to round up and kill immediately all Jews An estimated 1,400,000 Jews died in the Soviet Union in the second half of 1941, though not all at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen 2. Experiments of Death; from early 1940 onward, German authorities, with the growing cooperation of German industry and specialists from T-4, began to experiment with ways efficiently and scientifically to murder and dispose of the bodies of Jews and others they felt were racially inferior 379 a. Asphyxiation from bus and truck exhaust as well as different gases resulted in the death of 70,000 Jews, Gypsies and otheres during this period b. September 3, 1941: Zyklon B gas was used for the 1st time to kill 900 Soviet POWs, while over the next four months, the Germans killed 40,000 Jews and Gypsies at Chelmno with Zyklon B 3. The Wannsee Conference (January 20, 1942): At a meeting in the Berlin suburbs of German officials involved in all possible aspects of the “Final Solution” This is the implementation of the Final solution for all European Jews C. The Final Solution: What followed was the most unspeakable mass murder in history. Germany’s finest technological skills used to construct camps, gas and asphyxiation chambers, and a crematory to dispose of the bodies. These efforts were aided by the highly efficient German railway system, with Final Solution needs often taking priority over military ones D. The Camps: 1. March 1942: Mass executions begin at Sobibor in Poland where 250,000 Jews died in 18 months 2. March – December 1942: 600,000 Jews murdered at Belzec 3. March 26-27 1942: deportations begin to Auschwitz, where 2 million Jews will die over the next 30 months 4. June 1, 1942: Exterminations begin at Treblinka, where 700,000 Jews will die over the next year The Death Toll Though it is difficult to give exact figures about 6 million Jews died in the Holocaust. This means that 33% of the World’s Jews died in the Holocaust, and 66% of the European Jews perished in this horrific event 380 In some countries like Poland 90% of the 1939 Jewish Population lost their lives during World War II 381 Unit Ten: America the Superpower in the Postwar Era Lesson 1: domestic political developments in the United States during the postwar years of 1945-1960 reflected the nation’s efforts to address complex problems at home following the Great Depression and World War II I. The Truman Administration A. Vice President Harry S Truman became the 33rd President of the United States following the sudden death of President Franklin Roosevelt on april 12, 1945 at the Presidential retreat in Warm Springs Georgia 1. born on a farm in Missouri, Truman served as a local politician following a tour of duty in World War I 2. As an avid “New Dealer” in the Senate, Truman was selected to be Roosevelt’s running mate in the Election of 1944 3. Roosevelt and Truman defeated Thomas Dewey in the election of 1944 by arguing experienced leadership during the war 4. “Give em Hell Harry” was the first President in many years without a college education. He popularized the slogan “The buck stops here” B. President Truman faced the problems of converting from a wartime to a peacetime economy and addressing the social needs Americans who were calling for a resurrection of the New Deal 1. The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (the G.I. bill of Rights) provided World War II veterans with business, educational and housing loans, pensions and medical help 2. The Employment Act of 1946 was passed to maintaineconomic growth and high employment levels 382 3. The Atomic Energy Act (1946) created the Atomic Energy Commission to control nuclear research and production 4. The National Security Act (1947) created the Department of Defense with representation of each military branch as well as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather intelligence information 5. The 22nd Amendment (1951) limited the President to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years, in office (following Roosevelt’s 4 terms) 6. Inflation (rising prices) followed a postwar recession a. President Truman was forced to remove wage and price controls (except on rents) by the newly elected Republican majority in Congress b. The inflation rate reached 33% in 19461947 as wartime savings was spent on consumer goods c. A housing shortage occurred due to the lack of building during the depression and the war 7. The Truman administration and Congress struggled with Labor unrest in 1946 which led to strikes by more than 450,000 workers (steel, railroad, mining employees) a. As prices rose in the strong economy, many industries built wage increases, demanded by labor, into the priceo f products. As these prices rose, labor discontent reemerged and the cycle continued 383 b. Republican victories in the 1946 Congressional elections reflected the nation’s desire for stronger controls over organized labor c. In 1947 the Taft-Hartley Act (the Labor-Management Relations Act) was passed over Truman’s veto i. Contributions to political campaigns by unions were restricted ii. Management could secure injunctions to end strikes iii. Management could sue union officials for certain contract violations / strike activities iv. Closed shops were prohibited v. The President was given authority to issue 80 day injunctions against strikes that threatened the nation’s security vi. Employers and union leaders had to take an oath against Communism vii. States could prohibit “union shops” (in which an employee had to join a union within a specific time frame), Right-to-Work laws emerged in 12 states viii. The Taft-Hartley Act undermined the Wagner act of 1935 and was condemned as “slave labor law” 8. Though southern Congressmen blocked Truman’s civil rights legislation, the plight of black Americans began to improve C. The election of 1948 resulted in an upset reelection victory for President Harry S Truman, he ran on a platform of civil rights, repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, housing, education, social security and aid to farmers 384 1. The republicans nominated New York Governor, Thomas Dewey 2. The State’s Rights Party (Dixiecrats), composed of Southern Democrats opposed to Truman’s civil rights platform, met in Birmingham and nominated Strom Thurmond 3. Based on Republican Congressional victories in 1946, the divided Democratic Party and public opinion polls, the Chicago Tribune ran the election night headline of “Dewey defeats Truman” Truman however won the election with the support of labor, blacks and Midwestern farmers. Dewey votes came from the “establishment” East. Thurmond received 39 electoral votes in the South D. In his “Point Four” program, Truman proposed aid for underdeveloped countries E. Truman proposed the Fair Deal, a program of reform which Congress partially implemented from 1949-52 1. Social Security benefits were extended to more people 2. The minimum wage was raised form interstate industies 3. 810,000 housing units were authorized for slum areas through the Housing Act of 1949 4. Rent controls were continued through 1951 5. The Agricultural Act established “parity” for farmers 6. Civil Service was expanded to include more Federal workers 7. The Reclamation Bureau (flood control, water power, irrigation projects) was expanded F. Truman’s “loyalty program” attacked Communism at home in 1947 and internal security continued as an issue into the 1950s 385 1. The FBI and Civil Service Commission investigated, but never indicted , over 3 million federal employees, resulting in many dismissals and resignations 2. Eleven Communists received prison sentences in 1949 for violating the Smith Act of 1940, the first peacetime antisedition law since the 1798 alien and Sedition Acts 3. The Internal Security Act required Communist organizations to file membership lists and financial statements 4. Americans were concerned about the Communist Revolution in China (1949) and the Korean War 5. In 1948 Congressman Richard Nixon, an anti-communist member of the Committee of Un-American Activities founded in 1938, pursued Alger Hiss, a New Dealer accused of being a Communist agent in the 1930s, appearing before the Committee in 1950, Hiss denied the accusations but received a five year sentence for Perjury 6. Wisconsin Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy , with reckless disregard for the Constitution and with no proof, began to accuse State Department officials, actors, writers and educators of being Communist sympathizers 7. Congress enacted the McCarran Internal Security Bill over the President’s veto, authorizing the arrest/detention of suspected Communists in “security emergencies” 8. The trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were convicted of espionage in 1951 and executed in 1953, fueled the antiCommunist fear in America. The Rosenberg’s, who had supposedly given atomic secrets to the Soviets, were the only people in American history to be executed for espionage during peacetime 9. McCarthy attacked the Army, looking for Communists spies 386 10. In a 1954 televised hearing, McCarthy’s reckless behavior ruined his popularity and led the Senate to censure him II. The Eisenhower Administration ushered in “Modern Republicanism” which aimed to reduce federal expenditures while maintaining the integrity of New Deal Programs A. In the Election of 1952, President Truman could not run for reelection because of the 22nd amendment 1. The Republicans nominated war hero Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon (California) as his running mate, despite a challenge from conservative Robert Taft 2. The Democratic Party, split between New Dealers and southern Democrats opposed to New and Fair Dealers, chose Adlai Stevenson 3. The Republicans won overwhelmingly on the promise of “peace, prosperity and progress” B. Background Information on Dwight Eisenhower 1. Born in Texas but raised in Kansas 2. Attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York 3. Served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in World War I 4. Left the Army to serve as President of Columbia University 5. Returned to the military as Commander of NATO forces 387 6. Won the Presidency in 1952 and 1956 C. Eisenhower’s Domestic program continued some New Deal/Fair Deal programs while emphasizing more private enterprise 1. Oveta Culp Hobby became the first Secretary of the newly created Department of Health , Education and Welfare 2. Congress provided more money for Social Security, medical research, hospitals, urban renewal and, ultimately education 3. Eisenhower attacked the problem of declining farm income, by experimenting with flexible, rather than fixed, price supports 4. The Eisenhower administration encouraged private enterprise by awarding contracts to private industry and state/local governments, halting wage and price controls and creating greater efficiency in government, although Ike only produced a balanced budget three out of his eight years I office, and gave to America, in 1959, its largest peacetime budget deficit in the countries history 5. In 1956, Congress approved the Highway Act of 1956, which authorized the construction of an interstate highway system, the largest public works project in U.S. history D. Eisenhower and Nixon worked with a Democratic Congress after winning a second term over the Democratic ticket of Adlai Stevenson in the 1956 election 1. Eisenhower faced labor issues in his second term 388 a. Leaders of the Teamsters Union and other unions were sentenced to jail for corruption b. The Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 prohibited the involvement of Communists or felons in unions, allowed for supervision over union financial matters, prohibited secondary boycotts and picketing, requiring union elections every five years and provided a bill of rights fro union members c. The Steel Strike of 1959 was the result of a contract dispute between the steel industry and the United Steel Workers of America. After the Steel workers returned to work due to an 80 day injunction invoked by the President under the Taft-Hartley Act, the steel industry agreed to give the workers a wage increase over a period of 30 months d. Organized Labor secured under Eisenhower, a higher minimum wage, unemployment, disability and retirement benefits e. In 1955 the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organization and the Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO) merged, with George Meany serving as president of the AFL-CIO 2. In 1959, Alaska (purchased from Russia by Secretary of State William Seward in 1867) became the 49th and largest state in the Union. It became an important source of timber, gold, fish and oil 3. Hawaii, populated primarily by Polynesians, became the 50th state in the Union in 1959 after being annexed in 1898 389 Lesson 2: Social and cultural developments of postwar America reflected the nation’s emphasis on conformity, family values and prosperity while, at the same time, laying the foundation for the social and cultural revolt that emerged during the “sixties” I. Prosperity fueled the social and cultural changes of the 10950s A. Advances in science and technology accounted for remarkable growth in America after World War II 1. Dr. Jonas Salk produced a polio vaccine in 1957 2. computers began to store and analyze large amounts of data 3. Television became an important reason for a homogeneous American culture as consumerism flourished B. American business boomed in the postwar period 1. AT&T became the world’s largest privately held corporation 2. The United States consumed over one third of the worlds goods and services with less than 10% of the world’s land and population 3. John Kenneth Galbraith’s The Affluent Society warned Americans about the danger of material pursuits C. Women joined the work force in greater numbers due to their World War II performance, smaller families, labor saving devices an dwhite collar jobs 390 D. The works of Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac represented the “Beatniks” of the 1950s who rebelled against society and explored drugs and sexuality E. Jackson Pollack and other “abstract expressionists” focused on abstract, colorful art forms F. American culture in the 1950s witnessed significant changes as McDonald’s hamburgers, Elvis Presley’s “rock and roll” and Marilyn Monroe became legendary institutions in American life G. Minorities continued to be disenfranchised from the prosperity of the 1950s 1. Congress adopted the “termination” policy which was designed to end federal support of Native Americans and to shift control of the reservations to the states 2. Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man (1952) examined an anonymous black man’s search for self-identity 3. James Baldwin’s Go Tell it on the Mountain (1953) portrayed the authors experience as a young Harlem preacher II. The civil rights movement was born in the 1950s as black Americans sought to achieve their share of the American dream A. World War II improved opportunities for black Americans in the 1940s but racial tensions still plagued the United States 1. 1,150,000 black soldiers/sailors served in World War II (in segregated units). President Truman ordered the integration of all units after the war 2. A labor shortage created economic opportunities at home 3. Race Riots and prejudice faced blacks as they moved to New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and other cities 391 4. Most black Americans faced “legal” discrimination in the South through Jim Crow laws 5. The Fair Employment Practices Committee, designed to secure job opportunities for minorities, was abolished by Congress in 1946 over President Truman’s veto 6. Jackie Robinson signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 as the first black big league baseball player B. Through the efforts of Thurgood Marshall of the NAACP’s Legal Defense Fund, the Supreme Court declared , in the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas ruling May 17, 1954, that segregated public schools are unconstitutional It stated that “separate but equal” facilities violated the 14th Amendment’s guarantee of equal treatment under the law for all citizens 1. The Brown decision overturned the Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) which had declared that the “separate but equal” doctrine did not violate the 14th Amendment 2. Declaring that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,” the Court struck down segregated schools which had been attacked by earlier decisions a. Sweatt vs. Painter ruled against segregated law schools b. McLaurin vs. Oklahoma State Regents required equality for a black student in a white graduate school 3. Public Schools in Washington D.C. and Baltimore began integrating due to the Brown decision 4. In order to hinder desegregation, a “White Citizen’s Council” emerged in Indianola, Mississippi in 1955. The Council later 392 succeeded in getting Ross Barnett elected as Governor of Mississippi (1959-63) on a platform of state’s rights and racial integrity C. Events of 1955 1. The Supreme Court ordered that schools must integrate with “speed” and that segregated public recreational facilities were illegal 2. The Interstate Commerce Commission banned segregated transportation facilities (buses, trains, etc) 3. Marian Anderson became the first black opera singer in the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City 4. Mose Wright testified in Sumner Mississippi against two white men accused of killing his nephew, Emmett Till. They were found not guilty by an all-white jury 5. Montgomery, Alabama was the scene of a bus boycott by the city’s black population due to the arrest of Rosa Parks (December 1, 1955), who refused to give up her bus seat to a white man. The boycott was organized by Reverend Martin Luther King Jr., a Baptist minister who would lead the nonviolent civil rights movement D. Events of 1956 1. In February, 1956 Autherine Lucy was removed from the University of Mississippi for criticizing the university, even though a lawsuit had prohibited her suspension 2. 100Southrn Senators and Representatives officially denounced the Brown decision in 1956 3. Black riders boycotted the Birmingham Alabama and Tallahassee, Florida bus systems 393 4. National Guard Units dispersed mobs opposed to integration in Kentucky and Tennessee 5. The Montgomery bus boycott concluded in November, 1956 as the Supreme Court banned segregated buses in Montgomery E. Events of 1957-1959 1. In 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was organized by Martin Luther King Jr. 2. Black voters boycotted stores in Tuskegee, Alabama in 1957 to protest a redrawing of municipal election districts 3. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 became the first federal civil rights legislation since Reconstruction 4. New York City adopted the nation’s first Fair Housing Practice Law (1957) to prevent discrimination in housing 5. After enrolling one black student, Hattie Cotton Elementary School in Nashville, Tennessee was dynamited in 1957 6. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent Federal Troops to Little Rock Arkansas in 1957 to protect the right of black students to attend Central High School a. Governor Orval Faubus defied national law by prohibiting the admission of nine black students b. Thurgood Marshall of the Legal Defense Fund and Daisy Bates of the NAACP went to court to get protection for the students c. President Eisenhower sent troops from the 101st Airborne Division to Central High 394 School when Farbus refused to provide protection d. On May 29, 1958 Ernest Green became the first black student to graduate from Central High e. In 1959, Governor Farbus closed the schools in Little Rock Arkansas to prevent integration 7. Schools were also closed in Prince Edward County, Virginia 8. In 1958, the NAACP Youth Council organized “sit-ins” to protest the segregation of Oklahoma City lunch counters 9. Lorraine Hansberry’s Raisin in the Sun became a smash hit as the first play by a black woman to appear on Broadway Lesson 3: The Cold War emerged in the postwar years as the United States assumed its new role as the world’s leading superpower and, though its foreign policy, confronted the growing international threat of communism I.Events that accompanied the end of World War II would shape the post-war world A. The post-war world was planned by Franklin Roosevelt, Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (the “Big Three”) at the Yalta Conference in February, 1945, prior to the end of World War II 1. The leaders agreed to arrange for a meeting of delegates in San Francisco on April 25, 1945 in order to form a world organization devoted to peace and known as the United Nations 395 2. Germany and its capital city of Berlin were divided into four zones of occupation which were separately administered by the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and France 3. The Soviet Union secretly agreed to enter the war against Japan, three months after the approaching end of the war in Europe. In return, the Soviets were assured that they would regain territories lost to Japan in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905 4. Free elections were planned for Poland, Bulgaria and Romania but were never held 5. Results of the Yalta Conference a. Roosevelt was criticized for conceding too much to Stalin, especially in Eastern Europe. In reality the U.S.S.R. already occupied the area. Stalin believed that “whoever occupies the territory also imposes on it his own social system” b. Critics also argue that Roosevelt undermined Chiang Kai-shek, leader o f the Nationalist forces opposing the rising Communist tide in China, by giving Manchuria to the U.S.S.R., perhaps a contributing factor in the 1949 Communist Revolution in China c. The United States used the atomic bomb against the Japanese in a manner and timing that served as a warning to the Soviets d. The Soviets were angry over America’s delay in opening a second front against Germany as well as the nuclear monopoly enjoyed by the United States 396 e. The groundwork for the Cold War was established at Yalta as the post-war world produced a struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union B. Formation of the United States 1. Delegates from 50 nations, representing three-fourths of the world’s population met in San Francisco in April 1945 with the purpose of maintaining peace and security, promoting justice and human rights and improving general welfare 2. Six administrative agencies were formed, the two most important were the… a. The General Assembly , consisting of all of the member nations, settles disputes and organizes other agencies b. The Security Council was created to prevent war. Of the eleven members, the “Big Five” (the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, and China were permanent members, each with veto power, while the other six nations were selected on a rotating basis by the General Assembly 3. Additional agencies were formed in order to provide food, clothing and shelter in disadvantaged and underdeveloped areas a. United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration b. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) c. International Monetary Fund d. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) e. World Health Organization (for children) 397 f. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 4. The United Nations has become the world’s most important arena for social, economic and political discussion, although it has often been ignored, its major contributions have emerged in the areas of Third World development and as a forum for international political debate C. General Douglas MacArthur supervised the creation of representative government in Japan following the end of World War II as a new constitution which renounced militarism and which stripped the Emperor of his power, was adopted. Japan subsequently emerged as a highly industrialized economic power D. An Iron Curtain descended on Europe as communism expanded 1. The Soviets felt that world communism, over which they presided was destined to replace the capitalist system led by the United States 2. Soviet leaders were very determined to protect their borders with friendly “buffer states” because of the loss of 21 million lives in World War II a. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were annexed in 1940 (following the non-aggression pact signed by Hitler and Stalin in August 1939) b. Part of Romania (Moldavia) and Poland were annexed during World War II c. The Soviets gained free access to North Korea, Mongolia, and Manchuria at the end of the war d. By 1948, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and East Germany 398 were all under Soviet control with communist governments, forming the Iron Curtain 3. The anti-American sentiments of the Soviet Union were visible as the Soviets refused to join United Nations agencies with the United States, broadcast anti-capitalist, anti-American propaganda and vetoed American proposals in the United Nations II. Under President Truman’s leadership, the United States responded to the spread of communism and Soviet expansionism in Europe as the “Cold War” emerged in the 1940s A. Coined by Bernard Baruch in 1946 in a term to describe the competition for influence between the United States and the Soviet Union, the “Cold War” was a result of several contributing factors 1. The Soviet Union’s attempt to construct a buffer zone of friendly nations on its western borders to guard against German and /or capitalist aggression served as a source of conflict with the United States 2. Soviet Expansion into eastern Europe made many Americans fear further Soviet aggression 3. The Soviet Union refused to allow free elections in eastern Europe 4. The postwar nuclear monopoly enjoyed by the United States came to an end on September 2, 1949 as the Soviet Union tested its first atomic weapon B. The United States emerged from World War II as the most powerful political, economic and military force in the world 1. The American economy was the only industrialized economy in the world which was not destroyed by the war 399 2. American military power was supreme as a result of the use of the atomic bomb to defeat Japan. The United States enjoyed a nuclear monopoly after the war 3. The United States rejected its 19th century and early 20th century isolationism and assumed its role of world leadership C. The Truman Doctrine defined in a speech to Congress in 1947, focused on the doctrines of containment and the “domino theory” 1. George Kennan, an American diplomat who had formally served in the Soviet Union, first proposed the containment doctrine, in the journal Foreign Affairs, which stated that the United States would contain the growth of communism and expose it on all fronts. Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson promoted the doctrine as the official policy of the United States 2. The “domino theory” expressed the fear of Americans that once a country fell to communism, the bordering countries would, like dominos, also fall to communism 3. Congress authorized the President to use military force to halt communist aggression on all fronts and approved $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey which were fighting to repel attempted communist takeovers within their borders 4. Truman fired his Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace who opposed the President’s tough stance against the Soviets. Critics argued that the plan pushed the United States and the Soviets into opposing camps D. The Marshall Plan was program designed to facilitate European recovery following World War II 1. After the fall of Czechoslovakia to the Soviet communism, the United States was concerned that communist parties were making gains in Spain, Italy and France due to poor economic conditions 400 2. Beginning in 1947, the United States began to offer money, supplies, and machinery to war-torn European countries under a plan developed by Secretary of State George C. Marshall 3. Western European nations accepted the offer but the Soviet Union would not all eastern Europe to participate for fear that it would increase American influence in the region. As a result, the Marshall Plan successfully restored western European stability while eastern Europe continued to suffer from deprivation E. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was forced in April 1949 to provide for the mutual defense of the member nations 1. The twelve original members included the U.S., Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, Italy, Portugal, France, and Norway. 2. West Germany, Turkey and Greece later joined the alliance and France dropped out in 1966 (deiced it wanted back in, in 2009) 3. NATO remains the most important military alliance for the united States and the first formal peacetime defense treaty in which the U.S. has entered (the nation entered into a pact with France during the American Revolution). NATO has defended Western Europe from Soviet aggression since the 1940s. It remains an important source of European stability, despite the end of the Cold War F. The Berlin Airlift 1. When conflict began to emerge between the United States and the Soviet Union followed the end of World War II, the United States joined its sector of occupied Germany together with the sectors of Great Britain and France into West Germany 401 2. Although Berlin was located 100 miles within Soviet held East Germany, the capital city was divided into four sectors of occupation, similar to the post-war divisions applied to Germany 3. In an effort to halt the reunification of West Germany and to force the western powers out of Berlin, the Soviets initiated a blockade by closing all roads into West Berlin on June 24, 1948 4. Through Operation Vittles , the United States and Great Britain successfully airlifted millions of tons of supplies into West Berlin, rather than responding with military force 5. The Soviet Union abandoned its blockade of West Berlin in May, 1949 as a result of the airlift III. Conflict emerged in the Middle East and Asia in the early years of the Cold War A. Israel was established as a Jewish state in 1947 by the United Nations, with strong American support and in spite of Arab and Palestinian opposition. As a result, Palestine guerilla warfare against Israel erupted (ultimately the “infatada”) B. China became Communist as a result of revolution in 1949 1. By 1927, Chinese Nationalists under Chiang Kai-Shek were fighting the Communists in a civil war 2. Beginning with the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the nationalists and the communists joined forces to oppose the Japanese until the conclusion of World War II in 1945 3. With the assistance of the Soviet Union, Mao Tse-Tung led the Communists to victory over Chiang Kai-Shek’s Nationalist forces in 1949. One-forth of the world’s population became communist with the Chinese Revolution 402 4. Supported by the United States, Chiang’s forces retreated to the Island of Formosa (present day Taiwan) located off the coast of China. Though they represented only a small percentage of the Chinese population, Chiang’s nationalists continued to be recognized by the United States as the official government of China until 1972 when the United States officially recognized the Peoples Republic of China. As a result, Taiwan was replace by Communist China on the United Nation’s Security Council C. The Korean War erupted in 1949 1. Korea was controlled by Japan from 1910 to 1945 2. In 1945 Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into North Korea, occupied by the Soviet Union, and South Korea, occupied by the United States. Each of the two nations controlled its own governments and arm a. With its capital located at Seoul, South Korea elected Syngman Rhee as its President b. North located its capital at Pyongyang 3. When the Soviets and Americans withdrew their forces in 1949, Truman’s Secretary of State Dean Acheson declared that Korea was outside of American defense interests in the Pacific 4. On June 25, 1950 North Korean forces, complete with Soviet tanks, stormed into South Korea. As a result, the United Nations Security Council condemned the attack and launched a joint United Nations “police action” to defend South Korea, with the U.S., assuming most of the military responsibility. In order to display its dissatisfaction with the council’s refusal to recognize communist China, the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council meeting on the day of the resolution was adopted and, thus, was not present to veto the action 403 5. By September, 1950 South Korean troops were driven to the tip of their nation at Pusan 6. In command of U.S. troops, General MacArthur counter attacked the North Koreans with a seaborne invasion of Inchon, behind North Korean lines, and liberated Seoul with a drive northward from Pusan. The North Koreans retreated across the 38th parallel to the Yalu River near the Chinese border 7. In November, 1950 hundreds of thousands of Chinese “volunteers” came to the aid of the North Koreans. MacArthur, surprised by the massive counterattack, set up a line of defense near the 38th parallel 8. MacArthur wanted to blockade, bomb and perhaps, invade China in retaliation and considered the use of nuclear weapons a. President Truman refused to authorize the attack for fear that such action might draw the Soviet Union into the conflict on behalf of China, perhaps resulting in World War III, or that the Soviets would seize the opportunity to attack Europe b. MacArthur tried to appeal directly to Congress, despite Truman’s opposition c. Truman replaced MacArthur with General Matthew Ridgeway in April 1951, a brave but unpopular step which reinforced the idea that America is governed by civilian “rule of law” rather than the “rule of men.” MacArthur returned home to a hero’s welcome and a ticker tape parade 9. A stalemate emerged in the conflict in 1951 near the 38th parallel. President Eisenhower initiated peace talks held at Panmunjom which concluded the war on July 27, 1953 404 10. Results of the Korean War a. 33,652 Americans were killed in battle deaths, 3,262 died from illness, accident, and non battle causes for a total of 36, 914 b. Communist casualties mounted to 1.5 million c. The United States had demonstrated that it would defend against the growth of communism d. A demilitarized zone was established along the 38th parallel which served as the boundary between North and South Korea IV. The Eisenhower administration adopted a policy of “brinksmanship” during the Cold War in an effort to contain Soviet aggression A. Under the leadership of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, an expert in international law, former ambassador the United Nations and fervent anti-Communist, the cold war foreign policy of the United States expanded from “containment” to “rolling back” communism through the use of “brinksmanship”, the ability to go to the brink of war without going to war B. The United States also adopted the doctrine of massive retaliation, asserting that Soviet aggression against the United States on any front would result in the annihilation of the Soviet Union through a massive American nuclear attack C. Soviet Leader Josef Stalin died in 1953 and was succeeded in 1956 by Nikita Khrushchev, who initially exhibited a warmer attitude toward the United States and the “free world” while implementing a program of de-Stalinization 1. When the Polish Communist Party elected Wladyslaw Gomulka as the party’s first secretary, Gomulka promised the Poles certain rights, including freedom of speech, religion and the press. The Soviet Union under 405 Khrushchev surprised the world by granting concessions to the Poles following anti-Soviet Polish demonstrations 2. Following the Polish example, students and workers in Budapest Hungary rioted on October 23, 1956 in an effort to realize greater freedoms. With the world’s attention diverted from the Hungarian revolt by the Suez Crisis, the dazed Soviets considered withdrawing from Hungary after Hungarian “freedom fighters” and troops fought the Soviet troops stationed there, but, as the United States watched helplessly, the Soviet Union crushed the revolt with tanks and troops and established a pro-Soviet puppet government while imprisoned or deported the rebels 3. NATO welcomed Germany to the alliance, despite the protests of France, in 1955 as the Communist Eastern European nations signed a defense agreement known as the Warsaw Pact D. Under the direction of Secretary of State Dulles, the United States intervened in third World Affairs to oppose Communism and often supported reactionary, authoritarian leaders in the effort E. American foreign policy came under attack in Latin America in the 1950s 1. In 1954, the CIA not-so-covertly sponsored a military coup that overthrew the elected government in Guatemala, run by Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman. Guzman had expropriated land from United Fruit Company without satisfactory arrangements for payment. Secretary of State Dulles, along with his brother Alan Dulles, the director of the CIA (As well as a fellow stockholder and director of United Fruit Company) and the American Ambassador to Guatemala, John E. Peurifoy, established a dictatorship under the command of Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas as a 406 “beachhead” against the “intrusion of Soviet despotism.” 2. Vice-President Nixon faced abuse and threats on a much publicized journey to eight Latin American nations in April 1958. After the Brazilian government apologized for the incident, the United States created an inter-American development bank to assist in the region’s economic growth 3. On January 1, 1959, Cuban Communist guerillas under the leadership of Fidel Castro overthrew the proAmerican government of Fulgencio Batista, launched a public outcry against the United States and began expropriating many of the American landholdings on the Island. As a result, President Eisenhower ordered the CIA to begin training Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland F. After negotiating an end to the Korean War, Eisenhower faced other dangers in East Asia as Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia), a French colony, became the focus of communist expansion 1. President Truman had committed military and financial aid to the French as they opposed Vietnamese nationalists, mostly Communists, who were known as the Vietminh and who were receiving aid from Communist China 2. French forces and their anti-Communist Vietnamese allies were defeated in May, 1954 at Dien Bien Phu 3. At a July 1954 conference in Geneva, delegates from France, Indochina, Communist China, Great Britain and the Soviet Union formally recognized the independent nations of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Communist North Vietnam (initially known as Vietminh) under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem were divided at the 17th parallel 407 and promised free elections within tow years (a promise not kept). The United States remained neutral in the negotiations 4. Secretary of State Dulles formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization – SEATO – with eight members, including Britain and France, in a weak effort to emulate NATO in Asia G. Eisenhower faced dangers in the Middle East during his tenure 1. The United States brought to power, through a coup, the Shah of Iran’s pro-Western government in 1953 after the Sovietinfluenced Iranian government began interfering with the large Western oil companies doing business in Iran 2. The Suez Canal Crisis erupted in the Middle East in 1956 a. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, a strong nationalist, wanted to build a dam on the Nile River for irrigation and power and was depending on American financial support for the project. When he began to discuss collaboration with the Soviets, Secretary of State Dulles withdrew the offer b. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, owned by British and French stockholders, thus threatening Western Europe’s oil supply c. Though the United Nations charter prohibited intervention, British, French and Israeli forces invaded Egypt in October 1956 to keep the canal open and to eliminate Nasser d. The United States reluctantly joined the Soviets in calling for a cease fire resolution and honoring the U.N. Charter as the Soviets was threatening to send in troops to the region e. Britain, France and Israel withdrew in disgust and a U.N. peacekeeping military force was employed for the first time in the organizations history 408 f. The Dam was completed in the 1960s with Soviet help g. As a result of the Suez Crisis, the United States adopted the Eisenhower Doctrine, threatening to use military force to stop communism aggression in the Middle East 3. The United States and Great Britain temporarily sent in troops to the aid of the pro-Western governments in Lebanon and Jordan after Iraqi military officers overthrew their government and Egypt and Syria called for Arab nations to join them in opposition to the West H. The Space Race began after the Soviets launched Sputnik, the World’s first artificial satellite on October 4, 1957. Americans , worried about the military and scientific implications of the satellite, responded by launching a two and half pound satellite and by engaging in a program of education designed to enhance the study of science and math I. In November, 1958 Soviet leader Khrushchev gave the Americans, British and French six months to remove their troops from Berlin, 100 miles inside the border of Communist East Germany. After Eisenhower and Dulles refused to yield, Eisenhower, with reservations, invited Khrushchev to the United States in 1959, Khrushchev appeared before the United Nations and, after a meeting with President Eisenhower at the Presidential retreat at Camp David, promised to indefinitely extend the proposed Berlin ultimatum deadline. The two leaders also convened a summit meeting in Paris in May 1960 but the Summit collapsed after an American U-2 spy plane was shot down and captured by the Soviets, the American government lied about the spy plane 409 Unit 11: The Turbulent Sixties and Stagnant Seventies Lesson 1: The 1960s produced a revolution in American society and culture as the youth of America questioned the authority, conformity, lifestyles and restrictions of the 1950s, confronted the injustices and controversial issues of their times and set out to dismantle a society that they viewed as unjust while ushering in the “Age of Aquarius” I. John F. Kennedy’s New Frontier began the 1960’s with high hopes A. In the Election of 1960, the Democratic ticket of Senator John F. Kennedy (Massachusetts) and Senator Lyndon B. Johnson (Texas) defeated the Republican ticket of Richard M. Nixon (California) and Henry Cabot Lodge by 118,000 votes (49.7% to 49.5%), amidst vote irregularities 1. Kennedy promised a “New Frontier” to improve the economy which had been in recession since 1958 and to strengthen the nation’s posture abroad 2. Vice-President Nixon promised to build on the unity, strength and stability of the Eisenhower years 3. Kennedy became the first Roman Catholic President as well as the youngest person to be elected to the office (43) 4. In his inaugural address, Kennedy told the nation that “the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans,” and that Americans should “ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country” 5. He was the author of Profiles in Courage B. Kennedy’s domestic program confronted economic issues including unemployment (8%), inflation and the slow economy 410 1. The minimum wage was raised and voluntary wage and price limits were established 2. Through the Area Redevelopment Act (1961), the federal government made loans to businesses and retrained unskilled workers for the new automated economy 3. The Manpower Training and Development Act was created to retrain workers 4. The Housing Act of 1961 provided low-interest loans for moderate income housing, hospitals and homes for the elderly 5. The Trade Expansion Act gave the President the power to lower tariff rates over a five year period, particularly for the members of the European Common Market, but he was also given the authority to reimpose tariffs if industries suffered severely 6. Farmers struggled from falling farm prices C. The New Frontier included a bold new space program 1. On October 4, 1957, during Eisenhower’s presidency, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth 2. As a response to Soviet technology, the United States created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) which began the space race, launching Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958 3. Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM’s) resulted from the advances in technology, increasing the danger of nuclear war 4. In April, 1961 the Soviet Union sent Yuri Gagarin into space as the first astronaut to orbit the earth. President Kennedy committed the United States to being first in space exploration 411 and declared that America would land a man on the moon by 1970 5. Alan Shepard became the first American in outer space on May 5, 1961 (for 15 minutes) 6. On February 20, 1962 John Glenn, America’s third astronaut, became the first American to orbit the earth D. 1960 produced new civil rights movements and leaders 1. Prior to Kennedy’s election, the “sit-in” became a popular tactic in the Civil Rights movement, along with other non-violent forms of protest against Jim Crow laws in the South, resulting in the arrest and suspension of thousands of college students a. Four black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina began a Woolworth’s lunch counter sit-in campaign which spread to sixtynine southern cities b. John Lewis and eighty black students were sentenced to 30 days in jail following a sit-in at a Nashville, Tennessee lunch counter. After their parents boycotted local businesses, Nashville’s lunch counters were desegregated c. San Antonio, Texas became the first large Southern city to integrate lunch counters 2. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), organized at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, became a large student movement following the sit-ins 3. In 1960, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act 4. The Black Muslims, a black nationalist organization led by Elijah Muhammad, called for the creation of an independent black nation on American soil 412 5. In the fall of 1960, a riot erupted in New Orleans after four black girls entered a white school 6. Black voters supported Kennedy in the Election of 1960 after his brother Robert Kennedy , got Martin Luther king out of jail in Atlanta 7. “Freedom Riders” began integrating bus tours of southern states following the “jail-in movement” of 1961, SNCC’s “Jail, No Bail” campaign and the jailing of student demonstrators in Rock Hill, South Carolina a. Freedom Rides were organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to verify that the South was desegregating buses and terminal facilities b. On May 20, 1961, Freedom Riders were beaten in Montgomery, Alabama after the police protection promised by Governor John Patterson disappeared. The governor deployed the Alabama National Guard only after 600 U.S. Marshalls sent in by U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy struggled to protect the riders during a church service c. Freedom Riders who arrived in Jackson, Mississippi from Montgomery were jailed for 60 days for trespassing in a white section of the bus terminal. The jail sentences came after the Attorney General Kennedy and Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett agreed that if the governor would provide protection, Kennedy would not enforce federal laws requiring desegregated bus terminals. Medgar Evers of the NAACP organized a boycott of local businesses while the riders were in jail 8. The Albany Movement of 1961, led by William G. Anderson resulted in the arrest of Martin Luther King Jr. and 700 demonstrators in Albany, Georgia. Police Chief Laurie Pritchett surprised King arranged the use of many jails in order to frustrate the picketers’ efforts to fill the jails. King left 413 Albany in defeat after Pritchett arranged bail and a federal court halted the picketing 9. The 23rd Amendment gave Presidential electors to the District of Columbia (with a large black population). 10. In 1962, rioting erupted in Mississippi, the most violent segregationist state, when James Meredith, a black veteran, registered at the University of Mississippi a. When the Court of Appeals ruled that there was a segregation policy evident at the University, Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett refused to admit Meredith, claiming that the state could place itself between national law and a state’s citizens through the “interposition clause” (a violation of the Constitution’s Supremacy Clause). b. On September 25, 1962, after Meredith was hidden at the University by U.S. Marshalls, violence left 35 Marshalls shot, 2 people dead and 12,000 troops on campus, sent by President Kennedy 11. On January 14, 1963 (the Centennial Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation), George Wallace became Alabama’s governor proclaiming “segregation now, segregation forever!” Wallace later tried to prohibit that integration of the University of Alabama 12. Nonviolence emerged victorious under the leadership of Dr. King and SCLC in Birmingham Alabama in 1963 a. Police Chief “Bull Connor controlled the police and fire departments because the outgoing county commissioners refused to surrender their commission seats to the newly-elected moderates b. Disobeying a court order to hit SCLC’s boycott and protests, Martin Luther King Jr. went to jail where he wrote his Letter from a Birmingham Jail 414 c. King launched “Operation C” out of the 16th Street Baptist Church, using children as protesters in order for parents to stay on their jobs d. When 2700 children were attacked by Bull Connor’s clubs, dogs, fire hoses and then arrested, national sympathy arose for the civil rights movement 13. On June 11, 1963, Medgar Evers, the Mississippi NAACP leader, was assassinated on his front porch. His assassin would not be convicted until a third trial in the 1990s 14. Organized by A. Philip Randolph, more than 250,000 people participated in the “Freedom Now” march on Washington on August 28, 1963. As a result of his “I have a dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial. King was fully established as the leader of the Civil Rights movement 15. Eighteen days after the “Freedom Now” March, four black girls were killed in the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham 16. President Kennedy initiated the Twenty-Fourth Amendment in 1962, which outlawed poll taxes and after Congressional approval, was ratified during President Johnson’s tenure 17. Kennedy also signed an executive order outlawing segregation in federally subsidized housing projects E. On November 22, 1963, at 12:30 P.M. President Kennedy was shot and killed by an assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas 1. Kennedy became the fourth president of the United States to die from an assassin’s bullet 2. Vice President Johnson was sworn in as the thirty-sixth President aboard the President’s plane at 2:38 P.M. 415 3. Lee Harvey Oswald, a Marxist and Castro sympathizer, was arrested as a suspect but, while being transferred between jails, Oswald was shot and killed before a live Sunday morning television audience by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner 4. After laying in state in the Capital for three days, Kennedy was buried in Arlington Cemetery 5. To answer questions surrounding the assassination, the Warren Commission , led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, interviewed 532 witnesses and concluded that Oswald alone assassinated President Kennedy. Jack Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald and no conspiracy was evident II. President Lyndon Baines Johnson’s Great Society A. Johnson’s economic program gave priority to a reduction in taxes and a “war on poverty” 1. the tax cut provided by the Revenue Act of 1964 stimulated the economy 2. The office of Economic Opportunity was created by the economic Opportunity Act of 1964 to attack unemployment and to provide training programs. One billion dollars was authorized by Congress for the war on poverty 3. Congress passed a major funding program for education 4. Medicare, a program of national health insurance for persons over the age of 65, was enacted 5. Medicaid provided money to states for health care for the needy 6. Johnson cut excise taxes to stimulate purchasing at home 7. Funds were also provided for housing and Appalachia 416 B. President Johnson and his Vice-Presidential choice, Herbert H. Humphrey of Minnesota won a landslide victory in the Election of 1964 over the Republican challenger, Senator Barry Goldwater, conservative states rights advocate from Arizona. Moderate Republicans defected from the conservative ticket, while Southern Democrats left their party due to Johnson’s support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Goldwater’s candidacy in the Election of 1964 marked the beginning of the Republican Party’s movement towards conservatism , which would later yield victories C. In 1967 the Twenty-Fifth Amendment was passed to address the problems of Presidential disability and succession (in the wake of President Kennedy’s death D. The Johnson administration would deliver more gains for the civil rights movement than the Kennedy Administration but would also see the movement make a distinct turn towards militancy following the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which marked an end to the nonviolent “King” years of the movement, and the emergence of radical SNCC leaders 1. In 1964, black and Puerto Rican students boycotted New York Ghetto schools to protest “de facto” segregation as well as the inferior quality of the schools 2. The civil Rights Act of 1964 enabled the government to ban discrimination in public places 3. Race riots emerged in major northern cities 4. During Freedom Summer, organized in Mississippi by Bob Moses in June 1964, civil rights workers opened “freedom schools,” community centers and voter registration drives. The Mississippi Freedom Project resulted in 80 beatings, 1000 arrests and the murder of three civil rights workers near Philadelphia, Mississippi (Andrew Goodman, James Chaney, and Michael Schwerner) 417 5. Led by Fannie Lou Hamer, the Freedom Democratic Party nominated three black Mississippians for Congress in 1964 and attended the Democratic Convention in Atlantic City, where they failed to achieve the party’s recognition 6. Martin Luther King Jr. received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 due to his tactic of non-violent resistance 7. The 24th Amendment banned poll taxes in national elections 8. Malcolm X, a black nationalist who had broken away from the Black Muslims and who had launched the Organization of AfroAmerican unity, was assassinated by three Black Muslims (Talmadge Hayes, Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Butler) after he moderated his separatist views 9. The victorious five day 50 mile Selma to Montgomery march marked the high point of the non-violent civil rights movement as 25,000 supporters rallied at the state capital in Montgomery Alabama a. Demonstrations began in Selma, Alabama when black voters, organized by SNCC, tried to register but met resistance from Sheriff Jim Clark b. 2000 black demonstrators, including Dr. King, were jailed during the SCLC-led voter registration drive in Selma. Jimmy Lee Jackson was killed by troopers c. The teacher’s march – the first black middle class march in Selma – sparked a march of 400 white clergy men, one of the ministers, James Reeb was beaten to death by segregationists d. After two unsuccessful attempts to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge from Brown Chapel Church, Gr. King and Ralph Bunche of the United Nations led 3200 black and white Americans on a 5-day march to Montgomery, 418 singing “We Shall Overcome,” where they were joined by thousands of other supporters e. Viola Liuzzo, a civil rights worker, was murdered in her car by the Ku Klux Klan after the march f. The Selma to Montgomery March marked an end of the nonviolent civil rights era (1955-65) 10. President Johnson signed the 1965 Voting Rights Act which a. outlawed literacy and character tests for voters b. gave federal authorities the power to register voters in areas were less than 50% of the eligible voting population was registered 11. Rioting erupted for six days in the Watts district of Los Angeles, claiming 35 lives and $200,000,000 in property 12. Dr. Robert C. Weaver became the first black cabinet member in the nation’s history as President Johnson’s Secretary of Housing and Urban Development 13. The Supreme Court ruled the poll tax to be unconstitutional 14. On a 200 miles “march against fear” from Memphis Tennessee to Jackson Mississippi to encourage black voter registration, James Meredith, the first black student at the University of Mississippi, was wounded by a white gunman. 4000 blacks registered to vote after the march 15. SNCC leader Stokely Carmichael proclaimed “Black Power”, asserting that nonviolence was a dead cause. Roy Wilkins executive director of the NAACP, denounced “Black Power” as reverse racism 419 16. The Black Panther Party, organized in California in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, advocated the use of weapons as well as speeches 17. The 1966 Civil Rights Bill, proposed by President Johnson was vigorously opposed by the real estate industry because it would ban discrimination in housing 18. Dr. Martin Luther king Jr. joined the civil rights movement and the anti-Vietnam movement together and urged draft age Americans to declare themselves “conscientious objectors” to the war in which there was twice as many black soldiers in combat as white soldiers. At SCLC’s national convention in Atlanta, Dr. King called upon black Americans to launch civil disobedience drives, oppose the Vietnam War and to vote for a peace candidate in the 1968 Presidential Election 19. Dozens of cities experienced racial violence in 1967 a. A three day riot broke out in Nashville following a speech by Stokely Carmichael at Fisk University b. A riot erupted in Cambridge, Maryland when H. Rap Brown, Stokely Carmichael’s successor as chairman of SNCC, urged his audience to “burn the town down” c. Riots in Newark and Detroit claimed 66 lives 20. Black Americans rose to high office in 1967, with Thurgood Marshall becoming the first black Supreme Court Justice, also Richer Hatcher became mayor of Gary, Indiana and Carl Stokes the mayor of Cleveland Ohio 21. In 1968 the Kerner Commission (the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders) reported that “America is moving towards two societies – one black, one white, separate and unequal” and that white racism was to blame 420 22. Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, by a white sniper, James Earl Ray, in Memphis Tennessee. Violence erupted across America a. Lincoln Lynch, chairman of the militant united Black Front, urged Black Americans to kill 10 whites for every victim of violence, claiming that “white America understands no other language” b. 46 persons were killed in riots throughout the nation, particularly in Washington D.C. and Chicago c. Ralph Abernathy became the president of SCLC 23. Congress passed the Civil rights Act of 1968 which prohibited a. Racial discrimination in the sale or rental or rental of 80% of the nations housing b. Crossing a state line to incite a riot c. Harming civil rights workers d. Instructing people in the use of firearms or explosives for use in a civil disobedience 24. A fair housing law that went far beyond the Civil Rights Act of 1968 was put into effect when the Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 prohibited discrimination in all sales and rentals of property 25. 11 people were killed when the “Black Nationalists of New Libya” attacked Cleveland’s police force in “the first stage of a revolutionary armed struggle 421 III. The Civil Rights Movement, which began as a struggle by black Americans for their rights and which was the most important contributing factor to the protests of the Sixties, would be joined by Hispanics, women and native Americans A. Hispanic-Americans also joined the civil rights movement of the 1960s 1. From World War II until 1962, 4.5 million Mexican farm workers came to America as contract labor through the “bracero” program. Mexican-Americans became the largest Hispanic group in the United States 2. Puerto Ricans who, unlike other Hispanics, were American citizens at birth, moved to U.S. cities, , where they faced discrimination as the nation’s second largest Hispanic group. In 1970, Herman Badillo of New York became the first Puerto Rican member of Congress 3. Cuban refugees flocked to the United States in 1959 after Communist forces under Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime 4. Cesar Chavez, who organized migrant workers in the California vineyards and lettuce fields, led a migrant worker strike in 1965 in a nationwide boycott of produce not harvested by the United Farm Workers 5. The Chicano Movement tired to secure rights for MexicanAmericans, many who lived in Mexican-American communities in the cites known as “barrios” 6. The Brown Berets also sponsored school breakfast programs and Chicano (Mexican American) studies B. Native-Americans continued to struggle for their rights 1. American Indians, the poorest minority in the nation faced discrimination, unemployment, poverty and inconsistent federal regulations 422 a. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which had encouraged self-government and tribal customs, failed because many Indians felt that full recognition of their rights as Americans was more important than preserving tribal ways b. A new Government policy in the 1950’s reserved the goals of the Indian Reorganization Act i. The Termination policy shifted responsibility for American Indians to the states but the states disastrously failed to provide services ii. The goal of assimilating Indians into major cities failed because the government did not provide promised jobs. Many Indians returned to the reservation 2. Indian activists promoted Indian interests through the National Congress of Indian Americans, National Indian Youth Council and the Native American movement 3. Books drew attention to the problems faced by Indians a. Saul Steiner spoke of “red power” among Indian intellectuals in The New Indians b. In Custer died for Your Sins, Vine Deloria Jr outlined the history of broken promises, state the goals of American Indians and argued that white Americans could learn form the Indians c. Dee Brown’s Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee became a best seller, telling how the west was “lost” 423 4. Militant Indians revolted during Nixon’s administration a. Alcatraz Island was captured by a group of Indians b. In 1972, 50 members of the American Indian movement (AIM), founded by Dennis Banks, formed “The Trail of Broken Treaties” and occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs building in Washington D.C. They were promised that the Federal Government would hear their concerns c. In February, 1973 AIM members seized the trading post and the church at the Sioux Pines Reservation at Wounded Knee South Dakota, the scene of the 1890 massacre of Indian women and children. After 71 days, the government agreed to consider their demands 5. Progress came on Capital Hill a. In 1970 President Nixon asked Congress to repeal the termination policy of 1953 b. Indians in New Mexico and Maine successfully reclaimed land taken from them illegally 6. though many tribal members became Americanized, Native Americans have not abandoned their traditional ways C. The Women’s rights movement joined the Civil Rights Movement 1. Women (53% of the U.S. Population) launched the women’s liberation movement in the 1960’s as a result of a. More employment opportunities b. The civil rights movement c. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed job discrimination based on sex 424 2. The National Organization for Women (NOW) demanded a. Equal treatment for women in education b. Publicly financed day care centers c. The repeal of state laws forbidding abortion 3. In 1972, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) for women failed by two states to gain ratification 4. In the controversial 1973 Roe v Wade decision, the Supreme Court upheld a woman’s right to an abortion during the early months of pregnancy 5. Women later called for comparable pay for comparable jobs 6. Many women began to serve in the armed forces IV. Social and Cultural Changes of the 1960s A. The counterculture of the 1960s was a revelation in values and a product of a “generation gap” as the post-World War II “Baby Boom” generation rebelled against their parents values 1. “Baby Boomers,” defying the values of the 1950s, began to a. “question authority” b. reject expectations for conformity and, instead, embrace the doctrine of “do your own thing” c. experiment widely with drugs and sex 425 2. The Civil Rights movement led America’s youth to question other institutions of society and government and served as a catalyst for the revolt of the 1960s 3. The members of the counterculture rejected the money-based materialism of the 1950s, grew long hair, embraced free love and experimented with drugs, particularly marijuana and the hallucinogenic LSD in an effort to see reality differently and to change their values. Psychology Professor Timothy Leary was fired from Harvard University after telling students to “tune in, and turn on” by using psychedelic drugs 4. The counterculture emerged in two different forms: a) the “hippies” (or flower children) who dropped out of society and b)the political activists a. The “ make love, not war generation of hippies, in an effort to realize the “Age of Aquarius” i. Practiced “free love” ii. Often “returned to the land” in communes iii. Sought non materialistic happiness iv. Embraced alternative philosophies an religions (particularly Eastern religions) v. Came to be represented by the ”Summer of Love” in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco in 1967 and the 4 day Woodstock festival on a New York Dairy farm in 1969 (but the 1967 Altamont festival in California demonstrated the anarchistic excesses of the era) b. Political activism which took the form of civil rights protests in the early 1960s soon transformed into widespread protests against the Vietnam War on college campuses and in American 426 cities. Sixties activists would demonstrate that “the personal is political” i. Opposition to the Vietnam War would bring Lyndon Johnson’s presidency to an end as he refused to seek reelection ii. President Nixon ignored the protests while VicePresident Agnew and blue-collar Americans attacked the middle class, college age protesters as a spoiled un-American mob iii. The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) under the leadership of Tom Hayden and Al Faber, issued the Port Huron statement, criticizing American society iv. The Free Speech Movement (FSM), located on the Berkley campus of the University of California and, led by Mario Savio, staged a successful sit-in to protest the campus ban on certain political activities v. The Weathermen was a violent, underground organization that employed bombings and terrorism to attack the government’s actions vi. Clashed between government forces and protesters resulted in violence and bloodshed in 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, National Guardsmen killed four students, producing public outrage c. The counterculture expressed its values and protested societies injustices often through music (Bob Dylan, Phil Oakes, Joan Baez, Crosby , stills Nash and Young and many others) 427 5. Perhaps as a result of student activism in the 1960s, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age to 18 in 1971 B. Population patterns changed from the 1960s to the 1980s 1. As the number of farms declined, much of the minority population moved to urban areas, with the South and West (Sunbelt) becoming the fastest growing regions 2. The U.S. birthrate reached its lowest level ever in 1976 3. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the National Origins Act and allowed a large increase in the number of Asian and Hispanic Immigrants 4. White Americans moved from cities to the suburbs due to a. Large numbers of minorities in the cities b. Urban overcrowding, pollution, crime and disintegration of public services c. Improved transportation and communication between the workplace and home 5. “White Flight” led to urban slums and deteriorating inner cities C. The Civil Rights Movement, which began as a struggle by black Americans for their rights and which was the most important contributing factor to the protests of the 1960s, would be joined by other groups of Americans in the 1970s, particularly women and native Americans V. Richard Nixon took office as the 37th President of the United States and faced a Congress controlled by Democrats A. In the tumultuous Election of 1968, former Vice-President Richard Nixon (California) and Spiro Agnew (Maryland) defeated the 428 Democratic ticket of Herbert Humphrey (Minnesota) and Edmund Muskie (Maine) 1. President Johnson announced that he would not be a candidate for reelection due to opposition to his Vietnam policy. The Conflict in Vietnam was claiming thousands of American lives 2. Senator Eugene McCarthy from Minnesota made a strong showing in the New Hampshire primary on a platform opposed to the Vietnam War 3. Senator Robert F. Kennedy who was also opposed to the Vietnam War, was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan after winning the California primary (June, 1968) 4. Senator Humphrey, the “establishment candidate”, won the Democratic Nomination. At the convention in Chicago, thousands of anti-war protesters rioted in the streets. Abbie Hoffman, founder of the Youth International Party (“Yippies”), nominated a pig for President (Pigasus) and was charged, along with his Chicago Eight codefendants, with conspiracy to start a riot 5. Governor George Wallace of Alabama formed third party, the American Independent Party, and ran on a platform opposed to welfare programs, busing of school children and federally enforced integration, he receive 13% of the popular vote 6. Nixon won a close election by promising to review the government’s poverty program that he said was not working and by promising to “bring an honorable end to the war”. He hoped to please the “great silent majority” of Americans B. Nixon’s election in 1968 marked the end to one of the most violent, unsettling years in American history. As the Woodstock festival marked an end to the counterculture of the 1960s with the movement and its values into the mainstream of American life, America said “goodbye” to the tumultuous sixties and moved into the “malaise” of the seventies 429 Lesson 2: The 1970s would further fracture the faith that Americans held in their governmental institutions as a result of Watergate and Vietnam and lead Americans to seek answers amidst the decade’s despair, stalemate and cynicism Richard Nixon’s Administration A. Nixon’s Domestic Program 1. Though the space program suffered setbacks (the tragic death of three American astronauts on the launch pad), Apollo 11 landed on the moon on July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong, the first man to step onto the moons surface proclaimed, “That’s one small step for man; one giant leap for mankind” 2. After having two Supreme Court nominees rejected by Congress, President Nixon appointed four members of the Supreme Court: Chief Justice Warren Burger, Associate Justices Harry Blackmun, Lewis Powell and William Rehnquist. The appointments reflected the President’s desire to shift the Court to a position of conservative, strict, interpretation of the Constitution and to the practice of Judicial Restraint 3. Congress, in agreement with Nixon’s “New Federalism” passed a Revenue Sharing Act in 1972, giving $30.2 billion to state and local governments 4. Nixon and Congress argued over whether to cut social or defense spending 5. Inflation was over 10% during Nixon’s administration a. The worldwide economy could not satisfy consumer demand internationally 430 b. Nixon twice devalued the dollar to deal with the imbalance of trade resulting from the demand for U.S. products. Unfortunately, the devalued dollar allowed foreigners to purchase U.S. goods at higher levels of consumption c. Food prices rose due to foreign demand d. Beginning with the Nixon administration, the 1970s would be characterized by an unusual economic phenomenon known as stagflation in which high inflation accompanied high unemployment e. Congress rejected Nixon’s Family Assistance Plan which would have provide a guaranteed income to poor families 6. Due to the politics of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), oil prices rose dramatically, producing inflationary pressure on many products whose production requires oil a. Because the United States, with 6% of the world’s population, consumed 30% of the world’s oil, the embargo implemented by the OPEC cartel in 1973 drove up the cost of gasoline, heating oil and electricity dramatically b. The embargo resulting from America’s support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War, produced an energy crisis in the United States and awakened Americans to the problem of oil dependency c. President Nixon announced a plan to make the United States independent of Foreign Oil by the 1980s, relying on strip mining, offshore oil drilling, nuclear power and a pipeline from the rich oil fields of Alaska to the lower 48 states B. In the Election of 1972, President Nixon overwhelmingly won reelection over the Democratic Senator George McGovern (521 to 17 electoral votes: 46 to 29 million popular votes) 431 1. Nixon campaigned on his record of withdrawing a half million men from Vietnam, his trips to Moscow and Peking, where he opened relations with Communist China, the SALT agreements which limited long range nuclear missiles, his war against inflation, and his opposition to busing 2. Because McGovern chaired the commission that required the Democratic Party to open up its nominating process to women, youth and minorities, the liberal Senator received his party’s nomination despite opposition from conservatives 3. Alabama’s governor, George Wallace campaigned for the Democratic nomination as a conservative until he was gunned down by Arthur Bremmer, leaving him paralyzed for life and out of the 1972 contest 4. McGovern’s problems began even before the convention concluded. His first nominee for Vice-President, Thomas Eagleton from Missouri, was dropped by McGovern when it was disclosed that Senator Eagleton had received treatment for mental depression 5. the Campaign Finance Act of 1972 would change Campaign financing by limiting the amounts of contributions and requiring full disclosure C. As his second term began, Nixon tried to reduce federally-funded social programs like, job training, busing, urban renewal, public day care centers, Medicare and Medicaid D. Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign from office in 1973 for receiving illegal kickbacks from the milk industry while he was Governor of Maryland, fraud, bribery, extortion and income tax evasion. The was the first Vice-President driven from office. Agnew would plead “no contest” to income tax invasion 432 Gerald R. Ford, the Republican minority leader in the House of Representatives, was nominated by President Nixon to fill the vacant Vice-Presidency under the provisions of the 25th amendment, which addresses Presidential disability and succession. Ford was overwhelmingly approved by Congress and assumed office in December 1973 E. The Watergate Affair resulted in the resignation of President Nixon as the first President driven from office 1. On June 17, 1972, five men were arrested after breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate complex in Washington D.C. a. The group of Cuban refugees was led by James McCord, an ex-CIA operative and Chief of Security for the Committee to Reelect the President (CREEP). They were arrested by local D.C. police after a security guard discovered a taped door lock b. Gordon Liddy, a former FBI agent who was a consultant for CREEP and E. Howard Hunt, a former CIA agent serving as a White House aide, were also arrested for supervising the break in c. The purpose of the break in was to steal documents and plant “bugs” (listening devices) 2. Two Washington Post reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, discovered that the trail of money for the “Watergate Seven” led to the White House 3. The Watergate break in was discovered to be part of a massive, illegally funded operation to insure President Nixon’s reelection by destroying the opposition a. In an effort to discredit Robert Kennedy and other Democrats, Howard Hunt had forged documents that suggested President 433 Kennedy had ordered the assassination of President Diem of South Vietnam b. Corporations had made large illegal contributions to the Committee to Reelect the President c. The “plumbers unit,” established by the White House to stop leaks, illegally wiretapped the telephones of National Security Council officials and journalists and broke into the office of Daniel Ellsburg’s psychiatrist in an effort to secure damaging evidence against Ellsburg, who had leaked the “Pentagon Papers” d. The IRS audited the tax returns of individuals who appeared on Charles Colson’s “enemy’s list” 4. the Senate established the Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina, to investigate the allegations 5. As early as June 23, 1972, a week after the break-ins, President Nixon initiated a cover-up of the break in order to protect his closest advisors as well as illegal White House intelligence operations (financed by illegal contributions) a. The cover-up led President Nixon to lie, asserting that “no one I the White House was involved in the incident.” At the same time presiding over the cover-up and he often repeated the lie i. On March 22, 1973 Nixon told his closest aides to “stonewall it, let them plead the fifth Amendment, cover up or anything else if it will save it – save the plan” ii. After announcing on April 17, 1973 that he was ordering new inquires, Nixon asserted that March 21 was the first day that he had heard about the cover-up (a lie, since he had started the cover up process in June 1972 434 b. “Hush money” was paid to defendants for their silence c. Evidence was destroyed d. Advisors and defendants lied to the grand jury that was preparing the indictments e. Nixon’s closest advisors included: John D Ehrlichman, domestic affairs advisor; H.R. Haldeman, White House chief of Staff; John Dean, Chief Legal council for the White House; John Mitchell, who had authorized the break in as Attorney General shortly before resigning to become head of CREEP and Charles Colson, special council to the White House f. L. Patrick Gray, the acting director of the FBI was forced to resign after it was discovered that he had destroyed documents relating to the Watergate break-in 6. The “Watergate Seven” were tried in early 1973 by Judge John Sirica a. Five of the defendants, including Hunt, pleaded guilty to burglary, wiretapping and attempted bugging b. McCord and Liddy were convicted in a jury trial c. During the proceedings, James McCord indicated to Judge Sirica that White House Republicans knew in advance about the break-in , that they blackmailed the defendants for their silence and that perjury had been committed during the trial 7. On April 30, 1973 President Nixon announced the resignation of Haldeman, Erlichman and Dean 8. In May 1973 John Dean spilled the details of President Nixon’s role in the cover-up to the Senate Watergate committee, prompting Nixon to assert “I am not a crook!” 435 9. Alexander Butterfield reveled to the Committee that the President had tape recorded White House conversations and telephone calls, the committee asked the President for the tapes to use as evidence in the hearings, the president refused to release the tapes for reasons of national security and executive privileges 10. President Nixon allowed Attorney-General Elliot Richardson to appoint Archibald Cox, a law professor at Harvard, to serve as special prosecutor When Cox made arrangements to go to court to secure the tapes that Nixon refused to surrender, Nixon ordered Attorney-General Richardson to fire Cox even though Nixon had promised not to interfere with the special prosecutor’s investigation Rather than firing Cox, Richardson, as well as the deputy attorney General, William Ruckelshaus resigned in protest Cox was fired by Solicitor-General Robert Bork (on Saturday night) The Saturday night Massacre outraged the public and as a result. Nixon agreed in turn over the tapes to Judge Sirica, after appointing a new special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski 11. After the Saturday Night Massacre, the house Judiciary Committee began considering impeachment proceedings against Nixon 12. In March 1974 the grand jury indicted Haldeman, Mitchell, Erlichman, Colson and four members of the White House staff on charges of conspiracy, obstruction of justice and perjury. Nixon became an unindicted coconspirator 13. When the President submitted the subpoenaed tapes and 1254 pages of edited transcripts, the public was shocked by Nixon’s arrogance, lack of concern about the electorate, the “expletive deletives” used to cover profane and vulgar language and the inaccuracy of the transcripts 436 14. In late July, 1974 the House judiciary Committee adopted three articles of impeachment, charging the President with obstruction of justice, abuse of Presidential power, disobeying subpoenas to turn over tapes. Out of the 21 Democrats and 17 Republicans on the Committee, eleven Republicans voted against impeachment 15. On August 1, 1974 the supreme court ruled, in the case of the United States vs. Richard Nixon, that the President must release 64 additional tapes to Jawarski that he had refused to release under a lower court order 16. On august 5, 1974 Nixon released the additional tapes which clearly revealed that Nixon had halted the FBI investigation and that he knew about the cover-up one week after the break-in (June 1972), much earlier than the March 21, 1973 date that he had repeatedly claimed. Based on this evidence, the eleven Republicans on the Judiciary Committee who had voted against impeachment reversed their votes, making the impeachment vote unanimous 17. After receiving the opinion of Republican leaders in both houses of Congress that he would be impeached and convicted, Richard Nixon resigned as President on August 8, 1974, the first President in American history to resign 18. Later on January 1, 1975 Mitchell, Haldeman and Ehrlicman were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms 19. Significance of the Watergate Affair a. Voter turnout plunged in elections following the Watergate Affair as the public became cynical towards politicians and the political system b. The press, protected by the First Amendment, demonstrated the virtue and importance of a free press c. The affair proved that, in America, “no man is above the law” and that America is a government of laws and not of men 437 d. The Republican Party suffered in the post-Watergate elections e. The system of checks and balances worked and , due to the Watergate affair, more power and popularity shifted to the legislative branch at the expense of the executive branch f. The virtue of the two-party system was demonstrated as the Democratically controlled Congress pursued the investigation of the Republican executive branch g. New campaign laws emerged out of the Watergate affair h. The legal proceedings of the Watergate affair proved, according to Nixon’s successor, Gerald Ford, the “Our constitution works, here the people rule” i. As a result of the scandal, congress took steps to restrict the “imperial Presidency.” i. The War Powers Act (1973) prohibited the President from sending troops into combat without the approval of Congress. The War Powers Act demonstrates the system of checks and balances ii. The congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act (1974) was passed by Congress to prohibit the President from impounding federal funds that have already been appropriated to spend F. Vice President Gerald Ford, who had been appointed to office after the resignation of Spiro Agnew, was sworn in as the 38th President of the United States on august 9th, 1974, the first appointed President in U.S. history, Nelson Rockefeller (New York) was them appointed Vice-President II. President Ford tried to heal the wounds left behind by Watergate 438 A. On September 8, 1974, in an effort to bring an end to “the long national nightmare,” President Ford pardoned Richard Nixon for all offenses e may have committed as President. Many Americans questioned Ford’s refusal to grant full, unconditional pardons to Vietnam War draft dodgers after Nixon was pardoned B. Economic problems confronted the Ford administration 1. An inflation rate of 12% led President Ford to launch his WIN (Whip Inflation Now) program through which he encouraged the public to conserve energy and to fight inflation at the grassroots level 2. A severe recession hit the nation in 1975 as result of President Ford’s effort to control inflation (by opposing tax cuts, calling for cuts in federal spending and urging the Federal Reserve board to raise interest rates) C. Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos fell to Communist control in 1975 as the final chapter of the Vietnam tragedy D. American celebrated the Bicentennial (200th) birthday on July 4, 1976 E. Two assassination attempts targeted at Ford failed. “Squeaky” Frome (of Charles Manson’s “family”) and Sarah Jane Moore were sentenced to prison for firing shots at the President III. President Jimmy Carter brought honesty and compassion to Washington during the “malaise” of the 70s following Vietnam and Watergate A. The 1976 Election produced a surprising victory for James E. “Jimmy” Carter, the Democratic nominee from Georgia, and his running mate, Walter “Fritz” Mondale of Minnesota 1. due to a strong challenge from conservative governor Ronald Reagan of California, President Ford dropped Rockefeller as his V-P candidate and chose as his running mate, Robert “Bob” Dole of Kansas, a conservative 439 2. With support from Northern industrial interests, southerners and black voters, Carter won as a Washington outsider whose honesty was comforting after Watergate B. President Carter brought a less formal manner to the White House. He walked to the White House during his inauguration , held “town hall meetings,” called for regulations written in “plain English” and answered questions in “call in” sessions 1. The Carter Cabinet included more black and women appointees than any previous administration. President Carter appointed Andrew Young as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations 2. To solve the nations energy problems, Carter deregulated the oil industry, hoping to raise prices and decrease consumption. He also proposed a tax on the windfall profits , hoping to spur domestic exploration a. Congress produced a weakened energy bill b. The Department of Energy was created c. Nuclear power came into doubt in March, 1979 when an accidental spill of radioactive water occurred at Three mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania d. A Synthetic Fuels Corporation was established by congress to seek new sources of energy 3. President Carter granted an unconditional pardon to Vietnam War draft evaders 4. Carter created the Department of Education, despite his campaign pledge to clean up the “bureaucratic mess” in Washington. The Department of Health and Human Services out f the Department of Health, Education and Welfare 440 5. Carter deregulated several transportation industries including airlines, trucking and railroads, and also deregulated the banking industry 6. Carter produced a “superfund” to clean up chemical waste sites, limited strip mining and bought million of acres of new national forests, parks and wildlife refuges 7. Imports from Japan far exceeded exports to that country, fueling a trade imbalance between the two nations 8. President Carter failed to deal with inflation and unemployment effectively. His administration was seen as weak and poorly managed Lesson 3: American foreign Policy in the 1960s and 70s reflected the continuation of the nation’s engagement in the Cold War as U.S. forces confronted communism in Europe and the Third World (economically underdeveloped nations I. President Kennedy who inherited a foreign policy of containment rollback and brinksmanship, faced enormous foreign policy challenges, primarily with the Soviet Union, during his administration A. Kennedy adopted a policy of flexible response because he believed that containment , based on brinksmanship, was ineffective in dealing with Third World nations 1. The Peace Corps was formed by Kennedy to provide assistance to emerging, underdeveloped nations of the Third World 2. His Alliance for Progress arranged projects designed to repair the damaged American relationship with Latin American nations 3. The Green Berets and other insurgency forces were created during the Kennedy administration to train in modern techniques of limited warfare 441 B. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the Soviet –controlled East German government in order to stem the flow of refugees from communist East Berlin to the freedom of pro-Western West Berlin. It became the most prominent symbol of the Cold War C. The Cuban Missile Crisis posed the most dangerous crisis faced by the Kennedy administration as the world stood on the brink of nuclear war following a deterioration in the U.S./Cuban relationship over several decades 1. In 1934, the United States abrogated the Platt Amendment, ending its protectorate over Cuba which had been in effect since the Spanish American war. In 1959 Castro’s overthrow of Batista and the seizure of American properties by this new soviet –influenced Cuban government had led President Eisenhower to order the CIA to begin planning the overthrow of Castro using Cuban refugees who had fled the revolution to Florida in 1959 2. In April 1961 President Kennedy authorized the invasion by 2000 exiles at the Bay of Pigs on the southern coast of Cuba. The fiasco collapsed in two days after Kennedy refused to authorize Air Force strikes in Cuba 3. In October, 1962 American U-2 Recognizance planes photographed soviet built missile bases under construction in Cuba. Subsequently, it was determined that the missile carried offensive nuclear weapons a. Kennedy chose to impose a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets from sending additional missiles, rather than attacking the Island and risking nuclear response b. When soviet ships approaching Cuba turned back to the Soviet Union at the last minute, Soviet Premier Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles from Cuba if the United States pledged to not invade the Island again. Kennedy agreed, the crisis came to an end as Kennedy’s handling of the affair would be considered 442 his greatest triumph as President while Khrushchev emerged from the incident weakened and humiliated c. The most important long-term result of the Cuban Missile Crisis was an increase in Cold War hostility, evidenced by the largest peacetime military buildup in U.S. history in response to a massive soviet buildup under Leonid Breshnev, who replaced Khrushchev D. The Hot Line was established by the United States and the Soviet Union in June 1963 in an effort to prevent the accidental outbreak of nuclear war. A series of nuclear test ban treaties were signed by the United States, England and the Soviet Union, limiting nuclear tests to underground sits only E. Following the defeat of French forces at Dien Bien Phu and the division of Vietnam by the 1954 Geneva conference into communist north Vietnam, led by Ho chi Minh, and South Vietnam, under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem, President Kennedy could have withdrawn U.S. forces from the region during the time the American public was more concerned with events in Berlin and Cuba. But his belief in the domino theory and commitment to the policy of containment led him to slowly increase U.S. military involvement to about 23,000 Green Beret advisors by the time of his death in November 1963 1. President Kennedy secretly supported the assassination of the corrupt Diem in 1963 by the South Vietnamese military. Diem had grown very unpopular, in part, due to his brutal crackdown on the nation’s Buddhist majority, which had led to the welltelevised self-immolation of several Buddhist monks. Nguyen Van Thieu succeeded Diem as south Vietnam’s leader 2. Ho chi Minh continued his effort to reunite the two Vietnams under one communist government with the help of his followers known as the Vietcong (the National Liberation Front). 443 II. President Johnson continued Kennedy’s Foreign Policy A. President Johnson would dramatically escalate U.S. involvement in the Vietnam Conflict, a decision which would ultimately lead to his downfall as president 1. Johnson felt compelled to continue the Southeast Asia policy of his predecessor and also did not want to “lose” Vietnam like President Truman had “lost” China in 1949 2. While the United States saw the conflict as an effort to contain communism and the Soviet Union viewed it as a war of liberation from American capitalism, Ho Chi Minh and the Vietcong were fighting to win a civil war a puppet government established by France and the United States 3. The Gulf of Tonkin incident proved to be a turning point in the U.S. commitment in Vietnam a. President Johnson alarmed the Congress and the American people about the dangers of the Vietcong by disclosing an attack by North Vietnamese gunboats on the U.S.S. Mattox in the Gulf of Tonkin b. Johnson failed to disclose the fact that the Mattox was on a spy mission in North Vietnamese waters c. Congress (almost unanimously) approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which authorized the President to use “all necessary measures to prevent aggression” d. President Johnson, armed with the resolution, ordered U.S. forces to begin bombing North Vietnam 4. The escalation of the U.S. war effort began with the bombing of North Vietnam in 1965 and continued into 1968 444 a. Although Johnson campaigned for peace as the Election of 1964 approached, he was quietly preparing to escalate U.S. involvement in the war with bombings b. An endless cycle emerged; bombers and their bases required support troops who, in turn, needed air support while on patrol, which required more planes, which, alas, required more troops… c. By December, 1967 U.S. forces had dropped more bombs on north Vietnam than were dropped in World War II d. By 1968 the war became an American, rather than South Vietnamese, war effort, as the number of troops had risen from 50,000 in June, 1965 to 250,000 by December, 1965 and finally, to 500,000 in December, 1967 5. The strategy and tactics of Ho chi Minh’s Vietcong forces focusing on.. a. Controlling the countryside by gaining control of villages by making threats against village chiefs b. Hit and Run military tactics using the Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Mekong River as supply and communication routes c. Avoiding a battle of masses armies, realizing they faced superior technology in the American forces d. Outlasting the United States in its will to make war 6. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces employed a strategy and tactics which concentrated on a. Moving villages to control points and offering them economic aid 445 b. Employing superior technology wherever possible including better firearms, air power and chemical defoliants like Agent Orange c. Obtaining a high “body count” by sending “search and destroy” teams in pursuit of isolated enemy units and supply bases d. Bombing the enemy in order to destroy his will and ability to make war e. Trying to distinguish, under the very difficult conditions of guerilla warfare, between Vietnamese civilians and Vietcong 7. The Tet Offensive of January, 1968 was the turning point of the Vietnam War a. By the end of 1967, General Westmoreland, the commander of the U.S. forces in Vietnam, announced that victory was near b. During the Tet Holiday, which was normally characterized by a cease fire, Vietcong forces attacked at several locations throughout South Vietnam, including the U.S. embassy in Saigon. Although the areas temporarily captured by the Vietcong were soon recaptured by Americans and South Vietnamese forces, the Tet Offensive proved that the United States was not winning the war and that the Vietcong could attack anywhere at anytime c. Following the Offensive, General Westmoreland estimated that the United States needed a 10:1 advantage in troops to win the war and that according to his estimates, 550,000 American troops only outnumber the enemy of 135,000 by 4:1, then 200,000 more troops would be necessary. Johnson refused, asserting that such a move would increase pressure on the U.S. economy, Congressional consent would be required for further escalation and the draft would have to 446 be increased, all in the face of exploding opposition to the war on the home front d. President Johnson brought the bombing of North Vietnam to a halt and entered into peace negotiations with the enemy following the Tet Offensive e. The War continued on for four more years, despite the fact that the Tet Offensive demonstrated that the U.S. could not win the war III. President Nixon confronted the problem of the Cold War by trying to bring it to a conclusion A. The involvement of the United States in the Vietnam conflict continued under President Nixon until the removal of the American troops in 1973 1. The policy of the United States in Vietnam shifted to “Vietnamization” which focused on training South Vietnamese personnel to replace American forces 2. In the spring of 1970, American forces secretly invaded Cambodia in an effort to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail which was the primary source of supply for the Vietcong of South Vietnam. Nixon’s announcement of the move to the American people led to strikes by college students who asserted that Nixon was escalating the war while claiming to be working for peace. The incident at Kent State was one of the results of the protests 3. Henry Kissinger, as the American peace negotiator, pursued a policy of “peace with honor” 4. Nixon ordered the largest bombing campaign of the Vietnam war when the Paris peace talks stalled 447 5. In his campaign for reelection in 1972, President Nixon announced: “Peace is at Hand” and, following his reelection, a cease fire agreement was reached in January 1973 a. It was agreed that North Vietnam would continue to have a military presence in South Vietnam b. South Vietnam was assured of self-government c. The United States agreed to continue economic and military aid to South Vietnam 6. By November 1973 the United States completed the withdrawal of all of its forces from Vietnam 7. Following the withdrawal of U.S. forces, the Vietcong attacked the inept South Vietnamese forces a. Phnom Penn, the Capital of Cambodia, fell to communist forces in March, 1975 b. In April 1975, following the refusal of Congress to allocate $722 million in emergency aid to its ally, South Vietnam fell to the Vietcong. The United States evacuated a thousand Americans and roughly six thousand Vietnamese to offshore aircraft carriers. Saigon would be subsequently be renamed Ho Chi Minh City by the Vietcong 8. Results of the Vietnam War a. As the longest and least successful war in which the United States was ever involved, the Vietnam war claimed over 58,000 American lives and left over 300,000 Americans wounded. The war also claimed the lives of 160,000 South Vietnamese, and 922,000 North Vietnamese b. The American economy suffered as a result of the conflict which cost approximately $150 Billion 448 c. The American people lost faith in their government while the nation’s allies lost confidence in America’s ability to lead the world d. The “Vietnam” syndrome would plague U.S. presidents in the future as they avoided introducing any American troops into a conflict which may not have the support of the American people. President Ford would not respond to communist influence in Angola and Ethiopia e. The Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial (the ”Wall”) would be created in Washington D.C. as a reminder of the price paid by those who fought and died in the war B. President Nixon’s greatest accomplishment came with the normalization of relations with the People’s Republic of China in February 1972 1. Nixon met with Mao Tse-Tung in Peking and reestablished relations for the first time since 1949 2. Both nations agreed to a policy of non-aggression in Asia and also resumed trade 3. The United States agreed to allow the People’s Republic of China (Communist China) to replace Taiwan (Nationalist China) on the United Nations Security Council C. Nixon tried to bring an end to the Cold War through a policy of détente 1. Relations between the two superpowers had gradually improved since the Cuban Missile Crisis, particularly under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev 2. In May, 1972 Nixon and Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), an agreement to limit the number of intercontinental missiles for five years 449 3. The Cold War seemed to be “thawing” as a new relationship emerged D. The Arab-Israeli conflict, which had erupted in war during the Johnson Administration, would continue to present challenges to American foreign policy under Nixon 1. In 1967, alarmed by a growing military threat from their Arab neighbors, Israel invaded Egypt, Jordan and Syria in the Six Day War, seized and occupied territories belonging to those nations – The Golan Heights from Syria, the West Bank of the Jordan River from Jordan and the Gaza Strip, as well as part of the Sinai Peninsula, from Egypt 2. In the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Egypt and Syria invaded Israel during the Jewish Holiday (Yom Kippur) in October in an effort to recapture territories lost during the Six Day War. When the Israelis recovered and were near victory, Egypt called on the Soviet Union to intervene. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. persuaded both sides to halt the fighting in order to avoid being dragged into the war themselves 3. Israel was somewhat angry at the United States for stopping the war just as they were on the verge of victory and the Arab nations, angry about American support for Israel, retaliated with an oil embargo in 1973 which would lead to dramatically higher oil prices and, subsequently, an energy crisis in the United States IV. President Ford’s foreign policy from 1974 to 1977 reflected caution about any involvement in foreign conflicts in the aftermath of the Vietnam experience A. When the communist government of Cambodia seized the Mayaguez, an American cargo ship, Ford immediately sent troops to recapture the ship and its crew 450 B. Détente with the Soviets seemed to fade in the mid-70s as distrust between the two nations began to fade C. The oil crisis which emerged during the Nixon administration lead to a dramatic rise in the cost of imported oil, from roughly $3.00 a barrel to over $30.00 a barrel V. President Carter’s Foreign Policy from 1977 to 1981 A. The oil crisis rocked the western industrialized nations which depended upon imported oil, including Western Europe, Japan, and the United States B. President Carter’s greatest success came with the Camp David Accords, an agreement to begin a peace settlement in the Mideast, signed by Begin of Israel and Sadat of Egypt, and Carter of the U.S. in 1979 C. In 1979 the Shah of Iran, the most important U.S. ally in the Mideast, was overthrown by conservative Shiite Muslims led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. Soon therefore a group of “radical students,” took 52 Americans Hostage in an attempt to demonstrate to the world their outrage at American involvement in Iranian affairs. Months of negotiations proved futile. The hostages were released only after President Carter left office. His failure to resolve the hostage crisis was the most important reason Carter was defeated for reelection by Ronald Reagan in 1980 D. In 1980 the U.S.S.R. invaded Afghanistan in an effort to “protect its borders.” President Carter voiced American outrage at the Soviets “Vietnam” 1. The U.S. refused to attend the 1980 Olympics in Moscow 2. SALT II, the continuation of the U.S. –U.S.S>R. agreement 451 3. The U.S. issued a grain embargo against the Soviets 4. The U.S. limited the sale of technology to the U.S.S.R. 5. These actions were generally views as ineffective Unit Twelve: The Resurgence of Conservatism in the 1980s Lesson 1: The 1980s marked a turning point in recent political history as conservatives, calling for an end to the New Deal and the Great Society, gained control of America’s political agenda I. The Reagan administration’s domestic programs emphasized supplyside economic theory, spiritual and family values and self reliance A. Election of 1980 1. The Republicans nominated the conservative former Governor of California, Ronald Reagan and George Bush (Texas). Reagan sought to reduce the size of the Federal government in asserting that “government is the problem, not the solution.” Reagan opposed “big government” 2. President Carter ran for reelection as incumbent on the Democratic ticket 3. John Anderson ran on a third party ticket 4. Ronald Reagan became the oldest elected President in U.S. history. His victory marked the beginning of the rise of Conservative Republicans 5. Republicans gained control of the Senate for the first time since the 1950s 452 B. An assassination attempt by John Hinckley in 1981 failed as a .22 caliber bullet was removed from President Reagan’s lung C. Reagan’s economic policy, known as “Reaganomics was based on supplyside economic theory, which focused on budget discipline, tax reduction and investment stimulation of the economy 1. Reagan’s policy initially produced a severe but short lived recession. However, the “Teflon President” seemed to avoid blame when failures occurred 2. Domestic spending was cut, particularly expenditures on school lunches, food stamps, Medicare and Medicaid 3. The greatest amount of the U.S. budget is spent on defense 4. Tax reform was implemented by Congress, with Reagan’s support, in 1986 a. Taxes were cut to promote investment and job creation b. Tax shelters were eliminated c. The tax burden of poor Americans was removed 5. Reagan sought ways, through his New Federalism program, to reduce federal regulation of business 6. The Federal deficit tripled from 1980 to 1986, despite Reagan’s promise to balance the budget a. Interest on the national debt became the largest percentage of the debt in the 1980s, fueled by massive increases in defense spending b. The Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act, passed in 1985 and revised in 1987, was passed by Congress to require the federal government to balance the budget by 1993. Automatic budget 453 cuts would be enacted if deficit-reduction goals were not achieved D. President Reagan and Vice-President Bush were reelected in 1984 in a landslide victory 1. The election was historic as the Democratic nominee, former Vice-President Walter Mondale of Minnesota, selected Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate, the first female Vice-Presidential nominee in U.S. history 2. Black candidate Jessie Jackson unsuccessfully ran for the Democratic nomination as the “rainbow coalition” candidate, supported by women, minorities and the poor 3. In the off year elections which followed in 1986, the Democrats regained control of the Senate E. Foreign policy dominated Reagan’s second term in office as the Cold War began to subside with the emergence of “glasnost” (opening) and “perestroika” (economic restructuring) in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev II. President Bush continued Reagan’s policies and, despite the end of the Cold War and the American led-victory in the Persian Gulf War, was limited to a single term due to his failure to successfully address social and economic issues A. The Election of 1988 1. the republicans won the election after nominating two term vice president George Bush and Senator Dan Quayle (Indiana) as his running mate. Bush whose father had been a U.S. Senator from Connecticut, had made millions in the oil business before entering into his long career of public service in which he had served as ambassador to China and the United Nations, CIA Director and Vice-President. He promised to lead us into a 454 “kinder, gentler, America” and focused on Americans helping Americans through “a thousand points of light” 2. The Democratic Party nominated Governor Michael Dukakis (Massachusetts), who ran with Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen. The bruising Democratic Primary led to the withdrawal of front runner Gary Hart in a sex scandal and Joseph Biden for plagiarism as well as the emergence of the black candidacy of charismatic Reverend Jessie Jackson and his rainbow coalition composed of minorities and others who saw themselves as disadvantaged B. President Bush’s domestic policy 1. President Bush signed legislation in 1989 to bail out the nation’s troubled savings and loan associations which were going bankrupt as a result of bad loans, corruption and poor management. The Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) replaced the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) as the regulatory agency in charge of managing assets of the failed S&L’s 2. As the U.S. Economy entered a recession in 1990, the Federal Reserve board, under the leadership of chairman Alan Greenspan, lowered the discount rate which it charges to its member banks, allowing those banks to lower their interest rates in an effort to stimulate the economy 3. Though his solid leadership during the downfall of Communism in Europe and during the Persian gulf War would define his presidency, lingering economic problems or recession, joblessness and a swollen national debt of 4 trillion dollars would limit Bush to one term in office III. Social and Cultural characteristics of the 1980s A. Women continued to make strides as Sandra Day O’Connor was appointed by Reagan to serve as the nation’s first female 455 Supreme Court Justice, however, most women continued to be employed in low wage jobs B. The Moral Majority, led by the Reverend Jerry Falwell, called for school prayer and an end to abortion. His fundamentalist believers were also known as the religious right C. Supreme court decisions began to reflect the conservative direction of the court and the country 1. The Court undermined affirmative action in cases involving unionized firefighters in Memphis who supported promotion based on seniority rather than affirmative action (1984). The Court’s decisions in Ward’s Cove Packing v Antonia and Martin v Wilks (1989) narrowed the scope of race-based affirmative action 2. In Webster v Reproductive Health Services, the Supreme Court opened the way for states to limit a woman’s access to abortion, in contrast to prohibitions placed on states by the Roe v Wade decision D. Homelessness soared during the 1980s as federal funds for housing projects were reduced 70% E. Youth became more conservative because of Reagan’s popularity and “baby boomers” became “yuppies” (young urban professionals) whose massive consumerism resulted in soaring household debt IV. The early 1990s ushered in questions about the laissez-faire, supply side approach of the Reagan-Bush years with promises by President Clinton for amore aggressive governmental response to domestic issues, including health care, crime, the deficit, welfare reform, tax equity and education reform 456 A. The Election of 1992 produced victory for the Democratic ticket of Governor William Jefferson “Bill” Clinton (Arkansas) and his running mate, Senator Al gore of Tennessee over the Republican ticket of President Bush and Dan Quayle and a third party candidate, Ross Perot, who garnered 19% of the popular vote (but no electoral votes) on a platform focusing exclusively on the deficit B. The Clinton/Gore victory represented a generational change as the new president was the first post-World War II era, “baby boomer” president. The election was also significant as Hilary Clinton, a nationally known attorney and influential policy advocate, became the first professional to serve as “first lady”, and, according to some analysts, as co-president C. President Clinton confronted issues of character during the campaign and early in his administration as a result of his opposition to the Vietnam War during his college years, his political ambitions (“Slick Willie”), his support for the controversial ban on discrimination against gays in the military and allegations of former financial impropriety involving his investment in a real estate development known as Whitewater while he was Governor of Arkansas D. The Clinton Administration secured the passage of 1. A deficit reduction package after a year in office 2. A crime bill, which included the Brady Bill requiring a waiting period for handgun purchases, federal funds for 100,000 new police officers and a ban on certain types of semiautomatic weapons 3. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which created a tariff free trading zone in North America 457 E. The mid tem elections in 1994 marked a dramatic turning point in the American political landscape as the Republican Party gained control of both houses of Congress 1. the voting electorate demonstrated its frustration with ineffective “big government” characterized by a “tax and spend” philosophy and President Clinton’s massive healthcare proposal, calling for a downsized effective government that, with the exception of Medicare and social Security would abandon the politics of the New Deal and the Great Society and would search for cost effective (preferably private-sector solutions) 2. The Republican congressional majority, led by Speaker of the House-elect Newt Gingrich and Senate Majority leader Bob Dole promoted its “Contract with America” which stressed tax reform, term limits, welfare reform, tough restrictions on crime and family values 3. The election results dispelled the traditional link between the economy and politics since the economy was rapidly expanding, without inflation and with high employment at the time of the election V. The computer emerged as the greatest technological change for the 1990s. computer networking has allowed more people to work at home 458 Lesson 2: The dramatic end of the Cold War in the 1980s and 90s was a victory for democracy but was accompanied by new challenges for the United States in the arena of Foreign affairs I. The Reagan administration confronted Soviet Communism was well as militant Islamic terrorism in an effort to reestablish American prestige and military strength throughout the world A. President Reagan and his first Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, used a massive arms buildup as well as fiery rhetoric in a Cold War confrontation with the “Evil Empire”, namely the Soviet Union 1. The Reagan Doctrine resurrected the pre-Vietnam War foreign policy of containment by supporting opponents of communism, regardless of Soviet Involvement 2. The United States implemented economic sanctions against the Soviet controlled government of Poland after it imposed martial law in response to the emergence of Solidarity, an independent labor union 3. Opposed to further arms control agreements and the growing antinuclear “Freeze” movement, the Reagan Administration made plans to put intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe and convinced Congress to provide billions of dollars for research and development of the Strategic Defense Initiative, a laser based, missile defense system, better known to Americans as “Star Wars” 4. On September 1, 1983 a Soviet warplane shot down a South Korean jetliner that had mistakenly violated its airspace. The wworld expressed outrage over the 269 dead passenger which included many Americans B. Latin America provided ample opportunities for President Reagan to confront Communism and restore American pride 459 1. American military force overthrew the pro-Castro dictatorship in Grenada in October, 1983 and rescued American medical students studying on the Caribbean Island. Elections were later held in December 1984 2. The Reagan administration provided additional aid to the right wing government of El Salvador in Central America which was involved with a civil war with left-wing guerillas, who , according to Reagan, were backed by Cuba and the Soviets a. The 1984 election of Jose’ Napoleon Duarte, a moderate, allowed President Reagan to assert that democracy was emerging in El Salvador through American support for the government drew significant criticism b. Peace talks were later held in 1990 3. Nicaragua would require much of Reagan’s attention in the Eighties a. In 1979, during the Carter administration, American ally and dictator Anastasio Somoza was overthrown by the Sandinistas a leftist revolutionary group led by Daiel Ortega b. After halting President Carter’s program of economic aid to Nicaragua, the Reagan administration began a program of covert support for the counter-revolutionary “contras” who opposed the government and operated out of remote bases in Honduras and Costa Rica c. When Congress, controlled by the Democrats, cut off funds for the contras (or “Freedom fighters,” according to Reagan), the President sought support through other means, which led the administration officials to engage in the Iran-Contra Affair (descried below) C. The middle East presented many challenges during the 1980s, particularly the problem of terrorism 460 1. Iran waited until an hour after President Reagan took office before releasing the 52 American hostages that were held in Iran for 444 days 2. OPEC (the Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries) reduced the price of oil for the first time in its 23 year history on March 14, 1983, reflecting decrease in the world-wide demand for oil 3. On October 1983, a suicide terrorist drove a truckload of explosives in U.S. Marine headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon. 241 American members of an international peace-keeping force were killed and, as a result, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Lebanon in February, 1984 4. The United States continued to support Israel, despite Arab and Palestinian threats 5. The Achille Lauro, an Italian cruise ship was hijacked in 1985 in the Mediterranean Sea by members of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, who demanded the release of PLO prisoners. The hijackers surrendered the vessel in Egypt and were being given safe conduct into Libya when their Egyptian plane was intercepted by U.S. forces in a daring operation and forced to land in Sicily, where the hijackers were taken into custody and tried for their crime 6. U.S. warplnaes bombed Tripoli, Libya on April 14, 1986 in response to continued acts of terrorism planned or sponsored by Libyan dictator Mummar Qaddafi including the bombing of a German discotheque in which an American soldier was killed 7. The Iran-Contra Affair presented a major political crisis for the Reagan administration a. Although President Reagan had promised the American people that he would not negotiate with terrorists, newspapers reported in November 1986 that the 461 administration had sold weapons to the Militant Islamic government of Iran in hopes of receiving Iranian assistance in securing the release of American hostages held by Islamic terrorists in Lebanon b. Then, it was revealed that the money from the sale of those weapons was diverted to the Nicaraguan contras, despite Congressional restrictions on funding the contras c. As the scandal aroused the public’s ire and the media attention, a commission chaired by John Tower issued a report critical of the President while a Congressional committee interrogated members of the national security establishment d. The investigation revealed that covert activities were conducted in the White House by officials who kept their actions hidden from the Congress, the defense and intelligence agencies as well as the President e. Marine Lieutenant Colonel Oliver north appeared before the Congressional Committee and became a villain to some Americans while seen as a national hero to others who felt he was only following orders of his superior, Admiral John Poindexter, President Reagan’s national security advisor f. Although President Reagan was never directly tied to the scandal, his reputation was temporarily tarnished for not monitoring his affairs more closely g. Poindexter was convicted and sentenced to six months in prison while North’s convictions were suspended and overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals due to a technicality 462 8. American warships began to provide protection for oil tankers through the Persian Gulf in the summer of 1987 9. American airliners were the target of Islamic terrorists on December 21, 1988 an American flight from London was bombed over Lockerbie Scotland, killing close to three hundred Americans, perhaps in retaliation for the accidental downing, by the U.S. Navy of an Iranian jetliner over the Persian gulf D. In Asia, President Reagan was visible in backing the overthrow of dictator Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines and the ascension of Corazon Aquino E. As a result of a crisis in Soviet leadership in the mid-1980s restlessness in Poland, deteriorating economic conditions and the erosion of Soviet military prestige due to the failed invasion of Afghanistan, external and internal pressures led to dramatic changes which culminated in the end of the Cold War and the Soviet Empire 1. When older members of the entrenched politburo who assumed the leadership of the Soviet Union died in rapid succession in the mid-80s, new leadership emerged which would alter the Soviet Landscape a. Leonid Brezhnev, the Stalinist ruler of the Soviet Union since the 1964 removal of Nikita Khrushchev died on November 10, 1982 b. Brezhnev’s successor, Yuri Andropov, aged 69, died on February 9, 1984, one year after taking office c. Andropov’s successor Konstantin Chernenko, age 73, died on March 10,1985, within a year of taking office 463 2. Mikhail Gorbachev, age 54, became the new, younger leader of the Soviet Union in March 1985 and proposed to extensively reform the Soviet Union a. Glasnost proposed a democratic “openness” for the Soviet Union. Censorship and travel restrictions were relaxed and citizens began to learn more truth about the Soviet Empire b. Perestroika called for “restructuring” into a more marketoriented Soviet economy. Realizing that the Soviet Union was shut off from the Global economy in its current condition, Gorbachev, in an effort to improve economic ties with the West, relaxed soviet control of the Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe in 1989. Immediately, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Poland began political reforms that ended the absolute control of the Communist Party in their respective nations 3. President Reagan and Secretary Gorbachev held four summit meetings which helped in facilitating the end of the Cold War a. Geneva, Switzerland – November, 1985: Secretary Gorbachev echoed his earlier call in April for a ban on intermediate-range nuclear weapons aimed at Western Europe b. Reykjavik, Iceland – October, 1986: President Reagan and Secretary Gorbachev failed to achieve an agreement on arms reduction and the meeting concluded in a stalemate c. Washington D.C. – December 1987: The INF Treaty is signed by Reagan and Gorbachev, banning all intermediate range nuclear weapons from Europe d. Moscow, Soviet Union – Reagan and Gorbachev warmly brought the Cold War to a conclusion, insuring an important place for both leaders in world history 464 II. President bush witnessed extraordinary changes in the global balance of power as communism came swiftly tumbling down in the Soviet Bloc and other parts of the World and the United states, as the world’s only superpower, continued to lead the world community in the struggle against anti-democratic forces in the Persian Gulf War and elsewhere A. Although the demonstrations were brutally suppressed by the Chinese government, Chinese student dissidents gathered in Tiananmen Square in Beijing in June, 1989 in a pro-democracy demonstration, symbolized by a makeshift model of the statue of Liberty B. Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost and Perestroika coupled with external pressures from the United States, led to a remarkable collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union 1. The communist government in Poland was toppled by the Solidarity movement led by Lech Walesa 2. The Communist governments of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, East Germany and Romania suddenly came unraveled in a peaceful transformation of power to democratic forces. The end of the Cold War produced the dismantlement of the Berlin Wall which had symbolized the division of Germany and the opposing camps of the Cold War. Amazingly, communism came unraveled in 1989 primarily due to internal forces within these countries 3. In 1990, the Soviet Communist party opened the Soviet political process to opposition parties, the Soviet Union would subsequently embrace democracy under Gorbachev and, following an attempted coup by former communists, usher in the democratic government of Boris Yeltsin who had joined with pro-democracy forces in the streets to oppose the coup 465 4. The communist Sandinista government of Nicaragua fell in elections held in the country early in 1990 5. The reunification of East and West Germany into one democratic nation occurred on October 3, 1990 C. President Bush used America’s military might to confront dictators who abused their power in the world 1. In December 1989 American airborne troops landed in Panama and captured drug lord and dictator Manuel Noriega, thus ending his reign of terror there 2. The United states led a multinational United Nations military force against the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait a. On august 2, 1990 the Iraqi army overran the sheikdom of Kuwait due to disputes over oil prices. Iraq wanted OPEC to raise its prices so that it could pay its debts from its eight year war with Iran. Kuwait favored lower prices and was accused by Iraq of exceeding its production and “slant-drilling” (tapping oil under Iraqi soil) untrue charges designed by Hussein to give him an excuse to take control of the Persian gulf’s oil supplies which might enable him to strangle the industrialized West and perhaps destroy Israel b. The United States had supplied Hussein as he constructed the fourth largest army in the world in order to carry on war against the American enemy, Iran, the Islamic fundamentalist state which had taken Americans hostage in 1979 c. After invading with 100,000 men, Iraq raised it forces to half a million strong and announced that he was annexing Kuwait as the 19th province of Iraq 466 d. After a United Nations condemnation of Iraq’s hostility and an economic embargo had failed, the Security council issued an ultimatum to Saddam to leave Kuwait by January 15 or face a United Nations force which would use “all necessary means” to drive Iraq out of Kuwait e. As the deadline approached, 539,000 American service men and women moved into position in Saudi Arabia and were joined by 270,000 troops from twenty-eight countries f. On January 16, 1991 the United States and its allies launched a magnificent air war on Iraq, followed by an invasion of Kuwait. The United states military employed high technology weapons, including laser based weapons, very effectively g. Iraq responded to the attack by launching dozens of old Soviet made “Scud” missiles against targets in Israel and Saudi Arabia. Most of the Scuds were downed by American made Patriot missiles and although a few people were killed by the Scud attacks, Iraq failed in its primary goal of drawing Israel into the War in an effort to destroy the fragile U.N. coalition which contained many Arab members h. Allied troops commanded by General Norman “Storming Norman” Schwarzkopf first softened the entrenched Iraqi forces with continuous bombing before overrunning them with a tidal wave of armor and men. American forces had to proceed with caution as the Iraqis were surrounded by oil-filled moats which could be lit as enemy troops approached as well as chemical and biological weapons. On February 23, 1991 the land war began and was abruptly over in four days (the Hundred Hours War) after the allied forces outflanked 467 Saddam’s army and inflicted heavy losses on his army while sustaining amazingly light casualties themselves. On February 27, Kuwait was liberated as Saddam accepted the U.N. terms for a ceasefire. Unlike the Vietnam years, American troops from Operation Desert Storm returned home to a heroes welcome i. Although Saddam had lost the “Mother of all Battles” he nevertheless maintained an army strong enough to crush minority groups which had risen against him, namely the Kurds in the North and the Shiite Arabs in the South. He also left a legacy of environmental destruction as he ordered his troops to light hundreds of oil-well fires III. Despite two world wars from 1900-1945, there have been no worldwide conflict from 1945 to the 2000s 468 469 470 471