Download Biology Notes: Test I

Bailes Brown
Biology Notes: Exam Review
6/21/17
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Bailes Brown
Biology
Dr. Bill
GSSM
2002
Bailes Brown
Biology Notes: Exam Review
6/21/17
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Biology Notes: Test I
1. History of Biology
a. Galileo
i. Galileo believed in the Heliocentric theory proposed by Copernicus
ii. This theory violated the church’s believe, and because the teachings of
the church were law, he was forced to go to court
iii. Was forced by Inquisitors to say that he “ab-jouved, cursed, and
detested his erroneous claim that the earth moved around the sun”
b. Aristotelian Logic or Deductive Reasoning
i. The church believed that only deductive reasoning was sound because
measurements depended on senses which could be fooled. Therefore,
Galileo’s telescope measurements were wrong.
ii. Deductive reasoning starts with basic truths and attempts to prove a
result by syllogism
iii. Deductive Syllogism
1. Major Premise – “If”
2. Minor Premise – “Then”
3. Conclusion – “Therefore”
iv. Examples
1. Birds
a. If all birds have wings
b. Then sparrows are birds
c. Therefore sparrows have wings
2. Students
a. If all normal people have legs
b. Then students are normal
c. Therefore students have legs
3. Church’s Example
a. If God created perfect heavenly bodies
b. Then the moon is in heaven
c. The moon must be a perfect heavenly body
c. After Galileo, many scientists have proved many things
d. Taxonomy – science of classifying living things
i. 2 million have been identified
ii. 80% are probably still unidentified
2. Background of the Theory of Evolution
a. Diversity (many and varied)
i. Leads to question “Where did it all come from”
ii. Brought clash of creation and evolution
b. Evolution
i. From Latin meaning “an unrolling”
ii. Definitions
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1. Changes in organisms over a geological time period
2. Changes in the gene pool frequencies of a species
iii. Best explanation of diversity
iv. Unifies all of Biology
1. Unites Micro, Macro, etc
c. Theodosius Dobzshaskoy – population biologist
3. Theories before Darwin
a. Plato (427-347 BC)
i. He believed in two worlds
1. The Real world, which was ideal and eternal
2. The Imperfect world that was perceived by senses
ii. This theory became Idealism or Essentialism
b. Aristotle (384-322 BC)
i. Challenged Plato’s two worlds
ii. Was a Naturalist – observed world
iii. Scala Naturae – ladder or scale of nature with each life form at a
specific rung. This is a rigid form of classification
iv. Immutable – unchanging
1. Was a view of Aristotle’s that said that animals do not change
2. Stood for 2000 years
v. Developed/Used Aristotelian logic, not research
c. Dark/Middle Ages where nothing really happened
d. Roger Bacon – Said “Cease to be ruled by dogma’s and authority! Look at
the world!”
e. Other scientists
i. Sir Thomas Moore
ii. Copernicus
iii. Galileo
f. Inductive Reasoning – Scientific thinking process that goes from specific to
general concept
i. Requires Research
g. Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)
i. Father of Taxonomy
ii. Was performing duty of religion/church by classifying
iii. Believed in immutability
iv. His theories helped Darwin
v. Books
1. Species Plantarum (1753)– about plants
2. Systema Naturae (1758)– about animals
vi. Binomial Nomenclature
1. Established by Linnaeus
2. Used Greek/Latin which didn’t change
3. Used for Scientific Names
4. Uses format
a. Genus species or Genus species
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b. The Genus is a generic name (noun), while the species
is a specific epithet (adjective
5. Examples
a. Ursus maritimus – Polar Bear
b. Ursus actos horribilius – grizzly bear
c. Ursus americanis – American bear
h. George Cuvier (1769 – 1832)
i. Father of Paleontology, and also a anatomist
ii. Looked at “Paris Basin” strassa and found fossils in different levels
(from different periods)
iii. Did not believe in Evolution
iv. Found extinction of species
v. Discovered Change in species
1. Explained it by Catastrophism
2. Catastrophism
a. Natural Disasters caused extinction and opened space
for new animals from different regions
vi. James Huttem (Sp)
1. Proposed Gradualism
2. Gradualism – Gradual change in species over geological time
vii. Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
1. “Most important Geologist around Darwin’s time”
2. Created Uniformitarianism
a. Geological processes are so uniform that they balance
out over time
b. The processes didn’t change over time (Of course the
structures did)
3. Darwin took these ideas and decided
a. If the processes of earth were slow but consistent, they
could make a big change over time
b. The Earth was much older than the church said (6,000
years)
viii. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
1. One of first to try to explain evolution
2. Published book in 1809
3. He ordered/arranged mollusks in order of succession and
realized that they progressed
4. He decided that the more complex they were the better
5. His mechanism for evolution
a. Use/Disuse of Body Parts (proved true through Nat.
Sel.)
i. Those parts used extensively by an organism get
bigger
ii. Those parts not used become smaller
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b. Inheritance of acquired characteristics (phenotypes)
were passed on to descendents (Proven wrong)
c. Examples
i. Giraffes
1. Populations of giraffes browse for food
2. The need to get higher causes stretching
of necks
3. Necks grow, giraffes reproduce
4. Phenotype is passed down
6. Lamarck was attacked
a. These attacks disgraced Lamarck
7. Major contributions to science
a. Statement that species do change over time
b. Invoked role of environment as a cause of change
ix. Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
a. Background
i. Came from a successful social family
1. Father (Robert, was fat) and Grandfather
(A-something) were both physicians
2. His dad was very hard pressing on
Charles
ii. Education
1. Darwin didn’t like formal study because
he had too much inquiry and energy
2. His dad sent him to Edenburg Medical
school, where he made descent grades
but left after watching a surgery
3. His dad then sent him to Christ College
at Cambridge University
a. He loathed Science and Math
b. He graduated at age of 22
iii. People
1. He had a group of friends called the
“Glutton Club” that he partied with
2. John Henslow, his botany professor,
bonded with him and helped him start
his career
3. Adam Sedgewick, his geology professor
helped him with geology
4. Emma, his cousin born of his Uncle
Josiah, and Darwin started to get a little
too close for relative (bad pun) comfort
b. Career
i. HMS Beagle
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1. Henslow recommended Darwin to go on
the Beagle as the naturalist after he
himself had to turn down the position
2. Duty of the Beagle
a. To gather better longitude for
maps. Especially in South
America
3. Captain Robert FitzRoy
a. About the same age as Darwin
b. Was manic depressive
c. Eventually committed suicide
d. He wanted the naturalist to find a
biblical explanation for creation
4. Darwin didn’t get a salary
5. Left on December 27 1831
6. Henslow gave Darwin a copy of
Lywell’s Principals of Biology to read
on trip
c. Darwin’s Trek through South America
i. Collected 1000’s of species in South America,
and sent them back on other ships
ii. Rabbits
1. He realized no rabbits were present in
South America
2. Did find Patagonian Hare, or Mara, that
resembled rabbits but were closer to
rodents
iii. Skeletons of Giants
1. Found giant armadillo shell (animal
would have been 2 tons) and huge
ground sloth
2. Realized similarity to modern ones
3. Found many extinct mammals, and he
hypothesized that South America and
North America must have been once
united by land bridge
4. This migration led to the Marsupials of
South America to be replaced by the
incoming aggressive placentas
5. The migration was made possible due to
the isthmus of Panama
6. This suggested to Darwin that geology
and biology could change over time
iv. Andes Mountains
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1. He discovered clam shells on mountain
tops
2. Petrified forest with sea shells
3. earthquake raise the ground
v. Galapogas Islands
1. Oceanic archipelago 500-600 miles from
Ecuador
2. Had very few species because recently
formed, and no mammals except for
those that were dropped off by ships
3. It was a “little world unto itself”
4. Darwin realized that the species were
close to those on South America
5. Note: Most potential colonizers die, but
a very few live to spread out
6. The islands were downwind from South
America, and therefore could have more
easily gotten the drift down
7. Animals there
a. Marine Iguana – herbivore, could
process salt
b. Galapogas Tortise
c. **Finches
vi. Darwin’s Finches
1. These finches gave Darwin the
mechanism for “Descent with
Modification”…Natural selection
2. The finches each tried to find their own
niche to get food…some had different
bills, one bird (tool using Finch) could
even break open bark with a twig to get
insects
d. Darwin’s return
i. 1836 arrives back in England
ii. He went to animal breeders to better understand
artificial selection, which would help him
develop natural selection
1. They breed pigeons
2. They put two desirable phenotypes
together
3. Darwin thinks that if humans can
(artificially) select phenotype, then they
can propogate offspring
4. Therefore, the same forces could act in
nature
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
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Wasn’t inclined to publish b/c it would bring
attacks
Thomas Malthus
1. Economist, minister
2. 1798 wrote “Essay on the principal of
population” where he speculated that
populations grew and overwhelmed food
supply
3. Food increased arithmetically (adding, 2,
4, 6, 8, 10)
4. Population increases by multiples or
geometrically (2,4,8,16,32)
5. This gave Darwin the struggle for food
and survival
6. Thought that several things could effect
food vs. Population
a. Famine
b. Disease
c. War
Joseph Hooker
1. Darwin sent initial theory of Natural
selection to Joseph Hooker
2. Hooker was a botanist
Darwin’s sickness
1. Could have been caused by being bitten
by a Benchuga or Giant Black bug of the
P____. These Benchugas can carry
Chaga’s disease.
2. May have been psychosomatic
Natural Selection
1. was what Darwin was initially going to
publish
2. Had 6 volumes
Alfred Bussel Wallace –
1. Englishman who sent some ideas to
Darwin for comment, all were about
natural selection
2. Darwin and Wallace jointly appeared at
Royal Linnaean Society of London
Origin of Species
1. Full name is Origin of species by means
of natural selection or…..
2. Basic Premises
a. Evolution occurs over billions of
years (long geologic time)
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b. Natural Populations have
variations
i. Certain genotypes are
going to have a survival
advantage
ii. This leads to greater
biological fitness
c. Populations have great capacity
for reproduction and overproduce
prodigy
i. Natural forces will weed
these populations out
ii. Competition will help
d. Mechanism: Natural Selection
3. Herbert Spencer – wrote about survival
of fittest and formed “popular” natural
selection
x. Examples of Natural Selection
1. Peppered Moth (Biston betularian)
a. In England
b. Was polymorphic
i. Melanistic (Darker,
because umelanine)
ii. Normal, just peppered
c. Early 1800’s had very few
melanistic
d. As industrial revolution
progressed, the darker became
more common
e. E.B. Ford was first to describe
the changes in Moths
i. He said that smog killed
the lichens on the trees,
making darker more
favorable to not being
eaten
f. H.B. Kettlewell
i. Tested Ford’s prediction
ii. Went to Dorsett (non-ind)
and found that Melanistic
were more likely to be
eaten
iii. Went to polluted area and
found the normal
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peppered version more
likely to be eaten.
4. Modern Synthesis
a. After Darwin’s Origin of Species, evolution was mainly accepted but lots of
people didn’t acknowledge Natural Selection because genetics had not been
invented yet
b. Mendel – Father of genetics
i. Genetics helped influence the theory of evolution by reinforcing
Natural Selection mechanisms
ii. People who also “discovered Natural Selection
1. Hugo de Vries
2. Carl Correns
3. Eric Bontshermack (sp)
iii. Genetics
1. E. coli is “lab rat for genetics
2. Human genes are multiple
iv. 1930 Mendelism and Darwinism begin to combine
c. Neo-Darwinism (Modern Synthesis)
i. Characteristics
1. populations are the unit of evolution, not individuals
2. Natural Selection
3. Gradualism
d. Evidence of Evolution
i. Presence of Fossils
1. remnants of life forms
a. Partial to total skeletons in 3D
b. Impressions (2D)
2. Problems
a. Where are the missing links?
3. Example of a horse
a. Performed by O.C. Marsh
b. Horses through the epochs
i. Hyracotherym (Iohipus)
1. 2nd Epoch
2. Was small
3. 4-toed
4. broad, flat, low crowned teeth  forest
plants
ii. Mesehippus
1. Oligosine Epoch (38M-24M years ago)
2. Longer legs
3. 3-toed
4. Higher teeth crown
iii. Myrichippus
1. Miocene 24M – 5M
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2. Longer neck/legs
3. Higher crowns
4. One big toe and 2 small ones
iv. Plyohippus
1. Plyocene 5M-1.8M
2. Hoof
3. High crowns
v. Eques – Modern horse
1. Pleistocene Epoch 1.8M – 10K
2. Hoof, high crowns
c. Punctuated Equilibrium
i. Some classes evolved in relatively short period
of time, while others evolved very slowly
ii. People
1. Niles Eldridge
2. Steven Gould
iii. They said
1. Evolution had to be punctuated
equilibrium
2. Certain species existed relatively
unchanged, then suddenly they
disappeared and were replaced by new
but similar species
3. Fits and Starts
a. Fits were sudden bursts of
evolution
b. Starts were the development of
new species
iv. Most morphological changes happen in 1st
50,000 years of the species existence
v. Evolution accelerates as the environment
rapidly changes
ii. 2nd Evidence: Biogeography
1. Definition: distribution of living things
2. Questions
a. Why do isolated groups have unique species?
i. Ex Australian marsupials, Galapogos islands
rd
iii. 3 Evidence: Comparative anatomy
1. Definition: can discern relationships by look at similar animals
2. ex – learned from mammals that vertebrates  giraffes to rats
3. Sub Phylums
a. Vertebrate – backbone, spinal column
4. Principal of homology
a. Homologous – phylogenetic history, may have different
function
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b. Examined mammals forelimbs
i. Parts
1. Humourous
2. Radius and ulna
3. Carpuls and metacarpuls
4. Philanges
ii. Formation
1. Arise from limb buds in embryo
c. Analogous – same function, different phylogenetic
history
i. Ex bird and bee wings
d. Vestigial – useless structures left over from ancestral
past
i. Ex Whale and Python skeletons both have
remnant of pelvic girth
ii. Both probably related to land walking animals
iii. Human structures – wisdom teeth, appendix
e. 4th Evidence - Comparative Embryology
1. All vertebrate embryos have paired gill slits and post anal tail
th
f. 5 Evidence - Comparative Bio-Chemistry
1. Amino acids in hemoglobin
2. DNA/Genes
ii. Taxonomy – “tree of life” – Linnaean
5. Population Evolution
i. Variation!!
ii. Natural populations have variation which natural selection acts upon
iii. Define Population – group of interbreeding individuals of a single
species living in the same area and by interbreeding share a common
gene pool
iv. Individuals do NOT evolve, populations evolve
v. Hardy-Weinburg Law
1. mathematical model that is the foundation for population
genetics
2. Population genetics – the study of allelic populations
3. Gene – sequence of DNA that codes for a protein
4. Allele – an alternate form of same gene
5. If smooth skin is S and wrinkled is s then…
6. Alleles occur at homologous chromosomes
7. Populations can have more than one allele, though individuals
can only have 2.
a. Ex Blood Ia Ib and Io
8. People
a. J. H. Hardy – English mathematician at Cambridge
b. R.C. Punnitt – worked with Hardy to find HWE
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c. William Weinberg – German, published the same thing
as Hardy
d. W.E. Castle – also published HWE info
9. Actions
a. J.H. Hardy and Punnitt got together to defend Mendel
against critics
10. Hardy-Weinberg
a. Background
i. Frequency – what proportion of total of alleles
that a specific allele is
ii. Evolution – change in gene allele frequency
over time
iii. Phenotype – something that can be seen or
measured
iv. Genotype – genetic makeup
v. Genetic Structure – a population’s frequency of
alleles and genotypes
vi. HWE give the standard to measure changes in
populations
b. Assumptions
i. No survival advantage (no Natural Selection)
ii. Alleles transported by sperm/eggs at same
frequency as appear in population
c. Conditions of Stability:
i. Large population size (infinitely large)
1. Chance does not affect allelic frequency
ii. Mutations do not occur
1. Or they must be in mutational
equilibrium
a. Fwd mutation = bwd mutation
iii. No immigration or emigration
iv. Mating must be random with respect to
genotypes
v. Reproductive success must be random with
respect to genotype
d. Equations
i. P + q = 1
ii. P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
iii. Proof:
1. A normal punnitt square would represent
gametes
2. A special punnitt square could represent
the frequency of each allele. By doing
this, you will cross the alleles and the
frequencies, and prove HWE
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e. AA example
i. Genotypes: AA, Aa, aa
ii. Frequency
1. Allele: A - .9, a - .1
2. Genotype: AA - .81, Aa - .18, aa - .01
iii. If you calculate the 2nd generation of gametes
and frequencies, you see that it is the same
iv. This proves that Evolution is not automatic
v. Evolution only occurs when something disturbs
it from genetic equilibrium
f. Ex.
i. d causes obvious disease
ii. dd = .04
iii. dd = q2  d = q = .2
iv. p = .8
v. Dd = .8*.2*2 = .32
g. Multiple Alleles
i. Just add more combinations
ii. For example,
1. p + q + r + s = 1
2. (p + q + r + s) 2 = 1
h. Summarize
i. Most useful application
1. States conditions under which evolution
will not occur, and those in which it is
likely to occur
ii. Gives standard against which allelic frequencies
which are always occurring in natural
populations can be measured
b. Microevolution
i. Define – changes in allelic frequency over time
ii. Five Factors that cause MicroEvolution
1. Genetic Drift
a. Define – gene or allelic frequencies can change in small
populations because of chance factors such as natural
disasters
i. Ex Field Mice in forest with new highway
b. Bottleneck Effect – Unselective killing (not dependent
on phenotype) of individuals that can change a gene
pool
c. Founder Effect
i. Caused by colonization, gene pool doesn’t
reflect that of parent group
2. Gene Flow
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a. Occurs as populations gain or lose alleles because of
immigration/emigration (could be just gametes leaving)
3. Mutation
a. Random changes made to genetic material
b. Point Mutations – Individual nucleotide changes
i. Ex. Tay Sachs disease is caused by an enzyme
that metabolizes fat, usually deadly
c. Chromosomal Mutations/Aberrations
i. Deletions
1. Part of chromosome breaks off ABCDE
 ABC
ii. Inversions
1. Series in wrong direction ABC  CBA
iii. Chromosomal Translation
1. Reattaches to a non-homologous
chromosome ABC  ABC Σθ№
iv. Note: Natural Sleection acts on variations in
standard phenotype. Therefore, mutations and
sexual recombination lead to the diversity of
species
4. Non-Random Mating
a. Means: Potential for any individual to mate with any
other of the same population, anywhere. However, it
has been shown that proximity is key
b. Inbreeding
i. Means mating with closely related individuals
ii. Starts to occur when individuals mate in
proximity
iii. Leads to Homologous genes
c. Assortative mating
i. Ex
1. Lesser Snow Geese
a. Normal
b. “Blue Geese”
ii. Shows mating with similar phenotypes because
Blue x Blue and White x White
5. Natural Selection
a. Every population will have variation
i. Examples of misunderstandings
1. John Vanwind said “You seen one
alligator, you seen em all:
2. Ronald Reagon said “ You seen one
redwood tree, you seen em all”
b. Types of Selection
i. Stabilizing selection
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
1.  
2. Ex. Baby weight is usually 3-4kg
Directional selection
1.  
2. Ex
a. Black bears in Europe are larger
because they had to survive
higher temperatures
b. Birdman’s rule – going N to S,
species get smaller because of
heat and SA/V ratio
Disruptive or Diversifying Selection
1.  
2. Against middle
3. ex
a. Elephant seals
b. Selected for large males and
small females
4. Sexual Dimorphism – when there are
noticeable differences between males
and females in the same species
a. Ex Cardinals, Ducks, Elephant
Seals
Sexual Selection – Darwin proposed
1. A struggle between one sex for
possession of the other (Male fight for a
mate)
2. Female Choice
a. Female usually gets to choose
who she mates with
i. Ex Malty Anderson
studied the Long Tailed
Widow bird
ii. He cut some tails and
attached to others
iii. Found that long tailed
were 4 times more likely
to mate
Shifts lead to Natural Selection
Patchy Distribution
Phylogeny – similar ancestry
Convergent evolution
6. Definitions
a. Extinct – no individuals left on the face of the earth
b. Extant – still alive (opposite of extinct
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
v.
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Endemic – restricted existence in specific location
i. Ex Venus fly traps and Kangaroos
Population – group of interbreeding individuals of a single species living in
the same area and by interbreeding share a common gene pool
Fitness – relative ability of an individual to survive and produce offspring
Natural Selection – The differential reproduction of various genotypes
Polymorphism – two forms
Biogeography - distribution of living things
Comparative anatomy - can discern relationships by look at similar animals
Homologous – phylogenetic history, may have different function
Analogous – same function, different phylogenetic history
Vestigial – useless structures left over from ancestral past
Population genetics – the study of allelic populations
Gene – sequence of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele – an alternate form of same gene
Evolution (Microevolution)– change in gene allele frequency over time
Phenotype – something that can be seen or measured
Genotype – genetic makeup
Frequency – what proportion of total of alleles that a specific allele is
Genetic Structure – a population’s frequency of alleles and genotypes
Genetic Drift - gene or allelic frequencies can change in small populations
because of chance factors such as natural disasters
Bottleneck Effect – Unselective killing (not dependent on phenotype) of
individuals that can change a gene pool
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Bill Notes Test II
1. **Evolution of Species** - Microevolution
a. Missed Notes
i. Evolution of Species
ii. Species – ‘kind’ or ‘appearance’ (from Latin)
iii. Mayr (Harvard) – used birds as mechanism for evolution studies
1. 1937 – New Guinea – Arafak Mountains – wanted to study
birds. Natives had 137 different names for local birds.
Scientists found 138 different species. Humans can see these
differences!!
iv. Typological species: (since Aristotle’s time) believed in my laymen
and scientists. Static immutable species
v. Morphospeices: Linnaeus. Recognized by appearance/morphology.
Used today more than others.
vi. Intraspecific variation: variation within a species
vii. Hard to do if there is i.v.  ex. Wood ducks. Thought males and
females were different species
viii. 1942: Ernstan Mayr: Biological Species – genetically distinct group of
natural populations that share a common gene pool and are
reproductively isolated from all other such groups (even those very
similar)) **Reproductively Isolated**
ix. Conspecific: relatedness of some species
x. Intraspecific: event between individuals of same species
xi. Interspecific: event between individuals of different species
xii. Difference can be physiological, anatomical, or behavioral
xiii. Distinct characteristics of a species partly result from reproductive
isolation
b. Biological Species
i. Biological species – genetically distinct group of a Natural Population
that shares a gene pool and is reproductively isolated
ii. Other theories:
1. Recognition
a. Defines a species by its set of characteristics that
maximize successful mating with members of the same
population
2. Cohesion concept
a. Says that a distinctive, integrated set of adaptations has
been refined in the evolutionary history
b. Cohesion of phenotype is the basis of species integrity
iii. Flaws with Bio-Species
1. Hybridization
a. Examples
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i. Canis Lupis (Gray wolf) can mate with Alaskan
Husky to make Pawnee
ii. F African Lion x Male Siberian Tiger = Tiglon
iii. M Af. Lion x F Sib. Tiger = Liger
iv. Mallard x [insert duck here]
b. Usually Sterile
2. Asexual Species like Prokaryotes, Fungi, and Protists
3. Varying across distance
a. Ex – Deer mouse
i. They form a diamond shape with some corners
cross breading and others not. This allows some
gene flow between populations
iv. Mechanisms for Speciation
1. 2 Kinds of Processes
a. Anagenesis (Phyletic speciation)
i. 1 species gradually replaces another
b. Cladogenesis (Divergent Speciation)
i. 1+ species branch off, parent stays
ii. Increases the number of diverse species
2. 3 Modes for Speciation
a. Aldopatric Speciation
i. Occurs when original species becomes
separated geographically and the two groups
evolve separately
ii. Examples
1. Layering of earth as water came/went
through the Colorado River and cut
squirrels into two populations that
evolved into the Kaibab and Abert
species
2. Pup Fish (Genus Cyprenonand) in Death
Valley
iii. Splinter Population
1. Define: Peripheral Isolate
2. Gene drift, small population size leads to
speciation
3. New environment may have new
selection factors
iv. Adaptive Radiation
1. A number of Species from a common
ancestor
b. Parapatric
i. Boundary is usually a change in environmental
factors
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ii. Populations are mostly separated
geographically, but touch at a common border
iii. Gene pools are fairly separate, but with some
gene flow possible
iv. Distance could be enough to separate
c. Sympatric
i. (Less common form of divergent species)
ii. New species arise from parents
iii. Reproductive isolation without geographical
separation
iv. Can occur in single generation if mutations
occur
v. Example: nondisjunction (in meiosis)
1. Nondisjunction is the improper
separation of gametes. In other words,
an organism would have too few or too
many chromosomes
2. Could be caused by a specific gametes
chromosomes not splitting, therefore
contributing 2n instead of 1n
3. Tetraploid – an organism with 4
homologous chromosomes
4. Examples in humans – Trisomy 21 or
Down Syndrome
5. This Non-Disjunction is “instant
evolution”
6. Autopolyploids – a single species that
changes its chromosomes
7. Allopolyploid – 2 different species that
contribute to gene material to form a
hybrid
8. Vegetable propagation – when plants
asexually reproduce, making it possible
to spread mutations easier
9. Examples of polyploids – potatoes, oats,
and bread wheat
vi. Reason for two colors in Bead lab
1. Cell is Eukaryotic animal cell that is the
PRODUCT of sexual reproduction
2. Each mom/dad contributed 1n, so that
two different Chromosomes colors show
which parent it is from.
3. In other words, it shows the difference
between the 2 homologous
Chromosomes
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4. Homologous chromosomes not exactly
the same, instead they are the same kind
of chromosome
3. Mechanisms for reproductive isolation
a. Prezygotic Barriers or Factors
i. Ecological Isolation
1. 2 species live in same geological area
but exist in different terrains. For
example some garter snakes live in the
marsh while others live in the dry areas
2. Examples
a. Garter Snakes – Genus
Harmonopis (sp)
b. Lungless Salamanders –
Plethodontidae
ii. Temporal Isolation
1. Isolated by a time frame
2. Caused when 2 species have breeding
cycles that occur at different periods of
the day or in different seasons
3. Ex. Trout (Rainbow and Brown)
iii. Behavioral Isolation
1. Displays – behavior to attract a mate
2. Visual, Olfactory, or Auditory signals
used to attract a mating partner
3. Ex – Mocking birds
4. Ex olfactory – pheromones  Important
iv. Mechanical Isolation
1. Cannot breed because of anatomical
incompatibilities
2. Ex Key
3. Ex2 – Dragonflies
v. Gametic Isolation
1. Ex. Mtn gorilla and zebra (made it up)
2. Even if you inject gametes, the sperm
will not be able to reach the egg
3. Similar concept to contraceptives
4. May not be able to bind to egg,
biochemical recognition sites
b. Postzygotic Factors
i. Reduced Hybrid Viability
1. Hybrid Zygote chromosomes are
genetically incompatible
2. Embryo will abort
ii. Reduced Hybrid Fertility
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1. Individual is born but sterile
2. Ex. Mule
iii. Hybrid Breakdown
1. First generation hybrid is fertile, but
second generation is weak and/or sterile,
so they can’t continue
c. Introgression
i. Despite all these barriers, alleles can be
introduced through hybrids that back-breed with
a parent
ii. Example Teosinte x Zea Mays (Field Corn)
1. Hybrid can recombine with Mays
4. Genetic Means of Speciation
a. Alan Timpletin of Washington Univ.
b. Adaptive Divergence
i. As populations are separated, they allele
frequencies change because of chance, gene
flow, etc.
ii. This divergence of species leads to reproductive
barriers that cause speciation
iii. This is important when allopatric populations
become united at a common border.
1. If hybrids form, then not adequately
separated to be species
2. If no hybrids, then two different species
3. In reality, it is usually a cross between
these extremes, resulting in a few
hybrids that survive but are less fit than
parents. These would then be
semispecies
iv. Adaptive Landscape – Bumpy map from book
1. Sewell Wright
2. Peaks represent gene pools in
equilibrium where gene pool has
maximum average genetic fitness.
3. Valleys represent unfit places
4. NS is the force that causes the “ping
pong ball” to fall and change the
landscape
5. Once the landscape is redefined, what
was once on a peak and was knocked
down must climb back up to a peak or
become extinct.
2. Macroevolution
a. Background
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i. Many major historic events in the history of living things caused
Macro Evolution
1. Examples
a. Increasing cranial capacity
b. Evolution of feathers/wings
c. Major extinction
i. Dinosaurs, 65 million years ago (mya)
ii. Walter and Louis Alvares – Asteroid hypothesis
ii. Ways of getting knowledge
1. Fossils and paleontology play an essential role in piecing the
parts together.
a. If we imagine a clock with the earths history on it:
i. 2 (AM) – first rocks
ii. 5:15 – oldest known living fossils
iii. 6 – Photosynthetic stuff
iv. 1:15 (PM) – first free oxygen
v. 4:30 – first Euk. Organisms
vi. Multi-cellular
vii. Land plants
viii. 11:15 – Mesozoic Dinosaurs
ix. 11:59:30seconds – first homosapiens
b. Notice how humans have had so much of an effect in so
little time
2. Electron microscopes give good cellular view of old forms –
40mya
iii. Geological Time Scale
1. Artificially produced
2. Time is hard to understand because so large
3. Techniques to find Geological time scale
a. Relative Dating
i. Can see which fossils came in which order
ii. Examining strata
1. Index fossils – same fossil organism in
may different locations
b. Absolute Dating
i. Uses radioactive isotopes that become part of
organisms when living
ii. Half Life – amount of time for a quantity of
radioactive material to decay by a factor or ½
iii. Carbon 14 is an isotope of Carbon 12 that has a
5.6K half-life
iv. Potassium 40 (K40) has a half life of 1.3by
v. Uranium 238 – 4.5by
vi. Plutonium 24.5K
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4. Discussion of Geological time period – his chart is 23.1 on pg.
456
a. Eras – big, big geological time period
i. Precambrian – 1st
1. no important period divisions
ii. Paleozoic – “ancient animals” – Can Old
Soldiers Die Carrying Packs? (From latest to
earliest)
1. Cambrian
2. Ordovician
3. Silurian
4. Devonian
5. Carboniferous
6. Permian
iii. Mesozoic – age of reptiles
1. Triassic
2. Jurassic
3. Cretaceous
iv. Cenozoic – age of mammals
1. Tertiary
a. Paleocene
b. Eocene
c. Oligocene
d. Miocene
e. Pliocene
2. Quaternary
a. Pleistocene
b. Recent
Note: all throughout these periods different
geological things happened. For example,
mountains came out during all eras, and this
explains why Appalachians are smaller than the
Rockies, because they are older
3. Continental Drift
a. Background
i. People
1. Francis Bacon – acknowledged similarity between continents
fitting
2. Alfred Wegeder – theory of continental drift
b. Theory of Plate Tectonics – Tectonic is Latin for cover or plate
i. Has two parts: Continental drift and Floor spreading
ii. Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mountain range that is underwater and 6.5K ft
from top to bottom. It also has a lot of seismic activity
iii. Quakes caused by skipping of land masses
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
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Rifts – splits in land where tectonic plate shifts and quakes often occur
Sea Floor Spreading
1. Magma solidifies in water and becomes the new
crust…movement is about 2cm a year
Parts of the Earth
1. Atmosphere
2. Crust
3. Lithosphere – made of 6 major and 12 minor Tectonic plates
4. Asthenosphere – upper layer of the Mantle
a. Semi-plastic because fluid and not rocky
b. Is what the plates move around on
Trenches
1. Peru-Chile
2. Marianas Trench – 5 miles deep, has hydrothermal vents
3. Subduction zones
CAT Scan – Computerized Axial Topography
1. people monitor shockwaves to watch for quakes
4 Depictions of Land masses – pg. 466
1. 200-250my Pangea (All lands) and Panthalasa (all seas)
2. 135-180my – N and S split at about equator
a. N – Laurasia
b. S – Gondwana – much larger
c. Laurenchia – Ancient North America
d. Tithys sea – separates N/S land masses
3. 65my
a. India Migrated into Asia
b. North America and Europe separated at 80my
4. Origin of Life
a. Big Bang Theory
i. Time period
1. Controversy of exact time, but lets say 14by
b. Original Earth
i. Cold until compaction, radioactive decay, and meteorites provide heat
ii. Minerals sorted out by density
1. Fe and Nickel sank towards core
2. Mg, Silicon, and Ox formed Mantle
3. O, Silicon, Al, Ca, Sod, K formed crust
c. Origins of Life
i. Panspermea Theory – 19th century
1. Initial spores of life came from the universe
ii. Directive Panspermea
1. People
a. Francis Crick
b. Lesli Orger
2. Theory
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a. Said that spores of life were intentionally sent to the
earth by intelligent beings in the universe
iii. Special Creation – strictly biblical
iv. Abiogenesis – “Beginning without life”
1. Theory
a. Life arose from inanimate matter
b. Spontaneous evolution of life occurred on a planet
much different from now
c. Energy probably came from volcanoes, not lightning
(that’s what Dr. Bill said)
v. Bio-Chemical evolution of Life
1. People
a. JBS Haldane
b. Alexander O’Perry – Russian
2. Theory
a. Long period of biosynthesis in oceans (1-3by)
d. Tracing Origin of Life
i. Changes in Earth
1. Chaotic conditions
a. Meteorites
b. Volcanoes
c. Hot
2. Water: There was water in the oceans, but no life!!
3. At 4.3by conditions started to stabilize and an Hydrogen
(reducing) atmosphere appeared
4. However, it didn’t stay for long…It disappeared and later
appeared a second atmosphere that came from within the earth
itself, like volcanoes
5. Resulting atmosphere had H20, CO, CO2, N2, CH4 (Methane),
and NH3 (Ammonia)
6. As earth cools, atmosphere does too, leading to rain
ii. First Living Organisms
1. Anaerobic bacterial form at 3.5by (just first evidence, not
necessarily first true form)
2. probably formed many times in many places
3. Best evidence is located in Geological formations, especially
stromatolites
a. Locations: Shark Bay in Australia, South America
b. Stromatolites
i. Oldest know evidence of life
ii. If cut open, you can sea the streaks and lines
that represent life form activity at 3.5by
4. Prokaryotes
a. Types
i. Cyanobacteria
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1. blue green algae that has chlorophyla
(normal for plant) and phycocyanin,
which makes it blue/green
2. (pg. 488) Lynn Margulis and Kenneth
Nealson collect mud and stuff with
modern cyanobacteria that we think
resemble the stromatolite fossils
b. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
i. Change in systems
1. Originally, a 2-Kingdom (animal/plant)
system existed
2. Problems, like Euglena, which is now
considered a protist, had both Flagella
for movement and chloroplasts
3. Robert Whitaker created the 5-Kingdom
system which included Animals, Plants,
Fungi, Protists, and Monera, which
include prokaryotes bacteria and
cyanobacteria
ii. Prokaryotic
1. means “before kernel”, meaning that it
doesn’t have a nucleus
2. Doesn’t have any envelopes other than
outer membrane
3. Also doesn’t have Endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lisosomes,
vacuoles or mitochondria
4. Singular circular chromosome, less
protein
5. Can have ribosomes, usually smaller
6. Escherichia Coli (found in human
digestive tract) are the lab rats for
genetic experiments
a. Very little protein
c. Origin of Prokaryotes (4 Steps)
i. Abiotic Synthesis and accumulation
1. Monomers, or basic molecules start to
collect
a. These include simple sugars,
amino acids, etc
b. This can be compared to “stacks
of bricks and boxes of nails”
2. Haldane-O’Parry
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a. The reducing atmosphere then
was different from the oxidizing
one now
3. Harold Urey and Stanley Miller
a. Simulate the generation of
Monomers
b. “Spark Discharge Apparatus” see page 489 or hand notes for
diagram
c. In one week, they notice color
changes and compounds forming
i. Form-Aldehyde
ii. Carboxylic Acid
iii. Amino Acids – Glycine
and Alonine
d. When Miller first presented it, he
got a bad reception, but after he
repeated, he was eventually
accepted
i. He put whole instrument
in an autoclave to kill
bacteria
e. Repeated experiments have
found all 20 Amino Acids, ATP,
basic DNA parts, etc
ii. Polymerization
1. More complex molecules form, such as
proteins
a. These molecules are collections
of monomers and are called
polymers
b. “one wall of a house”
2. Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation)–
process by which monomer bond to form
polymers
a. Ex. Glucose + Glucose =
Matrose + H20
b. This process is difficult to occur
in water because of the chemical
ratios
i. Need for Enzymes
(Glovular Proteins) or not
in water
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c. Carl Woese suggests that life
began in the atmosphere, not in
water
3. Dr. Sidney Fox demonstrated how amino
acids polymerization could have taken
place in hot, dry locations like near
Volcanoes
a. He found that heat vaporized the
water, and then polymers could
form
b. Found polypeptides with 200+
amino acids…Called them
Thermal Proteinoids
c. When he dumped them in water
they clumped into groups which
he called Proteinoid
Microspheres - bilayerd
iii. Protobionts – organic systems
1. Aggregating polymers
a. Little organic systems in water –
Protobiontic droplets
b. Now the organism can respond to
stimuli
2. 3 Types we know, many more out there
a. Proteinoid Microspheres
i. Can reproduce for 3-4
generations
ii. Maintain controlled
internal environment,
with the semblance of a
plasma membrane
b. Coacervate – minute droplets
i. Created by O’ Perry (O’
Perring?)
ii. Formed when solvent
containing two polymers
that don’t react with each
other but do react with
the solvent combine
iii. Cane synthesize and
accumulate starch
iv. Can conduct
oxidation/reduction
reactions
v. Can photosynthesize
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vi. Can grow and divide
c. Liposomes
i. Forms spontaneously
ii. Form Lipid bilayer
3.
iv. Origin of first true cell
1. Hereditary Mechanism becomes present
(includes RNA and DNA)
2. Many protobiants gather together and
vary in many ways
a. Chemically
b. Relative levels of permeability
c. Catalytic ability
d. Metabolic capacity
e. Ability to grow and divide
f. Ability to interact to stimuli
g. “Better Equipped”
3. Some will survive and others will die 
Competition
a. Heterotrophic
i. “Other Feeders”
ii. First eating type, they
consumed other
organisms to survive and
get resources
iii. As food declined, other
Energy sources where
needed
b. Autotrophic – Chemosythesis
i. “Self feeder”
ii. Examples of
Chemosynthesis include
CO2 + 4H2  CH4 +
2HO + Energy, and H2+S
 h2S + Energy
c. Autotrophic – Photosynthesis
i. At about 3by
ii.
d. Cellular Respiration
i. 2.5by
ii. Only first step, Glycolisis
was possible before
oxygen was present in the
atmosphere.
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iii. At 2.3by there was
enough to perform
aerobic respiration, which
is 20 times more efficient
e. Richard Dawkins – The Selfish
Gene
4. Need for replication
a. Today the mechanism for
reproduction
i. DNA transcribes into
mRNA (messenger)
which goes to ribosomes
ii. There the tRNA (transfer)
translates into a protein
iii. During transcription, only
exons are needed, introns
are looped together and
taken out. This string
also begins with a primer
cap
b. We aren’t sure what they used
i. Some say that they only
used RNA with rough
Amino Acids, meaning
RNA preceded DNA
c. Thomas Cech
i. Found RNA molecules
functioned in modern
organisms as catalysts
ii. Ribozymes – group of
RNA catalysts during
transcription
iii. These act as the editing
mechanisms to pull
introns out
iv. RNA is also an
autocatalytic for mRNA,
tRNA, and rRNA
iii. First Eukaryotic
1. 2.7by
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Bill Notes Test III
1. Cellular Respiration
a. Background
i. Characteristics of Life
1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Irritability (response to stimuli)
4. Homeostasis is the steady state conditions relative to the
internal body
5. Metabolism – Greek for “Change”
a. Comes from specific interaction among molecules in a
cellular environment
b. Is very carefully orchestrated by Enzymes which help
keep Homeostasis
i. Homeostasis is the steady state conditions
relative to the internal body
ii. Constantly changing concentrations in the fluid
in the body
c. Two Divisions
i. Catabolism or the catabolic pathway
1. Energy is produced
2. Complex organic molecules are
chemically degraded to simpler subunits
with the release of energy
3. This energy is used to drive Anabolic
processes
4. Ex. CR
ii. Anabolism or the anabolic pathway
1. Energy is lost
2. Ex. PS (Photosynthesis), Protein
synthesis
3. Steroids
a. Long Term Results: Tumors,
Death
b. Work by increasing amino acids
uptake to body cells
ii. Summary Equations
1. CR: C6H1206 + 6 02  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP’s
2. PS: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O  (with light and Chl A)  C6H1206 + 6 02
iii. Energy
1. Bio-Energetics – How organisms manage their Energy
resources
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2. Matter – anything that has mass and takes up space
3. Energy – the ability to do work (usually moving matter against
a force)
4. Laws of Thermal Dynamics
a. 1st Law of Thermal Dynamics
i. Law of Conservation of Energy
ii. Says that E cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred or transformed
nd
b. 2 Law of Thermal Dynamics
i. As Entropy (useless Energy) increases, the
amount of useful energy decreases
5. Living systems must use Energy to keep their system ordered
6. Types of Energy
a. PE – E of position or configuration. May come locked
in chemical bonds
i. Chemical: When E is absorbed, the electrons are
bumped out to higher levels, when E is released,
electrons move down energy levels
b. KE – E of motion
c. Generation of Heat by molecular motion
iv. Chemistry
1. Processes of rearranging bonds
2. In body, the molecules have KE, which lead to collisions which
can provide the activation energy for a reaction.
3. Free Energy – E that is available to perform work in living
systems when temperature and pressure are constant
throughout the system
4. ∆G = ∆H – T∆S
a. ∆G is Change in free energy
b. ∆H is Change in total Energy
c. T is temperature
d. ∆S is Change in Entropy
5. Exogonic (exothermic) vs. Endogonic (endothermic)
a. Exo is a loss of Energy in the product, meaning energy
was released to do work…∆G is negative
b. Endo is a gain of energy in the product, meaning energy
was absorbed
c. See Hand-written copy for diagrams (4-19-02)
d. These reactions are usually coupled, using the Exo
energy to drive an Endo reaction
6. ATP
a. ATP is the energy currency
i. Each ATP has 7.3 kc, and Glucose has 881 kc
b. See handwritten copy and the book, page 97 and others
c. Chemically
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i. ATP is a nucleoside Triphosphate,
1. In DNA, you have nucleotides. This is
similar b/c it has a similar structure D –
Nit Base
2. usually uses Adenosine, but also can be
Guanosine (GTP) or Uradine (UTP)
3. See my copy for diagrams
ii. ATP + H2O  Hydrolytic, ATPases  ADP +
P + -7.3kc (minus b/c E is given off, taken
form molecule)
1. Hydrolysis –means “splitting water”
2. Kinases – enzyme that phosphorylates
a. Phosphorylates is when a
molecule picks up a P from
ATP…This is Endothermic,
makes the molecule more excited
and less stable
iii. ADP + Pinorganic  Energy, ATP Synthases 
ATP
1. Replenishes ATP
2. Human cells replenish all ATP in usually
one minute, that is 10 Million
molecules/second, every cell
7. Chemical Reactions
a. Reactants and Products
i. Reactants  Products
ii. Reversibility
1. R   P
2. In vitro (in artificial systems), goes to
equilibrium, or completion
3. In vivo, (in living organisms) does not
go to completion
4. At equilibrium, ∆G=0
5. Equilibrium Defined: when the rates of
forward reactions equal the rate of
backward reactions
6. In living systems, enzymes join with
products which then move to the next
reaction, thus no equilibrium is reached
8. Enzymes
a. They are Globular Proteins (roughly spherical)
b. Define: biological catalysts that changes the rate of
reaction without being affected or consumed by the
reaction
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
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Allow cells to do work in an organized and efficient
manner
Other catalysts, like temperature, don’t work in living
systems b/c they mess with the living part
Cold Chemistry – the activity of enzymes in organic
systems that reduces the activation energy for a reaction
Enzymes have surface active site that binds with
specific other substances
i. Even isomers, similar compounds with different
arrangements, won’t work
Substrates: Substance a specific enzyme acts on (the
product)
i. Enter into the active site of enzyme to form a
enzyme-substrate complex
ii. Enzyme-substrate complex is when the
Substrate is bound to the enzyme
iii. Induced fit model – when substrate bind, it
changes enzyme, which results in causing
substrate to complete reaction
iv. 1000 substrates/s by 1 enzyme
Substrate  with enzyme  Product
i. Ex. Sucrose  Sucrase  Glucose and
Fructose
ii. Co2 + h2O  Carbonic Anhydrase  H2CO3
 H(+) + HCO3(-)
1. H+ make it more acidic, so we need
buffer
3 Factors that effect enzymes
i. Temperature (but only to a point)
1. Obviously, temperature will help speed
up reactions
2. At a certain point, the temperature
causes the enzyme to break apart, or
denature
3. Denatured – when the enzyme loses its
specific configuration
4. ex. Egg frying
ii. pH
1. pH = -log [H+]
2. pH is measured on a scale from 1-14
(acidic, or more H+ is lower)
3. This numbers represent the
concentration of H+ in relation to OH-.
4. Each ‘1’, say from 7 to 6, is a difference
of 10x.
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5. Most enzymes prefer 6 to 8, but others in
the stomach prefer about 2 (like Pepsin)
iii. Salinity – salt concentration
j. Enzyme Cofactors
i. Co factors are accessories that facilitate the
function of enzyme
ii. Inorganic: iron, zinc, copper, etc
iii. Organic
1. Are called co-enzymes, not co-factors
v. Metabolic Control
1. Feedback Inhibition
a. Occurs when a particular metabolic pathway is shut
down by the concentration of its own end product
b. See page 104 for amino acid chart
i. Isoleucin – an allosteric inhibitor of pathway b/c
it binds with theonile deaminase, and T.D. can
no longer be used in production change. When
Isoleucin concentration goes down, the
inhibition stops
2. Sun is the ultimate source of energy: sun - P.S.  Plants 
(eating, CR)  animals
vi. Mitochondria
1. Look in book for Diagram, mine does NO justice
a. Outer Membrane
b. Inner Membrane
c. Outer Compartment – fluid material in free space
d. Matrix – Inside inner membrane, it is the “inner
compartment”, is folded to increase Surface Area
e. Cristae – folds of the membrane
2. “Powerhouse” of the cell
3. They are 1-3 micrometers long
4. could be up to 25,000 in one liver cell
5. They have their own DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and synthesize
their own proteins and membranes as well as self replicate
6. Lynn Margulis proposed the Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
a. It says that mitochondria began as Prokaryotes or
Protobionts and that they were then eaten by other
PK/PB, at which point mutual symbiosis occurred
vii. Redox Reactions
1. Example equations
a. A (electron donor) + BO (e acceptor)  AO (oxidized)
+ B (reduced)
b. AH + B  A + BH
2. Glucose + Dehydrogenases (which pull of hydrogens, either
p+e or 2p+ 2e)
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3. Reduction is the accepting of e (adding e), which reduces its
charge
a. CAT ion – usually has positive charge, accepts e
4. Oxidation is the losing of an electron
5. Carrier Molecules
a. Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)
i. Is a coenz that works with enzyme’s
Dehydrogenases to carry e’s
ii. One of the carrier molecules
iii. NAD+ is oxidized form
iv. Carries 1 e to make NAD (no plus) or 2e and 1p
to make NADH (the reduced form)
b. Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
i. Another coenz that carries e’s
ii. Unlike NAD, FAD picks up 2p and 2e
c. These molecules are really important
i. Are like the taxicab:
1. Atlanta Airport – Braves Stadium, the
money paid to cab driver is like the flow
of electrons and taking of Energy
viii. Blood
1. Aorta  Arterial  capillary
2. Blood pressure is on the capillary walls
3. Interstitial Fluid – btw capillaries and cells
ix. Symbiosis – “living together”
1. Mutual Symbiosis – Both organisms benefit
a. In Mitochondria, the eater benefited from the cell
respiration of the mitochondria, and the eaten was, well,
alive, with the big organism to protect it
b. Termites have T. Companuta, which breaks down the
cellulose in wood
c. Nile Crocodiles has a bird clean its teeth
2. Commensalism – One organism benefits while the other is
unaffected
a. Ex. Sharp and ramora, which eats its scraps
3. Parasitic – one benefits while one is negatively affected
b. Cellular Respiration in 3 Steps – For the love of Goodness look at the book
for help on this stuff
i. Glycolysis – “splitting of sugar [glucose]”
1. Background
a. Occurs in the liquid cytoplasm outside of the
mitochondria
b. GlucosePyruvic Acid
i. Is the step by step degradation of glucose into 2
pyruvates
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c. Evolutionary History
i. Glycolysis was probably the anaerobic process
in Prokaryotes
d. Pyruvate is an ionized Pyruvic acid
e. Glycolysis produces a few ATP, but not many
2. Before begins
a. Glucose is a 6 Carbon molecule
b. Gets into the cell with facilitated diffusion with help of
transport proteins
3. Process in 10 steps
a. Hexokinase catalyzes hydrolysis of ATP with Glucose
near and glucose picks up phosphorus and Energy.
This salvages some Energy from the first ATP, makes
glucose less stable
i. Enzyme: Hexokinase
ii. Product: Glucose 6-phosphate
iii. –1 ATP
b. Glucose 6-Phosphate is converted to Fructose 6Phosphate
i. Enzyme: Phosphoglucoisomerase
ii. Product: Fructose 6-phosphate
c. Fructose 6-Phosphate accepts another Phosphate from
ATP
i. Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase
ii. Product: Fructose 1,6-biphosphate
iii. –1 ATP
d. Aldolase splits the Fructos 1,6-biphospate (between the
3 and 4th carbons) into 2 different molecules which are
isomers of each other
i. Enzyme: Aldolase
ii. Products: Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
Glyceraldehyde phosphate
e. Converts Dihydroxyacetone into Glyceraldehyde
phosphate
i. Enzyme: Isomerase
ii. Products: 2 x Glyceraldehyde phosphates
iii. Note: This reaction would go to equilibrium,
except that the glyceraldehydes is pulled away,
making reaction continually shifting toward
making Glyceraldehyde
f. Glyceraldehyde phosphate is Oxidized by NAD+.
Afterwards 2 phosphates (inorganic) are added to the
Glyceraldehyde
i. Enzyme: Triose phosphate dehydrogenase
ii. Products: 2x 1,3 Diphosphoglycerate
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iii. + 2 NADH’s
iv. Is exergonic
g. The phosphate group is transferred to ADP
i. Enzyme: Phosphoglycerokinase
ii. Products: 2x 3-Phosphoglycerate
iii. + 2 ATP
h. The remaining phosphate group is relocated, preparing
for next reaction, from 3rd Carbon to 2nd Carbon
i. Enzyme: Phosphoglyceromutase
ii. Products: 2-Phosphoglyerate
i. Forms phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by dehydration,
phosphorus becomes unstable
i. Enzyme: Enolase
ii. Product: 2x Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
j. Phosphoralizes these Phosphoruses into ATP leaving 2
molecules of Pyruvate
i. Enzyme: Pyruvate Kinase
ii. Product: 2x Pyruvate
iii. + 2 ATP
4. Conclusion
a. We have a net of +2 ATP
b. 2 NADH are fully reduced
c. Anaerobic: no oxygen was used in glycolysis
i. Also implies evolutionary significance
d. 2 Pyruvates is the end result
e. Released about 25 percent of the Energy in the glucose
ii. Split Routes: Aerobic or Fermentation:
1. Fermentation
a. Dumping electrons
i. We only have a limited amount of NAD+ to
reduce, so we need to dump the hydrogens
ii. Pyruvic acid is one molecule that will take it ???
iii. Acetaldedhyde  Ethenal with CO2
iv. Or Pyurvate  Lactic Acid
v. Both are alternates to aerobic pathway
b. Fermentation
i. Has only a limited E coming out of the process
ii. Process by which alcohol, and some cheeses and
yogurts are made
2. Aerobic Pathway
a. We must oxidize pyruvic acid into Acetyl Coenzyme A
(Acetyl Co-A)
b. Protein transports it into the Mitochondria
c. There, it is affected by a multi-enzyme pathway called
the Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex [ in 3 steps]
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INTERMEDIATE STEP
i. De-carboxilation: it removes the CO2 as a
carboxyl group
ii. Oxidation
1. NAD+ oxidizes the now 2 carbon
molecule by removing 2 electrons and 1
proton, resulting in (NADH) + (H+)
iii. Sulfur containing the coenzyme “A” bonds to
the acetyl bond, then leaves
1. This Co-A primes the molecule for the
Krebs Cycle
iii. Krebs Cycle – continues the degradation of pyruvate into CO2 and
H2O
1. Background
a. Occurs in the Matrix
b. Produces many fully reduced electron transport
molecules
c. Also produces a few ATP, but not many, by Substrate
Phosphorylation
i. Substrate Phosphorylation – direct transfer of a
Phosphorus group to ADP from organic
compound (substrate) with a ~ bond that is more
unstable than normal bonds
d. PEP + ADP  ATP + Phosphorus Acid
e. Other names inclsude “Citric Acid Cycle” and the “TriCarboxyl Acid cycle”
f. Enzymes are not as important to Dr. Bill as they were in
Glycolysis
2. Process
a. When acetate (2 Carbon fragment) binds with
oxaloacetate to form a 6 Carbon molecule called citric
acid (book calls it citrate)
b. Dehydrate and Re-hydrate to convert the citric acid to
an isomer called isocitric acid
c. Isocitric acid is oxidized to reduce NAD+ to NADH. It
also decarboxylates, giving off a CO2 and thereby
becoming a 5C molecule – book calls it α-Ketoglutarate
d. The molecule now picks up a Co-A, releases a CO2,
and reduces an NAD+, forming siccinyl-CoA, a 4C
molecule
e. Siccinyl is oxidized and phosphorylised (forming a
GTP which then forms a ATP), resulting in Succinic
Acid
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f. Succinic Acid is oxidized, reducing FAD to FADH2,
resulting in Fumaric Acid (Fumarate)
g. Fumaric acid is hydrated to form Malic acid (Malate)
h. Malic acid is oxidized, reducing NAD+, and
regenerates the oxaloacetate that began the cycle. This
molecule is then recycled
3. Conclusion
a. Think of Krebbs cycle as a wheel
b. Products
i. 3 NADH’s
ii. 1 FADH2
iii. 1 ATP
iv. All of this x2 because there are two acetates per
glucose!!
c. My notes contain two simplified diagrams of Krebbs
cycle, too
iv. Electron Transport Chain
1. Background
a. Occurs in the Cristae
b. Oxidative Phosporilation – the ATP synthesis that is
powered by electron transfer
c. Chain of molecules in a stair-step configuration of
Energy
d. NADH and FADH2 are the carrier molecules
(electrons, hydrogens, and Energy)
e. O2 + 2NADH + (2H+)  2 H2O + 2 NAD+
i. This isn’t a direct reaction, stuff happens in
between
f. Instead of the ETC happening in many individual
molecules, now they prefer to show it as a localized
complex in one of 3 groups
i. NADH dehydrogenases complex
ii. Cytocrom C1 Complex
iii. Cytocrom-Oxidase Complex
g. Most of these are proteins
i. Cofactors  prosthetic group
1. They have the chemical ability to
oscillate between oxidized and reduced
h. Cytochromes – enzymes that are in between big
Proteins in the diagram
i. Heme – tetra pyrol
j. ETC is sensitive to some things, like Potassium
Cyanide, which binds irreversibly, and locks up the
ETC chains
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k. Chemiosmosis – involves pumping of H+’s across
membranes
i. These three complexs correspond with the
ATP’s that come out
l. We can use other things than Carbohydrates, see pg.
177
2. Process
a. NAD moves to 1st Complex, and attracts an H+ from
the surroundings
b. Flavo-Proteins (Flavin Mononucleotide) reduce and
oxidize the move protons and electrons, some only
electrons
i. 2 Protons are pumped through the chain
c. FeS
i. Reduced/oxidized,
d. Coenz Q (carrier, formal name is Ubiquinone, and it is
a lipid)
i. It takes up 2e and 2p and pumps the 2p outside,
gives 2e to next enzyme
e. FeS
i. Again, picks up 2p and pumps them across
f. Cytochrome C – is another carrier that is oxidized
g. Cytochrome A – redox  cyt A3
h. Then, cyt A3 combines with H+ and O2 resulting in
H20
i. This water is metabolic water
3. Products
a. Counting ATP’s
i. Each NADH  3 ATP
ii. Each FADH2  2ATP
iii. However, the 2 NADH’s from Glycolosis come
down a different pathway and yield only two
ATP’s (FAD follows the same kind of pathway)
iv. Result is about 36 ATP’s per glucose
v. This is an effiency of about 38%
v. Chemiosmosis
1. Background
a. Peter Mitchell – Proposed the mechanism for
chemiosmosis
b. Chemiosmosis involves the pumping of H+ ions (from
the ETC) across the inner membrane that separates
isolated compartments. It is this process that helps fuel
ATP production
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c. When you concentrate H+ in a location, as you add
protons you build up the strength of the proton gradient
(electrochemical gradient)
d. Proton Motive force causes the protons to move down
the gradient – this gradient is caused by a change in
protons over a distance
2. Process: see diagrams in hand notes and look at book
c. Other subjects involved with CR
i. Energy given off as heat:
1. Poikilothermic – immediate loss of heat, same as “coldblooded” or ectothermic
2. Endothermic – “warm-blooded”, constant body temperature
a. Birds/Mammals only vertebrates that are endothermic
3. This heat is from chemical inefficiency of CR and other
reactions
4. Hypothermia:
5. Mouse-Elephant Chart: the normal Metabolic rate is inversely
related to size (calories per gram)
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Biology: Exam
1. Animal Behavior
a. Background
i. Huge and complicated group of Biological science
ii. Markov – ordered Processes
iii. P(H) : P(W) : P(S)  Probability of head bobbing/wagging/scratching
iv. Behavoir: anything that an animal does in response to its environment
1. Physical factors: temperature
2. Social Factors: interaction btw species for sex
3. Red foxes – aimlessly search for food all day
4. Alligators – wait and sit until food comes by
v. Handling time – the amount of time that the animal has to use to
manipulate its food
vi. All of the behavior that the animal does is done because of the survival
role of the animal.
b. Nature vs. Nurture Schools
i. School of Comparative Psychologists – learning, in lab
1. “Rat Psych School” because they always use white lab rats for
experiments
2. Strong Lab orientation
a. This is away from natural environment
b. Is much more regulated: not as much variation
c. Even small gene variation with rats
d. This sophisticated test researching maximized internal
validity
3. Mazes
a. Exploratory environment
b. Would find food pellets
c. Wanted to find a “Scale of Intelligence”
4. B.F. Skinner
a. Made cube apparatus – skinner box
i. Contained some device to manipulate food,
called the manipulandum (like lever)
ii. This later became more advanced, computers
and stuff
iii. Sometimes used negative reinforcement
5. Believed that Behavior was product of learning, not
genetics
a. J.B. Watson – believed in learning
b. Tabula Rrasa – “blank slate”
ii. Ethologists – genetics, natural
1. Conrad Lorenz
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a. Lived with Animals
b. Wrote “King Solomon’s Ring”
2. Tinberg
a. “Curious Naturalist”
3. Karn Van Frisch
a. Credited with Communication studies
b. Researched Honey bees
i. Found “dances”
4. These guys believed in field work
a. Collected data with careful, long studies
b. Margaret Neece – studied song-sparrows her entire life
5. Conditions are less rigid, uneven databases, etc
a. However, the ethologists thought that there was
evolutionary significance in the natural environment
b. Example: the Double crested Cormarance had to learn
to fly right the 1st time
c. Optimal Foraging
i. Led by Charnov
ii. This assumes that animals are born with information about foraging
iii. Definitions
1. Search time: looking for food to maximize energy
2. Handling time: getting into nuts
a. Small seeds don’t have as much energy, but they are
easier to find
3. Vigilance Time: looking for predators
d. Genetic Control of Behavior
i. Nest building with birds
1. ex. Love Birds
a. Fisher’s love birds would find material, pick it up, and
fly away, carrying only 1 piece at a time
b. Beach Face Love birds would carry more than one by
stuffing them in the rump and feathers
c. Hybrids would try to stuff in rump, but wouldn’t be
able to b/c it wasn’t designed right. Therefore, they
eventually learned not to stick, but they still glanced
that way every time they picked something up
e. Levels of Behavior
i. Background
1. Neural anatomy realizes that brains have 3 sections,
fore/mid/hind brains
2. Most animals lack the neural complexity to sort out stimuli and
response
ii. Behavioral Responses
1. Reflexes
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a. Define: Reflexes are simple unlearned reactions by an
animal in response to some environmental stimulus that
involves afferent (sensory) neuron to spinal cord and a
efferent neuron back to some effector structure (like a
gland or muscle)
b. Examples
i. Hammer on the Knee
1. When action potential is generated, the
nerve impulse to afferent neuron to
spinal cord. This is the junction between
Afferent and Efferent
2. Motor impulse makes the leg jerk
ii. Babies are held by their arms to so if the toes
make walking motions
iii. Blinking
iv. Pain receptors: hot stove, beach spurs, etc
2. Forced Movements
a. Behavior that has little or no variation and involves
locomotion
b. Types
i. Kinesis
1. Undirected motion that is activated by
stimulus, and the speed is related to the
intensity of the stimulus
2. Ex: The Sal bug moves more quickly
when put in the light and moves more
rapidly when put in more light
ii. Taxis
1. Directed motion or orientation of an
organism to some stimulus
2. Ex: Planarian worms will move directly
toward light (Positive photo taxis)
3. Ex: Mosquite Larva – move away from
gravity (negatively geotaxis)
3. Innate Behavior
a. Define: Innate behavior occurs when an organism
exhibits certain patterns of behavior that require no
practice and are usually stereotyped, species specific
and generally associated with courtship, and are
referred to as Fixed Action Patterns
b. Fixed Action Patterns
i. Ex: Terns
1. Parents give the young birds fish, and
they must eat it head first so not to have
the fins kill the bird
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ii. Ex: Frog
1. The frog will track the dragonfly, but
once he sticks out tongue, the action
must go to completion. In other words,
he can’t stick his tongue out only half
way
f. Stimulus Objects
i. Releasers – restricted to the sign stimulus that functions as
communcications between individuals of the same species
ii. Sign Stimulus – communication between different species
iii. Examples
1. Speculum – bright part on duck that is located on secondary
feathers. This speculum is a releaser for female ducks
2. 3-Spined Stickle-backs: fish (male) that get red spots on their
bottom during breeding season. Many experiments were
performed painting females red or males not read.
3. David Lack – similar paint experiment on English Robin
4. European Oyster-catcher – ornothologists created a huge
wooden egg and put it in the nest…the bird tried to warm it
like any other egg
a. This is an example of a super(supra)normal stimulus
5. Gray Lag Goose: grabs egg with bill and drags egg back to nest
using sideways motion too. If it loses the egg, it must still go
to completion
g. Process of Learning
i. Define: Learning is an alteration in an animal’s behavior as a result of
a particular experience
ii. Kinds
1. Imprinting
a. Define: Imprinting is a response on the part of an
animal to help establish social associations in early life
b. Ex: Lorenz discovered the critical periods for goslings
c. Ex: Following the first moving object after getting out
of the shell
d. Ex: Jackdaw bird tries to impress mate by regurgitating
worms
2. Habituation
a. Define: Habituation occurs when an animal learns not
to respond to biologically insignificant stimuli
b. Ex: ducks ignore goose silhouette but freeze for hawks
3. Trial and Error
a. Examples
i. Mazes
ii. Discrimination Learning
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1. Two or more stimuli that the animal
must discriminate between
iii. Classical Conditioning
1. Associative learning in which one
stimulus is linked to another
2. Pavlov: digestion in dogs
3. Dogs would salivate if the door opened
 further testing with bells
4. US (unconditional stimulus)  UR
5. CS (bell)  US (food) 
UR(salivation)
6. Led to CS  CR
iv. Operant Conditioning (instrumental
conditioning)
1. Skinner boxes
2. Manipulandum
3. Animal becomes conditioned but has to
perform an action first
4. This is the way circus animals are
trained: positive response for certain
behaviors
v. Play Behavior
1. Play situations help prepare the animal
for future survival
2. Examples
a. Kittens and balls
b. Chimps
c. Lions – cubs learn to bite and
fight
d. Bears – biting
e. Jackal Pups
h. Social Behavior
i. Communication
1. Pheromones
a. Def: chemicals released by a member of a population
that would effect social behavior of a group
b. Ex: ants leave chemical trail, secrets pheromones from
abdomen
c. Sexual Attractions
i. Ex: female moths release pheromones into air
that a male can detect as few as 40 molecules
of…he flies to odor trail
2. Visual Communication
a. Ex: bird of paradise
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b. Display – def: visual signals specialized through
evolution for communication
i. These aren’t effective in dark
ii. Happen with mating and aggression
3. Auditory Communication
a. Proclaiming territory
b. Ex: mocking birds
ii. Group Behavior
1. Concept of Territory
a. Def: any area defended through displays or aggression
i. They are stationary land
b. Psychological advantage allows aggressive dominance
c. Glynn Woffand – studied Florida Scrub-Jays
i. They go through a period of delayed sexual
development because they cannot have their
own territory yet
d. Cooperative Breeding
i. Helpers at the nest – help bring food to parents
e. Individual Distance (Space)
i. Personal space
ii. Def: inviolate distance around an animals body
2. Dominance
a. Occurs when 1 organism takes precedence over another
in acquisitions
b. Ex: Wolf packs have a dominant structure with α, β,
and γ (etc) positions
i. Unlike territory, everyone gets their piece in
dominance
c. Berny Lubuff – studied elephant seals and found that
about 2% of males mated w/ 80% of the females
d. This structure is found practically everywhere
e. Pattern of Dominance
i. Males dominate Females
ii. Adults dominate Juveniles
iii. Large dominates small
3. Altruism
a. Def: the giving of aid to individuals of the same species
at the expense of one’s own fitness
i. Conflicts initially with Darwinian Natural
Selection
b. Inclusive Fitness
i. Altruist is genetically related to other
individuals
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ii. Def: relative number of individual alleles are
passed genes by individual reproductive success
or success of relatives
c. Ex:
i. Running btw lions
ii. Crows on power line
iii. Drawing attention away from nests or young
iii. Migration
1. Def: seasonal movement that takes animals from one location
to another
2. Factors
a. Homing Ability
i. Ability of individual to find its way back to a
specific area after being displaced from it
b. Orientation
i. Ability to move in a particular direction relative
to external queue (sun, temperature, current,
Magnetic field, etc)
c. Navigation
i. Ability to move from 1 specific map point to
another
1.  Learned
2. Ecology (oikos – house/dwelling)
a. Background
i. Define: the study of interactions between organisms and the
environment
ii. This environment could be physical surroundings and/or social
surroundings
1. Phys – sun, rain, soil, nutrients, etc
2. Soc – competition, predators, parasites, etc
iii. Divisions
1. Populations
a. Redef: groups of individuals of same species that
inhabit a particular area at the same time
2. Community
a. All populations that live in a given area and interact
with each other
3. Ecosystems
a. Community and physical environment considered
together
4. Ecosphere
a. All ecosystems on earth, i.e. global ecology
b. Populations
i. Background
1. Density is important
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a. Too dense  overgrazing
2. Biomass – total mass of living material in particular place and
time
ii. Sampling Methods
1. Total Count
a. Count all individuals, feasible only if a small amount of
organisms that are large or obvious
2. Quadrant Sample
a. Best for stationary organisms
b. Make a grid and overlay this on a topographic map,
then take random samples
3. Mark and Recapture
a. Mobile Animals
b. Drift Fences
i. Makes a triangle fence and buckets
c. Capture animals – usually mark by clipping a toe
d. Then repeat the capture, then take percentage of
recaptured individuals to estimate population size
e. If 10% of 20 return, we assume total = 200
4. Stratified
a. Go to a location where the species is known to exist and
count their populations
b. Don’t waste time in areas that the species doesn’t exist
iii. Spacing – 2D or 3D space
1. Uniform
a. Rarest
b. Caused by intense competition for resources, ex: desert
flowers (creosote)
2. Random
a. Rare
b. Caused by very little competition
3. Random Clumps
a. Normal
b. Has clumps of organisms scattered randomly
c. This clumping has several benefits
i. Sexual Reproduction
ii. Protection
iii. Finding food
iv. Population Growth
1. In ideal conditions of food/water/nests and no
predators/competition you have exponential growth
a. Darwin’s elephants: in 750 years a pair of elephants
could result in 19million elephants
2. Modeling
a. Terms
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i. I = rate of increase in number of individuals
(∆N/∆t)
ii. b = avg birth rate
iii. d = avg death rate
iv. N = Number of individuals in a population at a
given time
v. r = (b-d) = intrinsic rate of increase
vi. rmax = innate capacity for increase
vii. K = carrying capacity
1. Maximum population density that an
area can support for a sustained period
of time without permanent damage to the
environment
b. Equations
i. ∆N/∆t = rN  results in an exponential curve
ii. ∆N/∆t = rN (K-N)/K – Logistics Curve
c. Logistics Curve
i. Says that the rate slows down as it approaches
the carrying capacity and will not cross that
point
ii. Thus the equation needs a term to slow the
growth as N increases  (K-N)/K
v. Niche
1. G.E. Huthcinson defines Niche as a n-dimensional
hypervolume
a. Hypervolume – a coordinating system with no origin
b. This is the fundamental niche of an organism
2. Realized niche is the niche we look at
3. Gauss’s rule – no 2 species can inhabit same niche for
indefinite period of time
4. Robert McCarther – found Warblers had partitioned the tree
nich so that each species fed in a different part of the tree
5. Emigration – caused by need for new niche and personal space
a. Lemmings even run off cliffs
b. Physiological mechamism for change
c. JJ Christian – studied voles, found that crowding led to
physiological changed, notably increased adrenaline
d. Density – independent limitations to population growth,
weather, etc
vi. r-selection and k-selection
1. k-selection
a. Population growth is logistic
b. Population size fluctuates around the carrying capacity
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c. Applies to animals that are larger in size and have a
longer life span an breeding period, like mammals and
birds
d. Iteroparous – breeding cycle that repeats for many years
2. r-selection
a. exponential curve
b. Applies to smaller organisms with smaller life spans,
like insects
c. Usually breed only once  simelparous
d. Unprotected young
c. Community: Reading Assignment
i. Succession, Biomes, aquatic realms
d. Ecosystems: Reading Assignment
i. Modes of nutrition
ii. Food Pyramid
iii. Food chains/webs
iv. Cycles (C, N, H2O)
3. Environmental Concerns
a. Resources
i. Renewable
1. Trees
ii. Non-renewable resources
1. Topsoil
2. Coal
3. Gems/stones
4. They aren’t evenly distributed and mining causes
environmental problems
b. Energy
i. Hydro-electric
1.  animal extinctions
ii. Wind Mills
1. Effective, but location specific
iii. Geothermal
1. location specific
iv. Solar
v. Coal  finite
vi. Nuclear
1. 1-2% efficient
2. Plutonium – stored for 244,000 years to be safe
3. Plutonium dust causes cancer
4. Breeder reactors recycle this plutonium, but expensive
5. Only produces electrical Energy
6. Fusion – H+  heat  He: little waste, but needs
c. Food Problems
i. Almost all cultivatable land is being used up
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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Each person needs 1acre/year worth of food
About 90 million people/year are added to population
Laterite – what dirt becomes when all the nutrients form the rain forest
trees are gone
“Green Revolution” – producing super strains of plants to increase
food production
1. Problems
a. Require change in practices, like fertilizing
b. Eutrophication – process by which ponds are filled by
plants death…this is accelerated by fertilizers
c. Inbred  little variation  susceptible to diseases
Cows have high costs and fish can only be exploited so much, too
vi.
d. Water
i. U.S. went from 40 billion gallons/day to more than 400bg/day today
ii. Most of this is by power generation
iii. Drinking water is recycled
e. Emissions
i. Mostly CO2, NO, and HC, mainly from cars
ii. CO2 and greenhouse effect
f. Plastic
i. Fishnets, 6-packs, etc
ii. Kills 100,000 organisms/year
g. DDT
i. Chemical that was used to kill bugs
ii. Biological magnification
1. Top level consumer gets all the chemicals from lower animals
in foodchain  high concentration
2. led to reduction in many birds b/c it reduced egg thickness
a. Brown Pelican, Bald Eagle, etc
h. Human Populations
i. Dr Erhluck
1. “Population Bomb”
2. said pollution was only a symptom of overpopulation
3. 1.8% growth rate  we will double in 40 years
4. 300my to 6 billion people, but only 40 to 12 billion
5. Developing countries have average age of 16
4. Socio-Biology
a. Background
i. Def: systematic study of biological bases of all social behavior
1. This includes Behavior, Population, and Evolutionary biology
ii. History
1. Darwin’s Origin of Species
a. Behavior is subject to Nat. Sel.
2. Lorenz, Tinberg, Von Frisch
3. Watson, Skinner
Bailes Brown
Biology Notes: Exam Review
6/21/17
Page 55 of 55
4. David Loche (sp)
a. “Natural regulation of animal numbers” and
“Population studies of birds”
b. said that egg number related to environmental and
parental capacity
5. Edward O. Wilson
a. “Sociobiology” – big book we saw in class
b. Extrapolated to human behavior
c. Met political and scientific resistance
6. John Smith – gain theory
a. Says that animals play a “game of survival”, whether
they are a hawk and fight for food or a “dove” and
choose other means
b. Theories
i. Wilson’s
1. Parental-offspring conflict is inevitable because children are
born selfish and deceitful
2. Altruism
a. Trivers “reciprocal altruism” occurs when one gives an
act of kindness with very little risk, with selfish goal in
mind
3. Proposed Racial differences in IQ do (or do not) have a genetic
basis
a. Proved wrong
b. I don’t know why this is in here…
4. Biological determinant – human behavior is genetically fixed
and therefore unchangeable
a. Racists and sexists