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Semester 1 History Midterms Review Sheet Chapter 4:The Depths of Time Vocabulary -primary source: information about events recorded at the time of those events -history: a record of what happened in the past; the study of the past, including explanation of the events -culture: the attitudes, beliefs, customs, traditions, art, and achievements of a society that are passed from one generation to another -diffusion: the spread of ideas, values, and inventions from one culture to another -artifact: an object made by humans that is of archaeological or historical interest Paleolithic Age Early Man -the most recent common ancestors were from 7 million years ago the split between chimps & bonobos -the oldest group of human ancestors is known as Australopithecines who lived between about 4 to 2 million years ago in Africa bipedal (walked on two feet) started losing body hair brain no bigger than a chimp (about 1/3 size of our brain) -the Homo habilis lived from about 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago in Africa first tool maker (“handy man”) overlapped with Australopithecus larger brain, smaller face than Australopithecus begins the Paleolithic age -the Homo erectus lived from about 1.8 to 100,000 years ago learned how to control fire and cook food lived in hunter-gathering bands first to leave Africa, spread around the world, including Asia (Peking Man, Java Man) -the Homo Neanderthals lived in Europe from about 400,000 until only 30,000 years ago also called the Neanderthal Man- bones first found in Neander Valley brain size similar to ours but thicker body structure and big brows wiped out by modern human? or out-competed? or inter-bred? (We don’t know) -the Homo sapiens appeared about 200,000 years ago (a young species) modern human-sapiens means “wise” found in the Middle East and Asia by 60,000 years ago -fire was important in many ways it provided warmth and scared of animals early people also used fire to cook plant foods to make them easier to digest firecampfire, communication between early man was accessible -Community Spirit the Neanderthals probably had a strong sense of community and took care of one another archaeologists had found bones of Neanderthals who were crippled with arthritis; they would not have survived unless other people helped them and gave them food the Neanderthal culture included burials, which are the earliest evidence we have of funeral ceremonies held to mourn the passing away of loved ones -the Cro-Magnons looked much like us today they had a similar lifestyle they used the same tools as us they had many cave-arts which were overwhelmingly beautiful 1. first discovered by a Spanish girl and father in 1879 2. an important part of the Cro-Magnon’s life -Ain Mallaha, an important site archaeologists have found that helped them understand the lifestyles of hunter-gatherers Neolithic Age -probably the biggest change in humanity -after the Ice Age ended, land was able to be used for planting -in different parts of the world, people started to domesticate animals and plants -with the arrival of agriculture, people gradually moved into other occupations tool makers builders fishers craftsperson priests leaders -first happened in an area called the Fertile Crescent -it was spontaneous, gradual, and piecemeal Chapter 5: Development of Societies Vocabulary -surplus: an extra amount; more than is needed -civilization: a complex society with a stable food supply, specialization f labor, a government, and a highly developed culture -irrigation: the act of supplying dry lands with water by means of canals, itches, pipes, and streams -agriculture: the science, art, and business of raising animals and plant to supply food for humans; humans Definition of Civilization -stable food supply (surplus) -specialization of labor (specialized workers) -social levels (rich vs. poor, classes, castes) -system of government (usually involving force) -highly developed culture Monumental architecture Decorative and monumental art Organized religion with religious leadership Systems of law to maintain order Writing (usually) -complex trade (near and far) -dense population, usually in one or more cities Advantages of the Neolithic Revolution created the first stable food surpluses led to a sedentary lifestyle triggered a population explosion gave rise to specialization of labor led to the first large scale trading networks Problems of the Neolithic Revolution it brought new risks of attack and invasion brought new diseases it changed the roles of women and children for the worse started to create divisions in society between rich and poor, ruler and ruled led to large scale environmental changed Characteristics of a Civilization stable food supply specialization of labor a system of government social levels a highly developed culture that includes art, architecture, religion, music, and law; many times, civilization included a system of writing complex trade (near and far) dense population, usually in one or more cities Catal Huyuk Unique Architecture -about 1000 houses -Catal Huyuk had no streets, lanes, or alleys doors were on the rooftop to get from places to places, people walked on other people’s rooftops ladders were used -the houses were all about the same size Beliefs and Rituals -evidence shows that many of the buildings were shrines decorated with bullhorns and sculptures of animals there were also many paintings -in some homes, simples graves were found just under the platforms Food -they raised cattles and hunted deer, bear, and wolves Chapter 6: Mesopotamia Vocabulary -empire: a nation and the other nations it has conquered; a political unit often made up of several nations under one leadership -irrigation: the act of supplying dry lands with water by means of canals, itches, pipes, and streams -pictograph: a picture that stands for a word or idea; picture writing -scribe: a professional writer or record keeper; a person whose job is to copy documents and manuscripts -artisan: a worker who is skilled in making a particular product by hand -polytheism: belief in more than one god -exile: enforced absence from one’s own country Geography of Mesopotamia -two rivers – Tigris & Euphrates -northern highland plateau -southern lowland plain and marshes -hot summers and little rain (especially in south) -unpredictable floods -lots of mud and reeds…but little or no stone, wood or metals -no natural barriers to protect against invaders (this is a big difference with Egypt!) Remarkable Sumerians -built first great city-states with large populations (tens of thousands of people) Ur Uruk Eridu Lagash Kish -city-states = city and surrounding farm land -small mud homes on narrow streets, plus… -larger houses, big temples, palaces for king (later) -thriving market places – long distance trading -each city had its own resident gods or goddesses Sumerian “First’s” -first kings -first writing system -first epics (hero stories) -first use of the wheel -first use of the plow -first use of the sail -first use of bronze (copper + tin) -invention of number system based on 60 (that’s how we get 360°of a circle and 60 minute hours) -first schools Sumerian Religion -polytheism -main gods/goddesses An (heavens) Enlil (air) Enki (water) Ninhursag (fertility) Inanna (love and war) Nana (moon) thousands of others – gods for everyday objects, and personal gods! -each god ruled a city-state -gods had human qualities - but were more powerful -gods were hostile and unpredictable – like the environment of Mesopotamia Sumerian Writing -started as pictographs mostly just to keep trading records earliest “proto-writing” found on clay balls called bullae -gradually developed into a syllabic script -called “cuneiform” – meaning wedge shaped Rise of Kingship -first city-states were ruled by priests – not kings Temples were the biggest structure in the city Temples owned large amounts of land -attacks from outside led to need for protection Cities began to build walls Cities eventually set up regular armies Leaders of these armies were called Lu-Gal (“Big Man”) -the Lu-Gals eventually became the first kings -palaces became bigger and gained land and power vs. temples -kings began to pass rule to their heirs (hereditary rule) -people believed the king could talk directly to the city gods Sumerian Society -three social classes kings and priests wealthy merchants and landowners ordinary workers slaves (not considered a social class!) -slaves were below the class system – but had some rights -women had more rights than many later societies they could own property and join priesthood but they couldn’t go to school and learn to write Gilgamesh first epic in the world was about him. Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad -first ruler of many different peoples and city-states (Empire) -first to establish new capital city (Akkad) -one of first to use system of using trusted governors to rule captured lands (Ensi) -unified weights and measures (for taxes) -named daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Innana temple in Ur and temple of An in Uruk (in charge of different cults) -Enheduanna is the world’s first known author! -he spoke a Semitic language – like today’s Hebrew and Arabic – not Sumerian; but he still used cuneiform to write it -he built a huge army of thousands of men -his army used new kinds of body armor and the composite bow which could go send arrows farther than regular bows -he ruled for 55 years and his grandson ruled for over 35 years (his son and brother were both assassinated); but there were always many rebellions in the regions -his grandson Naram-Sin was the first king to proclaim himself a god – some say that caused his fall Old Babylonian Empire Hammurabi -he built up the Babylonian empire -he was considered a fair and just ruler -he issued edicts to release people from debt slavery -he often got personally involved in settling disputes -he built up Babylon and repaired irrigation canals -he unified Mesopotamia in a way Sargon never could -he is best remembered for his famous Law Code -steles, 7’5” tall, were put all over the empire -they unified the laws of the old city-states -over 200 laws on the stele -laws were “from the gods” but the king carries them out -most laws relate to daily life Marriages Inheritance Theft Property damage Loans Fees for various professions -punishments could be severe and depended on social status -stele warned successors not to change the laws (if they even think of it, the gods will cause disease and famine) New Assyrian Empire -home base in Assur on the Tigris River -expanded to rule all of Mesopotamia, parts of Anatolia (Turkey), Iran, and the Mediterranean coast (Israel/Lebanon), and even parts of Egypt! -tough and ruthless warriors: used fear as part of their war strategy -armies went out ever year to kill and capture loot – gold, silver, jewels, slaves, and more -they put down rebellions by exiling thousands of people -some estimates say 4.5 million people were taken from their homes and moved to a different part of the empire -adopted Aramaic as their official language -another interesting thing: camels were domesticated at this time -3D wall reliefs -Royal Library of Ashurbanipal Ashurbanipal was the last of the great kings of Assyria, and one of the first we know of who could read and write he loved collecting texts, and he sent his men across the empire to bring them back his library in Nineveh was huge! even though it was destroyed in 612 B.C., we still have over 30,000 tablets: literature, hymns, creation stories, and writings on grammar, astronomy and medicine most of what we know about Mesopotamia is because of him New Babylonian Empire Nebuchadnezzar -Nebuchadnezzar used much of the wealth from his conquests in grand building projects -he built walls and fortifications to protect Babylon and great temples to glorify the gods. -he was known for grand building projects in Babylon—walls, temples, “Hanging Gardens” destruction of the Jerusalem and 50 years exile of the Jews scientific advances in astronomy (calendars) and math (place values) -more focused on culture and less on war than the Assyrian rulers, but still conducted repeated campaigns to collect tribute and exiled or enslaved people who didn’t pay! Chapter 7: Ancient Egypt Vocabulary -vizier: a high-ranking political advisor or minister -obelisk: a tall, four-sided stone pillar that tapers to a point like a pyramid -embalming: to prevent the decay of a dead body by treating it with preservatives Geography of Egypt Nile River -Key Facts: Longest river in the world Runs South North South is “upper” Egypt North is “lower” Egypt Libyan desert to West (Sahara) Sinai Peninsula & Arabian desert to East Mediterranean sea to North Marshy land where Nile flows into sea is called the Delta Five river “cataracts” to south Beyond 1st cataract => Nubia & Kingdom of Kush (now Sudan) Red Sea goes south to Ethiopia and coast of East Africa Gifts of the Nile -water in the desert…but, unlike Mesopotamia, there was predictable seasonal floods June – August: flooding September – January: planting February – May: harvesting -black mud – very fertile river area called the “black land” – desert was called the “red land” -Papyrus thin reeds used to make boats, baskets, sandals, and paper Egyptian Gods -Ancient Egyptians were polytheistic – like the Mesopotamians -many of their gods are related to their creation story -then there were other gods for different things -similar to Mesopotamia, gods were connected to specific locations -when Egypt was unified, they didn’t get rid of gods; they just added them or sometimes combined them into one, e.g. Amon from Thebes when Thebes became powerful in the Middle Kingdom… Amon was joined with Ra to make Amon-Ra -the Kings (Pharaohs) were considered to be many gods at once they were Horus in life, and Osiris in death also Ptah, and sometimes Ptah’s son or the son of Re -in the beginning of human development, people were impressed with the power of animals, so the gods were more animal like -over time, as people became more confident in their powers and control over animals, the gods acquired more human features -the Book of the Dead book of spells that were designed to guide the deceased through the perils of the underworld, and ultimately bring them eternal life; there were over 150 in most versions a depiction of the Opening of the Mouth ritual, in which a mummy is symbolically brought to life weighing of the heart Kingdoms of Egypt -gradually, Upper and Lower Egypt in larger political territories – possibly to work together on large irrigation projects -Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt each had their own kings by around 3300 BC -According to legend, Menes (Narmer) unified Upper and Lower Egypt around 3200-3100 BC (Narmer Palette) -starting with Narmer, there were 30 dynasties spread out over more than 2,000 years! Pre-Dynastic Period (Dynasties 1 to 2 – c. 300 yrs.) Old Kingdom (Dynasties 3 to 6 – c. 500 yrs.) First Intermediate Period (c. 100 yrs.) Middle Kingdom (Dynasties 11 to 14 – c. 450 yrs.) Second Intermediate Period (c. 200 yrs.) New Kingdom (Dynasties 18 to 20 – about 500 yrs.) Old Kingdom -A time of peace and prosperity…during this time: Kings came to be considered living gods, responsible for the annual flooding, and with unlimited powers Egypt’s religious beliefs and artistic styles were established all the Great Pyramids were built -King Zoser’s Step Pyramid build in the 2600s by King Zoser of the 3rd Dynasty located at Saqqara near capital city of Memphis Egypt’s first pyramid – many more to come before this, kings were buried in underground chambers with mud structures placed on top the pyramid was part of a large funerary (burial) complex Egyptian Society -top: King -second: Royal Family, High Officials -third: Nobles, Priests, Regular Officials -fourth: Army Officers, Scribes -fifth: Artisans -last: Farmers -not a caste system: lower and middle classes could rise up through merit or marriage -woman had many of the same rights as men Egyptian Hieroglyphics -“hiero” = sacred -“glyph” = carvings or engravings -sacred engraved writings! -hieroglyphs lasted for over 3,000 years from before Narmer until after Cleopatra -but all knowledge of hieroglyphics vanish in the years after the Roman Empire -then, about 200 years ago, Napoleon’s army in Egypt found the Rosetta Stone -and a famous Egyptologist named Jean-Francois Champollion cracked the code -hieroglyphic writing is very complicated… there are three types of writing systems in one alphabetic system (but without real vowels, e.g. water = “wtr”) syllabic system (like the Bee-Leaf e.g. in Sumerian cuneiform) ideograph system (this was added to the end of a word to clear up any confusion, e.g. Wtr = water, Wtr = waiter) Pyramids -the Nile produced a fertile land which meant the work force could do other things such as building pyramids -the Khufu pyramid was the tallest structure on Earth until the Eiffel Tower was built in 1889 -five million tons of stone were needed to build the pyramid -25,000 people worked on the pyramid -the Egyptians believed the pyramid was a pathway to the Indestructibles (eternal life) Mummification -natron served to dry out the organs and they body, discouraging bacteria from decaying in tissues -the canopic jars were fashioned after the four sons of Horus, who were each entrusted with protecting a particular organ -the body was adorned with gold, jewels, and protective amulets, then the entire body was wrapped with twenty layers of linen New Kingdom Akhenaten -follower of Aten -he moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna -he was in favor of another God, and changed the kingdom’s religion -during his reign, Egypt was not doing very well Tutankhamen -known as the “boy king”, because he died young -son of Akhenaten -after his father died, he changed the religion back and moved the capital back to Thebes -married to Ankhesenamen, and the two was very close -his tomb was not robbed Hatshepsut -female ruler -she built enormous obelisks and planned various trade expeditions -she gave herself the title of “king” to retain power -Egypt was initially willing to accept her as king because Egypt prospered under her reign Thutmose III -stepson of Hatshepsut -amazing military leader -known as “Napoleon of Egypt” -he personally led military attacks -after he reigned for 20 years, he dismantled Hatshepsut’s red chapel and erased her name off all monuments possibly for the reason of the record of a female ruler could ruin Egypt The Kingdom of Kush -located under Egypt in an area called Nubia -borrowed many ideas from the Egyptians writing (language) religion the idea of pyramids, and afterlife -the Egyptians consider Kush to be part of their empire -Kush had many resources that were valuable to the Egyptians Egypt Mesopotamia