Download TABLE OF CONTENTS

French Grammar Reference Guide
Dr. Thomas Vosteen
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Articles: Definite, Indefinite and Partitive………………………………………………..3
Faire: Causative Use………………………………………………………………………5
Demonstratives……………………………………………………………………………7
Interrogative Pronouns…………………………………………………………………….9
Passive Voice……………………………………………………………………………12
Past Participles and Composed Verb Tenses……………………………………………15
Possessives: A Mix………………………………………………………………………17
Review of Pronouns……………………………………………………………………...19
Relative Pronouns………………………………………………………………………..21
Demonstrative Pronouns…………………………………………………………………23
Agreement of the Past Participle…………………………………………………………24
A Few Notes on the Subjunctive………………………………………………………...25
A Few Problems with French Verb Tenses versus their English Equivalents…………...27
2
ARTICLES: DEFINITE, INDEFINITE, PARTITIVE
Definite articles:
Indefinite articles:
Partitive articles:
“des”
le, la, les
un, une, des
all are based on “de”, including the plural indefinite article,
In English, we can use nouns without their articles; in French, you usually must
include either an article or some form of determiner (for example, a possessive or
demonstrative adjective) before a noun (le livre, un livre, des livres, mon livre, ce livre,
etc.).
Resulting translation problems:
1. I like wine.
J’aime le vin.
2. I drink wine.
Je bois du vin.
3. I drink the wine you gave me.
Je bois le vin que tu m’as donné.
In number 3, English and French coincide: “the wine” / “le vin” is specific.
Numbers 1 and 2 are problematic in that neither “wine” requires an article in
English, but both “vin” require some form of article. Which form? Number 1 is a very
general statement; number 2 is more specific than 1, less specific than 3.
When in doubt, use the “some or all” test:
Which word causes the least change in meaning when added to the sentence?
1. I like some wine. I like all wine.
Since you intend to make a general
statement, then “all” has the least impact on meaning. Therefore, use the definite article:
J’aime le vin.
2. I drink some wine. I drink all wine.
You mean to say that you drink a
certain (limited!) quantity of wine, a part of the whole. Therefore, use the partitive
article: Je bois du vin.
The Partitive
A. It is composed of “de” either by itself or in combination with the definite
article.
Je bois du vin.
Je prends de la crème.
Je bois de l’eau.
Je mange des saucisses. (Remember that this “des” is the plural of, in this case, “une”.)
B. When it is used with an expression of quantity, the partitive loses the definite
article; all that is left is “de”:
Je ne bois pas de vin.
Je prends un peu de crème.
Je bois un litre d’eau.
Je mange une assiette de saucisses.
C. When an adjective precedes the plural partitive (“des”), “des” becomes “de”:
3
Je lis des livres. (bon) Je lis de bons livres.
This is not the case with the singular partitive:
Je bois du vin. (bon) Je bois du bon vin. (no change)
D. Negation has no effect on the partitive when it occurs after “c’est” or “ce
sont”:
C’est un livre. Ce n’est pas un livre.
Ce sont des livres. Ce ne sont pas des livres.
This is so because “pas” is not acting as an expression of quantity. In the above
example, it refers to the verb (“est”), not to the noun “livre/s”.
E. Note that in expressions like “avoir besoin de”, the “de” is not the partitive, it
is simply the preposition “de” = “of”. This poses particular translation problems:
J’ai besoin d’un livre. I need a book. Literally: I have need of a book.
J’ai besoin du livre. I need the book. Literally: I have need of the (de + le = du) book.
J’ai besoin des livres. I need the books. Literally: I have need of the (de + les = des)
books.
So how do we translate: “I need (some) books”?
“J’ai besoin de livres.” is the solution. In fact, it should be:
J’ai besoin de des livres (“de des” = “of some”). But “de” and “des” cannot
coexist side by side. Remember this ditty: When “de” meets “des”, “des” goes away. Or
in French: Quand “de” rencontre “des”, “des” disparaît.
So remember: J’ai besoin de livres.
I need [some] books.
J’ai besoin des livres
I need the books.
4
FAIRE: CAUSATIVE USE
The causative construction is used to express the idea of having someone do
something or having something done. It is composed of two parts: a tense of faire +
infinitive. Note the following sentences; the first sentence is an example of the causative
faire and the sentence in parentheses states the outcome:
SUBJECT (= “singe”)
Il a fait danser les singes. (Les singes ont dansé.)
He had (made) the monkeys dance. (The monkeys danced.)
DIRECT OBJECT (= “voiture”)
J’ai fait réparer ma voiture. (On a réparé ma voiture.)
I had my car repaired. (My car was repaired. / Someone repaired my car.)
SUBJECT (= “bébé”) AND DIRECT OBJECT (=
“confiture”)
J’ai fait goûter la confiture au bébé. (Le bébé a goûté la confiture).
I had the baby taste the jam. (The baby tasted the jam.)
Notice what happens when both the subject and the direct object of the outcome
sentence are included in the causative sentence: the direct object immediately follows the
infinitive; in turn, it is followed by “à” which introduces the subject.
You should also remember that the English verb “have” is not translated into the
French causative construction as a form of “avoir”! Remember that it is faire!
This construction can lead to some ambiguity and possible misunderstanding:
“Le professeur fait lire le poème aux étudiants.”
Does this sentence mean
“The teacher has the students read the poem.” or “The teacher has the poem read to the
students.”? In fact it could mean either! To avoid ambiguity, a slight change can be
made: “Le professeur fait lire le poème par les étudiants.” This means, unambiguously:
“The teacher has the students read the poem.” or “The teacher has the poem read by the
students.” Notice as well how closely related this sentence is to the passive voice in its
use of “par”!
Use of direct and indirect object pronouns with the causative construction:
1. Placement
Elle fait laver sa voiture.
She’s having her car washed.
Elle la fait laver.
She’s having it washed.
Note that the pronoun “la” is not placed before “laver” as one might expect, but in
front of the causative faire. Contrast with the following:
Elle aime laver sa voiture.
She likes to wash her car.
Elle aime la laver.
She likes to wash it.
Here, “la” is placed before “laver”, as one might expect.
The word order of direct and indirect objects follows the usual pattern:
Tu me fais goûter la confiture. Tu me la fais goûter.
5
Tu fais goûter la confiture au bébé. Tu la lui fais goûter.
2. Lack of agreement of past participle.
Normally, a past participle agrees with the preceding direct object.
J’ai lavé la voiture. Je l’ai lavée.
BUT: J’ai fait laver la voiture. Je l’ai fait laver.
The past participle of the causative faire does not agree with the preceding
direct object.
6
DEMONSTRATIVES
They are so called because they “demonstrate,” that is, they point out.
This book is long.
Ce livre est long.
In English, we must choose between “this” or “that”. In French, proximity
(“this”) or distance (“that”) are not always obligatory. “Ce livre” means either “this
book” or “that book,” depending on context.
However, there are times when the distinction needs to be made in French
between two different like objects.
I want this book, not that book.
Je veux ce livre-ci, pas ce livre-là.
Demonstrative adjectives.
An adjective modifies a noun and agrees in number and gender.
ce livre, cet appartement
ces livres, ces appartements
cette chaise
ces chaises
Demonstrative pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun. Demonstrative pronouns can replace a noun modified
by a demonstrative adjective:
ce livre
celui-ci, celui-là
(this one, that one)
cette chaise celle-ci, celle-là
ces livres
ceux-ci, ceux-là
(these [ones], those [ones])
ces chaises
celles-ci, celles-là
but they are not limited to that function alone:
Le livre que j’ai acheté
The book that I bought
Celui que j’ai acheté
The one that I bought
Le livre qui est sur la table
The book which is on the table
Celui qui est sur la table
The one which is on the table
Le livre de mon frère
My brother’s book
Celui de mon frère
My brother’s (“The one of my brother” is not
normally said in English.)
Note that in any case, the demonstrative pronoun can NOT be used alone; it must be
followed by either –ci or –là, a relative pronoun (qui, que, etc.), or the possessive “de”.
Indefinite Demonstrative Pronouns: ceci, cela, ça
They have no definite antecedent (noun which they replace).
Lisez ceci, pas cela. Read this, not that. This what? That what? We don’t know.
“Ça” is the shortened, informal form of “cela.” It is used mainly in conversation,
less in writing. In your compositions, avoid using it.
“IT”: “ce” (introductory demonstrative pronoun) or “il” / “elle”?
Je lis le livre. Il est facile.
I’m reading the book. It is easy. (“It” = the book)
Ce livre est facile à lire.
This book is easy to read.
Il est facile à lire.
It (the book) is easy to read.
Je lis le livre. C’est facile.
7
I’m reading the book. It is easy. (“It” = reading)
Il est (formal) / C’est (informal) facile de lire ce livre.
It is easy to read this book (i.e., reading this book is easy).
“C’est” or “il / elle est”?
General rule:
A. After “c’est” or “ce sont”, there should be a predicate nominative, that is, a noun or a
pronoun:
C’est un livre.
It’s a book.
C’est Georges.
It’s George.
C’est moi.
It’s me.
C’est le mien.
It’s mine.
B. After “il est” (etc.) there should be either an adjective or some other part of speech
(such as a prepositional phrase), but not a noun or a pronoun.
(Le livre est rouge.) Il est rouge. It is red.
(Georges est grand.) Il est grand. He is tall.
(Le livre est à moi.) Il est à moi. It’s mine.
Exception to A and B: There can be an adjective after “c’est” if the adjective does not
refer to a specific noun.
Je lis ce livre. C’est facile. I’m reading this book. It’s easy. (“it” = the act of
reading, not the book).
Note, then, that there are two ways of saying “He is a doctor”:
Il est médecin. (“médecin” is in fact acting like an adjective)
C’est un médecin. (here, “medecin” is clearly a noun, since it is preceded
by “un”.)
On the other hand, it is possible to translate “He is a good doctor” either way:
Il est un bon médecin. (“medecin” can no longer be an adjective since it
modified by another adjective: “bon”; so, in this case, a noun, “médecin,” follows “il
est”)
C’est un bon médecin. (This form is preferable.)
8
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
I. Interrogative Pronouns for subjects and direct objects:
The following sentences are answers. What questions ask for the information
contained in the underlined portion?
1. Je vois le train. (thing; direct object)
2. Je vois l’homme. (person; direct object)
3. Le train arrive. (thing; subject)
4. L’homme arrive. (person; subject)
The questions can be formulated in a long or a short form in three cases; in one
case (number 3, below) there is only one form, i.e., the long form:
1. (thing; direct object: Je vois le train.)
short form (with inversion):
Que vois-tu?
long form (without inversion):
Qu’est-ce que tu vois?
2. (person; direct object Je vois l’homme.)
short form (with inversion):
Qui vois-tu?
long form (without inversion):
Qui est-ce que tu vois?
3. (thing; subject: Le train arrive.)
there is no short form; the following can not exist:
Qu’arrive?
long form only:
Qu’est-ce qui arrive?
4. (person; subject: L’homme arrive.)
short form:
Qui arrive?
long form:
Qui est-ce qui arrive?
SUMMARY TABLE OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS “QUE” AND “QUI”:
direct
object
subject
thing
1.
que
qu’est-ce que
3.
que
qu’est-ce qui
Remarks:
9
person
2.
qui
qui est-ce que
4.
qui
qui est-ce qui
1. Things vs. persons: “que” is always used for things only; “qui” is always used for
persons only. In the above table, “que” and “qui”, showing persons and things, are the
first element of the long form and are in italics.
2. Direct objects vs. subjects: The last element of the long form, shown in boldface
type, signals the distinction between direct objects and subjects. Notice that “que”
signals direct objects and “qui” signals subjects. These pronouns are in fact relative
pronouns, not to be confused with interrogative pronouns.
II. Interrogative pronouns for objects of prepositions:
1. Je mange avec André.
Avec qui manges-tu?
Avec qui est-ce que tu manges?
2. Je mange avec une fourchette.
Avec quoi manges-tu?
Avec quoi est-ce que tu manges?
Summary: for persons, use “qui”; for things, use “quoi”. Note that “quoi” is the tonic
form of “que” (just as “moi” and “toi” are the tonic forms of “me” and “te”, respectively).
III. Questions of choice: “quel”, “lequel”, etc.
1.
2.
J’aime ce vin-ci.
Quel vin aimes-tu? (Which wine…?)
J’aime celui-ci.
Lequel aimes-tu? (Which one…?)
Cet homme-là est gentil.
Quel homme est gentil? (Which man…?)
Celui-là est gentil.
Lequel est gentil? (Which one…?)
IV. Questions asking for a definition:
1. Long form: Qu’est-ce que c’est que le surréalisme?
2. Short form (without “est-ce que”): Qu’est-ce que le surréalisme?
Both mean “What is surrealism?
Important distinction between III and IV: both can translate “what”!
1. What is your address? Quelle est votre adresse?
I’m not asking for a definition of your address (“My address is the set of
coordinates using which you can find my house.”).
2. What is a trinket? Qu’est-ce que c’est qu’une babiole? (“Une babiole est un objet de
peu de valeur.”)
V. Inversion: To invert or not to invert, that is the… question.
1. Never invert subject and verb if “est-ce que” is used.
2. Without “est-ce que”, you can always invert a pronoun subject and its verb.
Allons-nous au bar? A-t-il fini?
10
Problem: inversion when the subject is a noun:
3. If the question asks for a “yes” or “no” answer (“interrogation globale”), you must
invert using the pronoun which corresponds to the noun subject:
Georges chante-t-il? Cet homme a-t-il fini?
4. If the question asks for specific information (“interrogation partielle”), it is possible in
certain short and simple questions to invert noun and verb. Note that these will begin
with some form of “question word” (que, qui, comment, où, quand, etc.).
Où est la gare? Comment est le professeur? À quelle heure commence le film?
Que fait ton père?
In more complex constructions, however, the pronoun should be added for inversion.
Où la gare a-t-elle été construite? Comment le professeur est-il capable de
répondre à une telle question? À quelle heure le film a-t-il commencé hier soir? Que ton
père aurait-il fait dans une situation pareille?
5. Always add the pronoun when inversion is used with a noun subject in a question
beginning with “pourquoi”.
Pourquoi le train est-il en retard?
6. The whole question of inversion is moot if you use “est-ce que”! And in conversation,
a yes/no question can be asked simply by raising the intonation at the end of the sentence.
Tu vas au cinéma?
11
PASSIVE VOICE
I. Distinction between the passive voice and the active voice:
A. In the active voice, the subject performs the action, the action is expressed by a verb,
and the action can be directed at a direct object (i.e., the subject is acting on the object):
Les étudiants lisent le livre.
Le professeur pose des questions.
B. In the passive voice, the situation is somewhat reversed. The direct object of the
active voice becomes the grammatical subject of the passive voice; and the subject of the
active voice becomes the object of a preposition, usually “par” or “de”. The verb of the
passive voice is “être”; the verb of the active voice shows up in the passive voice as a
past participle functioning as an adjective.
ACTIVE
Les étudiants lisent le livre.
(The students read the book.)
Le professeur pose des questions.
(The teacher asks questions.)
subject

verb
direct object

PASSIVE

Le livre est lu par les étudiants.
(The book is read by the students.)

Des questions sont posées par le professeur.
(Questions are asked by the teacher.)
object of preposition

past participle (adjective)

subject
C. Frequent source of confusion: what is the difference between these two sentences?
1. Marie est intéressée par le livre.
2. Marie est arrivée par le train.
(Marie is interested by the book.)
(Marie has arrived by train.)
Sentence 1 is in the present tense (“est”) of the passive voice; “intéressée”
(“interested”), the past participle of “intéresser” (“to interest”), being used as an adjective
modifying “Marie.” Sentence 2 is in the passé composé of the active voice; the past
participle “arrivée” is simply functioning as a past participle, no more. The confusion
comes from the presence of “est” followed by a past participle in both cases. But in the
second case, “est” is the auxiliary verb for the passé composé of “arriver”, a
“Vandertrampp” verb.
II. Rules to remember
A. In French, the subject of the passive voice can be only the direct object of the active
voice. This is not always the case in English. Consider the following:
Paul was given a book by Jacques. (Active voice: Jacques gave a book to Paul.)
Notice that “Paul” is the indirect object of the active voice (“book” is the direct
object). Thus the following sentence is impossible in French:
Paul a été donné un livre par Jacques. (Strike-through indicates incorrectness.)
Therefore, in order to translate “Paul was given a book by Jacques” into French,
your only choice is to use the active voice: Jacques a donné un livre à Paul.
12
The situation gets trickier when you realize that certain verbs in French require
the use of “à” after them, while their English counterparts do not.
The question was answered by the teacher. (Active: The teacher answered the
question.) In English, it is quite straightforward:
“the question” is the direct object of the active voice
and therefore the subject of the passive voice.
But the translation of the active voice into French reveals an important difference:
Le professeur a répondu à la question.
“Répondre” must be followed by “à” before an object; therefore no direct object
is possible. So, to translate “The question was answered by the teacher”, we must use the
French active voice: “Le professeur a répondu à la question.”
But what if no agent (subject of the active voice) is expressed?
“The questions were quickly answered.” (By whom? It is not expressed.) In
order to put this into the active voice in French, an agent must be used: “on”. Thus, the
translation is:
“On a vite répondu aux questions.”
B. The verb tense of the French passive voice is the same as it would be if it were
expressed in the active voice. Therefore, when in doubt, it is good to convert to the
active voice in order to check.
1. Des soldats ont entouré la maison
La maison a été entourée par des soldats.
Soldiers surrounded the house.
The house was surrounded by
soldiers.
The passé composé indicates an action: soldiers came in and took up positions
around a house that was isolated moments before.
2. Des soldats entouraient la maison.
La maison était entourée de soldats.
Soldiers surrounded the house.
The house was surrounded by
soldiers.
The imperfect tense indicates a static situation: soldiers are in position and
waiting.
Notice that the change of tenses is necessary in French; that is, you must decide
whether the situation is dynamic (passé composé) or static (imperfect). In English,
ambiguity is permitted. Furthermore, when deciding how to translate the passive voice
sentence from English to French, the verb “was” must be translated in one of two
possible ways, “a été” or “était”, depending on whether the situation is dynamic (“a été”)
or static (“était”).
One final point about the above example: In the dynamic sentence, the agent is
introduced by “par”; in the static sentence, it is possible (although not always necessary)
to introduce the agent by “de”, in which case “des” goes away. (Quand “de” rencontre
“des”, “des” disparaît. When “de” meets “des”, “des” goes away.)
C. Sometimes reflexive verbs can be used to convey a sense of the passive voice for
statements that can pass for general rules.
Le vin blanc se boit frais.
White wine is drunk chilled. (general)
BUT: Ce soir, on boit du vin blanc. This evening, we’re drinking white wine.
(particular)
En France, la salade se sert après le plat principal. (general)
13
In France, salad is served after the main course.
BUT: Mais ce soir, on servira la salade avant. (particular)
But this evening, the salade will be served before.
14
Past Participles and Composed Verb Tenses
A composed verb tense, such as the passé composé, is composed or made up of
two parts: the auxiliary (or “helping verb”) and the past participle.
I have spoken
J’ai parlé
The above is an example of the passé composé. It is a past tense composed of a
conjugated form of the auxiliary, in this case, “avoir”, and the past participle of the verb
which represents the action of speaking. In simple (non-composed) tenses, it is the main
verb which is conjugated. For example: je parle, je parlais, je parlerai, etc. But in a
composed tense, only the auxiliary is conjugated: j’ai parlé, tu as parlé, etc.
Regular verbs have regular past participles:
parler
parlé
finir
fini
vendre
vendu
Irregular verbs often have irregular past participles and must be remembered on a
case by case basis.
être
été
ouvrir
ouvert
avoir
eu
faire
fait
etc.
There are only two verbs used as auxiliaries in French : avoir and être. Avoir is
by far the most commonly occurring auxiliary. Être is used for intransitive verbs of
motion (so-called “MRS. R.D. VANDERTRAMPP” verbs) and reflexive verbs.
MRS. R. D. VANDERTRAMPP: each letter in the name is the initial of one of
the verbs of motion:
monter
entrer
rester
revenir
sortir
tomber
rentrer
retourner
descendre
arriver
venir
mourir
aller
partir
naître
passer
devenir
Rules governing the agreement of the past participle:
1. The past participle agrees with the preceding direct object. All the terms of
this rule are important; the object must be direct, not indirect, and it must be placed
before the verb in the sentence, not after.
Examples:
Nous avons acheté les chaises. Nous les avons achetées. (les is the direct object
pronoun which replaces the feminine plural chaises ; it precedes the verb.)
Les chaises que nous avons achetées sont jolies. (que is a relative pronoun which
replaces chaises ; it precedes the verb of the relative clause, “que nous avons achetées”)
15
Quelles chaises avez-vous achetées ? (vous is the subject ; chaises is the direct
object ; it precedes the verb because the sentence is a question.)
2. The only exception to the above rule is found with the VANDERTRAMPP
verbs. Their past participle agrees with the subject.
Examples: nous sommes sortis, elles sont allées, ils sont nés, elle est morte, etc.
Note again that the VANDERTRAMPP verbs have être as their auxiliary.
3. Reflexive verbs, like VANDERTRAMPP verbs, have être as their auxiliary.
But the resemblance ends there! Their past participle agrees with the preceding direct
object. The reason that reflexive and VANDERTRAMPP verbs are often confused is
that, by definition, a reflexive verb is one whose subject is the same person as its object.
The following looks every bit like a VANDERTRAMPP verb:
Elle s’est lavée. She washed herself.
But it is not a VANDERTRAMPP
verb. The direct object, “se”, “herself”, is the same person as “she”. Since “elle” is
feminine, “se” is also feminine. And since “se” is a preceding direct object, the past
participle agrees.
Elles se sont parlé. They spoke to each other. In this case, “se” is an indirect
object, due to the fact that the use of “parler” implies the preposition “à”:
Janine a parlé à Alice ; Alice a parlé à Janine ; elles se sont parlé.
The trick is to remember which verbs in French require the use of “à”. It is tricky
because there is rarely the neat correlation between French and English usage that we see
in “parler à” “to speak to”. For example:
They answered each other. Ils se sont répondu. (répondre à)
She wondered why French is so complicated. Elle s’est demandé pourquoi le
français est si compliqué. (demander à)
OK, how important is this ? In conversation, the agreement or non-agreement of
the past participle is rarely noticed, but it can happen: Elle s’est assise (the “e” of
agreement requires that the “s” be pronounced). But in writing, incorrect usage is always
visible and is important according to whether one cares about the impression one’s
written words will make on a literate reader. Ask yourself: in a job application letter,
how important are spelling errors? There are simply times when agreement errors in
French will not go unnoticed and can be a source of embarassment or a bad impression.
For a humorous take on the issue of the agreement of the past participle in French,
try the link “passé composé humor.gif” under the main “Grammar” directory.
16
POSSESSIVES: A MIX
I. Possessive adjectives:
mon livre, ma chaise, mes cousins
ton livre, ta chaise, tes cousins
son livre, sa chaise, ses cousins
notre livre, notre chaise, nos cousins
votre livre, votre chaise, vos cousins
leur livres, leur chaise, leurs cousins
As do all adjectives, they agree with the noun they modify:
son livre=his book or her book
sa chaise=his chair or her chair
ses cousins=his cousins or her cousins
leur cousin=their cousin
II. Possessive pronouns:
le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes =
mine
le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes =
yours
le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes
=
his/hers
le nôtre, la nôtre, les nôtres
=
ours
le vôtre, la vôtre, les vôtres
=
yours
le leur, la leur, les leurs
=
theirs
A pronoun replaces a noun; a possessive pronoun replaces a noun modified by a
possessive adjective.
Mon livre est bleu; le tien est jaune. My book is blue, yours is yellow.
III. Problem cases: putting it together
A. There is a major syntactical difference between French possessives and
English possessives in the case of nouns; there is no direct equivalent in French of the
“apostrophe s”. It is rendered by a particular use of “de”.
It is Jack’s book.
=C’est le livre de Jacques. (note the radical difference in word
order)
It is his book.
=C’est son livre.
It is his.
=C’est le sien.
B. Possessive vs. stress pronouns to show possession: Remember the general
rule that a noun or pronoun is generally not placed after il est, elle est, ils sont, elles sont.
À qui est ce livre?
Whose book is this? Il est à moi.
It is mine.
but: C’est le mien. It is mine.
Do not say: Il est le mien.
C’est à moi. (except in informal speech)
C. Problem translations:
Whose book is this? À qui est ce livre?
I know the author whose book is on the table.
Je connais l’auteur dont le livre est sur la table. (le livre de l’auteur...)
It is the author’s book.
C’est le livre de l’auteur.
Whose book is this? À qui est ce livre?
17
It is the author’s.
It’s his book.
It’s his.
It’s his.
C’est celui de l’auteur.
C’est son livre.
C’est le sien.
Il est à lui.
N.B.:
1. “dont” is a relative pronoun (treated in another chapter) which incorporates
“de”; remember that “de” loosely corresponds to the “apostrophe s” of English.
2. “celui” (etc.) is a demonstrative pronoun (treated in another chapter); “celui
de” means literally “the one of”. If you ponder it for a moment, you can see why “Celui
de l’auteur est sur la table” is the only possible way of translating “The author’s is on the
table.”
18
REVIEW OF PRONOUNS
1. Subject pronouns:
1. je
2. tu
3. il, elle
nous
vous
ils, elles
2. Stress pronouns (object of preposition, alone, after que in comparisons, etc.):
1. moi
nous
2. toi
vous
3. lui, elle
eux, elles
3. Direct object pronouns:
1. me
2. te
3. le, la
nous
vous
les
4. Indirect object pronouns:
1. me
nous
2. te
vous
3. lui
leur
5. Reflexive pronouns:
1. me
2. te
3. se
nous
vous
se
6. Pronoun which replaces any preposition (except “de”) and its noun object: y
(for things only; for persons, use either #2 or #4, above)
“À”: Note the following usages.
Je pense au livre. J’y pense. (thing)
Je pense à Jacques. Je pense à lui. (person; “à” is strong)
Je réponds au téléphone. J’y réponds. (thing)
Je réponds au professeur. Je lui réponds. (person)
7. Pronoun which replaces “de” and its noun object: en
(for things only; for persons, use #2, above)
“DE”: Note the following usages:
Je parle du livre. J’en parle. (thing)
Je parle de Janine. Je parle d’elle. (person)
8. Reflexive verbs:
Je m’intéresse au livre. Je m’y intéresse. (thing)
Je m’intéresse à Marie. Je m’intéresse à elle. (person)
19
ORDER OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS
(le)
Tu me donnes le livre.
Tu me le donnes. (indirect then direct)
(le)
Je te donne le livre.
Je te le donne. (indirect then direct)
(le)
(lui)
Je donne le livre à Jacques.
Je le lui donne. (both are 3rd person: direct then indirect)
ORDER OF PRONOUNS
A.. Normal sentence order:
{ind./dir.}
Subj. + ne + {dir./ind.} + y + en + VERB [-subj. if ?] + pas (hyphen before ? subj.)
(p.c.= aux.)
Example: Ne lui en as-tu pas donné?
B. Order for a command:
VERB-dir.-ind.-y-en (hyphens between all of them)
Examples: Envoyez-lui-en. Envoyez-le-moi.
C. Order for a negative command: go back to A, above.
Examples: Ne lui en envoyez pas. Ne me l’envoyez pas
20
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A. Direct object: que (for both persons and things)
1.
Le livre est grand. Je vois le livre.
Le livre que je vois est grand.
2.
L'homme est grand. Je vois l'homme.
L'homme que je vois est grand.
B. Subject: qui (for both persons and things)
3.
Le livre est grand. Le livre arrive.
Le livre qui arrive est grand.
4.
L'homme est grand. L'homme arrive.
L'homme qui arrive est grand.
SUMMARY TABLE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS “QUE” AND “QUI”
direct objects
subjects
things
1. que
3. qui
persons
2. que
4. qui
Note: Look at the review sheet on interrogative pronouns. Note that the second pronoun
of the long forms (“qu’est-ce qui,” etc.) is in fact a relative pronoun. You should realize
that the rules for the use of interrogative pronouns (“que” is used for things, “qui” for
people) are the inverse of those governing relative pronouns (“que” is used for direct
objects, “qui” for subjects).
C. Object of preposition (except "de"!): a form of "lequel" (for both persons
and things):
singular
plural
masculine
lequel
lesquels
feminine
laquelle
lesquelles
La fourchette est sale. Je mange avec la fourchette.
La fourchette avec laquelle je mange est sale.
L'homme est sale. Je mange avec l'homme.
L'homme avec lequel je mange est sale.
Exception: if it is a person, "qui" usually replaces "lequel".
L'homme avec qui je mange est sale.
Note that “lequel,” etc. must contract with “à” and “de”: auquel, auxquels, etc.
D. Object of the preposition "de": use "dont" for both persons and things.
Yes, the word "dont" takes some "getting used to": it resembles the English "don't" but
has absolutely nothing to do with it!
Le livre est grand. Je parle du livre.
Le livre dont je parle est grand.
21
L'homme est grand. Je parle de l'homme.
L'homme dont je parle est grand.
This construction also shows possession, in which case it is equivalent to the
English "whose":
Marianne est avocate. Le père de Marianne est médecin.
Marianne, dont le père est médecin, est avocate.
(Notice the inversion of "dont" and "le père" as compared to "le père de
Marianne".)
Marianne est avocate. Je connais le père de Marianne.
Marianne, dont je connais le père, est avocate.
E. Exceptions to D above:
1. Compound prepositions which end with "de", such as "à côté de", "près de",
etc. In other words, "à côté de" is not "de", it is "à côté de"! Therefore, it follows the
rules set out in C above.
Le bureau est grand. Je suis assis à côté du bureau.
Le bureau à côté duquel je suis assis est grand.
L'homme est grand. Je suis assis à côté de l'homme.
L'homme à côté duquel (de qui) je suis assis est grand.
2. "Dont" will not be used when the antecedent is already subordinated to another
preposition:
Marianne est avocate. J'écris au père de Marianne.
Marianne, au père de qui j'écris, est avocate.
(Marianne, to whose father I am writing [whose father I'm writing to], is a
lawyer.)
Le livre est rouge. Je pense à la couverture du livre.
Le livre à la couverture duquel je pense est rouge.
(The book whose cover I'm thinking about is red.)
(This point is quite advanced; although you may not need to use it, it is helpful to be
aware of it.)
F. Unspecified antecedents (usually considered as things): use "ce"
1. direct object:
Je vois quelque chose. C’est grand.
Ce que je vois est grand.
2. subject:
Quelque chose arrive. C’est grand.
Ce qui arrive est grand.
3. object of "de":
Je parle de quelque chose. C’est grand
Ce dont je parle est grand.
4. object of any other preposition: use "quoi"
Il mange avec quelque chose. C’est sale
Ce avec quoi il mange est sale.
22
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
1. Demonstrative (so-called because they point, “demonstrate”) pronouns can replace
nouns modified by demonstrative adjectives:
Ce livre est intéressant. Celui-ci/celui-là est intéressant.
(Note that the pronoun cannot be used alone; in this case, either “-ci” or “-là”
must be added; for more about this, see below.)
Demonstrative adjectives:
masculine
feminine
cette
singular ce (“cet” before
vowel)
ces
ces
plural
Demonstrative pronouns:
maculine feminine
celle
singular celui
ceux
celles
plural
2. A demonstrative pronoun can also replace a noun modified (clarified) by a relative
clause which follows it.
Le livre que j’ai acheté est rouge. The book I bought is red. (direct object)
Celui que j’ai acheté est rouge. The one I bought is red.
Le livre qui est sur la table est rouge. The book which is on the table is red.
(subject)
Celui qui est sur la table est rouge. The one which is on the table is red.
La fourchette avec laquelle je mange est sale. The fork I’m eating with is dirty.
Celle avec laquelle je mange est sale. The one I’m eating with is dirty.
Les livres dont tu as besoin sont intéressants. The books you need are interesting.
Ceux dont tu as besoin sont intéressants. The ones you need are
interesting.
3. A demonstrative pronoun can also replace a noun indicating a possession:
Le livre de Jean est rouge. John’s book is red. (Note the important difference
between English and French syntax.)
Celui de Jean est rouge. John’s is red.
4. Final general note on demonstrative pronouns: They can never be used alone. That is,
as you can see in the above examples, they will be followed by “-ci,” “-là,” “que,” “qui,”
“de,” “dont,” or a preposition followed by a form of “lequel.”
23
AGREEMENT OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE
1. The past participles of the so-called “Dr. and Mrs. Vandertrampp” verbs agree with
their subjects. This happens ONLY with “Vandertrampp” verbs.
Marie est arrivée. Ils sont partis. Etc.
2. Otherwise, the following rule always applies: THE PAST PARTICIPLE AGREES
WITH THE PRECEDING DIRECT OBJECT. That is: it must be a direct object and
it must precede.
J’ai acheté les livres. Je les ai achetés. (agrees with “les,” which replaces “les
livres”)
Les livres que j’ai achetés sont rouges. (agrees with “que,” which replaces “Les
livres”)
Quels livres as-tu achetés? (agrees with “livres”; “tu” is the subject!)
The above rule also applies to reflexive verbs. They take “être” as an auxiliary, but they
are not “Vandertrampp” verbs!
Elles se sont levées à sept heures. (“se” is the direct object; it refers to “elles”)
Puis, elles se sont téléphoné. (No agreement because the verb is “téléphoner à,” and,
therefore, “se” is an indirect object. Compare: J’ai téléphoné à ma mère. Je lui ai
téléphoné.)
24
A Few Notes on the SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive mood (it is not a tense) seems difficult to an English speaker
because it can usually be avoided in English. Instead of saying
It is necessary that you be on time.
there is a tendency to say something like
It is necessary for you to be on time.
“You be” sounds odd as a conjugation of “to be”. It is, in fact, the present subjunctive of
“to be” in English (i.e., the subjunctive is formed in English by taking the infinitive and
dropping “to”).
Unlike English, the subjunctive cannot be avoided in French (or, at least, not as
easily!). To translate “It is necessary for you to be on time”, one must say “Il est
nécessaire / Il faut que tu sois à l’heure”, which is—word for word—the same as “It is
necessary that you be on time”. Similarly, there are many English constructions that can
give rise to monstrosities in French:
I want you to come.
Je te veux venir. NO!!
Je veux que tu viennes. YES!
Note, however, that although “I want that you come” is a near-monstrosity in English, it
is nevertheless a possible sentence. “Je te veux venir” is impossible in French.
In any case, the subjunctive is always set up by some expression which
establishes certain conditions of desire, doubt, fear, or some other emotions, which by
definition are subjective. “Subjective” only coincidentally resembles the word
“subjunctive”; in fact “subjunctive” is related to “subjoin”—to place in immediate
juxtaposition, to add as a related or subordinated element:
Subjunctive: Designating the mood of a verb of which the
essential function is to state a relation wished, thought of, etc., by the
speaker between the subject and predicate (as opposed to a relation of
objective fact), frequently occurring in a subjoined or subordinate clause
(from The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary).
The emotional conditions can be expressed by either a phrase in the main clause such as
“je veux que”, “tu as envie que”, “il vaut mieux que”, etc. or a conjunction such as “bien
que”, “pourvu que”, etc.
There are times in French, nevertheless, when it is necessary to avoid the
subjunctive in order to avoid repeating the same subject in two different clauses. Study
the following illustrations in which two phrases are combined into one sentence:
Tu viens. (Je le veux.)
Je veux que tu viennes.
25
Je viens. (Je le veux.)
Je veux venir. (“je” not repeated)
Je fais le travail. (Tu en as envie.) Tu as envie que je fasse le travail.
Tu fais le travail. (Tu en as envie.) Tu as envie de faire le travail. (“tu” not repeated)
Je ferme la lumière. (avant) Tu finis.
Je ferme la lumière avant que tu finisses.
Je ferme la lumière. (avant) Je finis. Je ferme la lumière avant de finir.
(“je” not repeated)
This can be the case even for expressions in which the subjunctive plays no role:
Tu es à l’heure. (Je le crois.)
Je suis à l’heure. (Je le crois.)
time.”)
Je crois que tu es à l’heure.
Je crois être à l’heure. (“I think [that] I’m on
26
A Few Problems with French Verb Tenses versus their English Equivalents
I. “If” and result clauses. For once, there is a point-for-point equivalency between
English and French
1. If I go to Paris, I will see the Eiffel Tower.
Si je vais à Paris, je verrai la Tour
Eiffel.
2. If I went to P., I would see the E.T.
Si j’allais à P., je verrais la T.E.
3. If I had gone to P., I would have seen the E.T. Si j’étais allé à P., j’aurais vu la
T.E.
Summary:
“If”
Result
present
future
imperfect
conditional
plus-que-parfait
past conditional
II. “Quand” (etc.) and the future tense:
If you take the above sentences (I.1.) and replace “if”/”si” with “when”/”quand”,
notice what happens:
(If I go to Paris, I will see the Eiffel Tower.
Si je vais à Paris, je verrai la Tour
Eiffel.)
When I go to Paris, I will see the E.T.
Quand j’irai à Paris, je verrai la T.E.
In the above example, going to Paris is a future action; therefore it must be
expressed by the future tense in French (whereas it remains in the present in English;
French is more logical here!). The same rule holds after “quand” and “lorsque,”
(“when”) and “dès que” and “aussitôt que” (“as soon as”).
Note that “dès que,” and “aussitôt que” (“as soon as”) could also typically be used
with either the futur or the futur antérieur, depending on what you mean to express.
Compare:
As soon as I arrive, I will go to the hotel.
Dès que/Aussitôt que j’arriverai, j’irai à l’hôtel.
As soon as I have arrived, I will go to the hotel.
Dès que/Aussitôt que je serai arrivé, j’irai à l’hôtel.
On the other hand, “quand” and “lorsque,” (“when”) and “dès que” and “aussitôt
que” (“as soon as”) could be used with the past or the present tenses if that is what is
meant.
Quand je suis allé/je vais à Paris, j’ai vu/je vois la T.E.
Dès que j’y suis arrivé/j’y arrive, je suis allé/je vais à l’hôtel.
The point is that if one part of a sentence (with one of the four expressions) is in the
future, then so must the other.
27
III. “For” translated into French with verb tenses:
A. Let’s get one thing straight right away: “for” is translated as “pour” only in a
very limited sense.
I do it for you.
Je le fais pour toi.
I work (in order to) earn money.
Je travaille pour gagner de l’argent.
Projecting forward from a point in time:
How long are you here for? Vous êtes là pour combien de temps?
I’m here for two weeks (for a two-week stay).
Je suis là pour deux
semaines.
B. Otherwise, “for” is either “pendant” or “depuis,” depending on very specific
temporal contexts.
Pendant:
“Pendant” means “during.” It circumscribes a completed action, one that has a
definite beginning and end, and, as such, it is the “for” which is used with (but not
limited to) the passé composé.
I slept for eight hours. J’ai dormi pendant huit heures. (Note that both “for” and
“pendant” can be omitted from both sentences with no change in meaning.)
I will work during my stay. Je travaillerai pendant mon séjour.
I worked during my stay.
J’ai travaillé pendant mon séjour.
Note that “pendant que” means “while”, and is usually used with the imperfect tense.
While I was sleeping, I was snoring/I snored.
Pendant que je dormais, je ronflais/j’ai ronflé.
Depuis:
“Depuis” means “since” and is used to convey an action or state which started at
one point in time and continued into another, later, point.
I have been reading since this morning.
Je lis depuis ce matin.
I have been reading for eight hours.
Je lis depuis huit heures et demie.
In both the above cases, “I” started reading at a point in the past and I still
am reading now, in the present, as I speak.
Notice that in French, it is “depuis” which conveys this complex temporal
situation. In English it is the verb tense, which looks like a hybrid of past and present.
I am reading. (I’m still reading at present.)
I have read. (I started reading in the past.)
I have been reading. (I started reading in the past and I’m still reading in the
present.)
The following sentence is ambiguous:
Je lis depuis une heure.
I have been reading since one o’clock. (point in
time)
I have been reading for one hour. (amount of time)
In order to overcome some of the ambiguity, the following alternative can be used:
Il y a une heure que je lis. =
28
Voilà une heure que je lis. =
I have been reading for one hour.
Ça fait une heure que je lis. =
(Remember: “il y a” used before an expression of an amount of time and without “que”
signifies “ago”. J’ai lu l’article il y a une heure. I read the article an hour ago.)
What if the above sentences are put into the past? Which tense is to be used with
depuis?
The following familiar structure should make it clear:
I was reading when you arrived.
Je lisais quand tu es arrivé. (The ongoing action,
expressed by the imperfect, is interrupted by an event, the passé composé.)
Take the same exact French sentence and simply add “depuis trente minutes”:
Je lisais depuis trente minutes quand tu es arrivé.
Notice how the English sentence (“I was reading when you arrived”) has to
change rather dramatically in order to accomodate the new information:
I had been reading for thirty minutes when you arrived.
IV. Reminder:
Be careful of the English/French equivalencies of the following various verb
forms and tenses.
J’ai parlé. (passé composé): I have spoken. / I spoke.
J’avais parlé. (plus-que-parfait):
I had spoken.
Je viens de parler. (venir de + infinitive; immediate past): I have just spoken.
Je venais de parler. (imperfect of venir de + infinitive):
I had just spoken.
Je parle depuis dix minutes. (influence of depuis):
I have been speaking for ten
minutes.
Je parlais depuis dix minutes. (influence of depuis): I had been speaking for ten
minutes.
29
30