Download PARAGRAPH #1 – Introduction

Everything You Wanted to Know About
English and Literary Terms, But Were
Afraid To Ask
By: James L. Smith
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English Survival Notes
TYPES OF SENTENCES
I. A. Sentence - a group of words that expresses a complete
thought. All sentences start with a capital letter. A sentence
must have a subject and a verb (predicate).
B . Declarative Sentence- a sentence that makes a statement.
It ends with a period.
EXAMPLE: I bought a new car for my birthday.
C. Interrogative Sentence - a sentence that asks a question. It
always ends with a question mark.
EXAMPLE: What are you going to give me for my birthday?
D. Imperative Sentence - a sentence that gives a command or
makes a request. It ends with a period. (YOU) is always the
subject of an imperative sentencel
EXAMPLE: Please put up the book. (Subject = You)
E. Exclamatory Sentence - a sentence that shows excitement or
strong feeling. It ends with an exclamation mark. (!) Exclamatory
sentences can also be imperative sentences
EXAMPLE:
Stop talking now! (You) is the understood
subject. This is a command, therefore making it an imperative
sentence.
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PARTS OF SPEECH
II. Preposition - a preposition is usually followed by a noun or
pronoun. This noun or pronoun is called the object of the
preposition. The preposition, its object, and the object's
modifiers make up a prepositional phrase.
MOST COMMONLY USED PREPOSITIONS
aboard
against
along
beneath
by
despite
excepting
for
inside
like
over
since
underneath
without
at
down
off
under
beside in
through
with
with
between
into
throughout
from
since
upon
upon
of
toward
but
onto
out
concerning
except
outside
past
regarding
round
in
past
up
unlike
after
about
before
during
on
to
within
off
around
until
underneath across
below
as
throughout
till
near
under
above
behind
except
toward within
among
beyond
Some Compound Prepositions
according to
in addition to
next to
aside from
in place of
on account of
because of
in spite of
out of
on top of
out of
except for
along with
apart from
in addition to
in back of
as for
in case of
in front of
in spite of
instead of
up to
by means of
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III. NOUNS
A. Concrete Nouns - take up space in the physical world.
Ex. boy
car
city
B. Abstract Nouns - are ideas, emotions, qualities, or
actions,
Ex. freedom joy
beauty running
C. Collective Nouns - stand for a group of things
Ex. flock
family
committee
D. Compound Nouns - are made up of two or more words
Ex. cupcake jack-o-lantern
IV. VERBS - tell what the subject does, is, has or feels.
A. Main verb- last verb in the verb phrase. Must be an
ACTION verb or LINKING verb.
1. The simple predicate (VERB) is made up of at least
one verb; a word that shows action or state of being.
B. Compound verb - when a sentence has two or more main
verbs (action or linking) joined by the connecting word and
or or, or but.
Ex. Insects live and thrive everywhere ion the planet.
C. MAIN VERB - last verb in a verb phrase. Must be an
ACTION verb or LINKING verb
***THERE ARE THREE (3) TYPES OF VERBS
1. helping verb,
2. Linking verb
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3. Action verb
D. Helping Verb - must come before the main verb
Ex. Tom must have gone to the library.
E. *LINKING VERBS
am is are
was were
be being been
*look
*sound
*feel
*smell
*taste
*may also be used as action verbs
HELPING VERBS
do
does
did
Examples of
sit
stand
play
have
has
had
may
might
must
should
would
could
Common Action Verbs
run
hit
throw
jump
jog
hop
take
*grow
*remain/stay
*feel
*become
*seem
(to be
verbs)
is
am
are
was
were
be
being
been
shall
will
can
sat
yell
walk
talk
F. Verb Phrases
A verb phrase may be composed of one word or two or more verbs
placed as a group. This group is called a verb phrase
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Verb phrases always consist of a helping verb and a main verb
VERB PHRASE
=
HELPING VERB(S)
+
MAIN VERB
can play
=
can
+
play
has been taken
=
has
+
taken
should have left
=
should have
+
left
G.
VERB TENSES
Present
fly, flies
go, goes
Past Future
flew will fly
went will go
Present Perfect
has/have flown
has/have gone
Past Perfect
had flown
had gone
Future Perfect
will have flown
will have gone
Helping verbs can be used alone as a verb in some cases.
Example:
I am here
(used as a verb)
I am going to a cookout.
( am used as a helping
verb)
Helping verbs can also be used as main verbs. Helping verbs
work with main verbs to help you understand what action is
taking place.
**Note, most ing verbs have a helping verb with them.
Sometimes a sentence can have up to three (3) helping verbs
plus a main verb.
Example:
Joseph had been in a play (been is used as a
main verb)
Her friend has been crying. (has been is used as
a helping verb)
The dog must have been chasing me. (must have
been = helping verbs + chasing = main verb)
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In declarative (statement) sentences, the verb phrase is usually
together.
Example:
The box had been sent in the mail.
FINDING SUBJECTS AND VERBS IN
SENTENCES
V.
SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Subject - answers the question whom or what the sentence is
about.
A. The Complete Subject - all the words in the subject make
up the complete subject.
B. Subjects in Interrogative Sentences - You can find the
subject in an interrogative sentence by rearranging the
question into a statement. Then ask who or what the
sentence is about.
EXAMPLE: Will you answer the door?
REARRANGE THE SENTENCE TO SAY: “You will
answer the door.”
C.
Subjects in Imperative Sentences - in imperative
sentences, the subject is always word you. Write you in
parenthesis (you) to indicate that the subject is the
understood word (you).
D.
Compound Subject - when a sentence has two or more
subjects, joined by the connecting word and, or or the
subject is called a compound subject.
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Ex. People, animals, and plants must share the earth.
Natural Order - The verb follows the subject in the sentence.
Ex. The desert will bloom in the spring.
Inverted order - The subject follows the verb in the sentence.
Ex. Have you had dinner yet?
There was a long line at the theater.
Across the highway scampered a frightened rabbit.
Understood Subject - a verb usually begins a command or request.
The subject is not expressed in the sentence instead it is
understood to be you. This is written as (you).
Ex. Do not lose, your study sheet. (you)
VI. Conjunctions - words that join or link elements in sentences.
and but for nor so yet - join words, phrases, or
clauses that are grammatically equal in rank.
Either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also,
and whether/or
VII. Conjunctions - a word that joins words or groups of words.
A.
The words and, but, for, nor, or so, are coordinating
conjunctions. Use and to add information, or to give a
choice, and but to show contrast.
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EXAMPLE:
Beans and rice
movies or television
sad but true
Egypt, Italy and
Spain
VIII. Sentence Fragment - a sentence that is missing a subject,
predicate, or both.
EXAMPLE:
Beside the desk (what was beside the desk?
There is no subject and no helping verb.
Susan, while running to school (did what? There
is no verb.)
IX. Run-on Sentence - two or more sentences that are run
together into one sentence.
EXAMPLE:
Joe ran into the classroom he dropped his books he asked Ron to
help him pick them up.
X. Complex Sentence - is made up of two simple sentences joined
by a subordinating conjunction. Always place a comma in front of
a subordinating conjunction.
THE FOLLOWING WORDS ARE SAMPLES OF
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
after
because
unless
whenever
since
when
it
as
although
until
before
while
EXAMPLE: Dolphins are easy to train, since they are very smart.
XI. Adjectives - are used to DESCRIBE NOUNS. You'll usually
find them in front of a noun or following a linking verb. Adjectives
tell which one, what kind, or how many.
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*WHICH ONE:
WHAT KIND:
HOW MANY:
this car
blond hair
two birds
that dog
large box
many birds
There are two general types of adjectives: DESCRIPTIVE
adjectives and LIMITING adjectives.
A.
Descriptive Adjectives – are describing words.
They often tell what kind.
Examples: pumpkin pie
What kind of pie?
Pumpkin pie
Soft, velvet dress
What kind of dress?
Soft, velvet dress
Red sponge ball
What kind of ball?
Red sponge ball
B. Limiting adjectives include determiners.
Determiners are actually called determining
adjectives. These mut be memorized and learned.
1.
Determining adjectives:
a. Articles: a, an, the
b. Demonstratives: this, that, those, these
c. Numbers: twenty-five days , third base
d. Possessive pronouns (used as adjectives):
my, his, her,
its, your, our, their
e. Possessive nouns (used as adjectives):
Nikki’s cow, teachers’ meeting
f. Indefinites: many, some, few, several,
no any…
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2. In order to be a determining adjective, a noun
must follow it. A determining (also called limiting)
adjective modifies a noun. Modifies means goes over
to.
Examples:
Several laser printers were purchased.
Several is an adjective because it modifies or goes
over to printers. (Several what? Several printers.
She had been hired as an architect.
An is an adjective because it modifies or goes over to architect.
(a/an what? An architect)
XII. Adverbs - are used to describe verb s, sometimes other
adverbs, and even adjectives. Often end in -ly and may be
anywhere in the sentence. Adverbs tell how, where, when, how
often, to what degree.
HOW:
WHERE:
WHEN:
HOW OFTEN: TO WHAT DEGREE:
quickly
well
outside
nearby
soon
now
never
often
very
almost
XIII. Interjections - words that express a burst of emotion
that are not grammatically related to other elements in a sentence.
Ex. Wow!
Gosh!
Hey!
Stop that!
XIV. Direct Object- noun or pronoun that follows an ACTION
VERB. A direct object tells who or what receives the ACTION of
the verb.
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To
1.
2.
3.
find the direct object:
find the subject
find the verb
ASK THE MAGIC QUESTION BY READING FROM
THE BEGINNING OF THE SENTENCE TO THE VERB
AND SAYING WHO OR WHAT.
Ex. Everyone should eat a good breakfast.
BREAKFAST IS THE DIRECT OBJECT.
XV. Indirect Object - tells to whom or for whom the action is
done. The indirect object MUST be BETWEEN the ACTION
VERB and the DIRECT OBJECT.
TO FIND THE INDIRECT OBJECT FIRST:
Ex. The catcher gave the pitcher a signal for a fast ball.
1.
2.
3.
Find the subject - catcher
Find the verb - gave
Find the direct object . Note - You must have a
direct object. (signal)
4. Ask the magic question by reading the subject,
verb, and direct object and adding to whom/what
or for whom/what.
The catcher gave a signal to whom? (pitcher)
XVI. Subject Complement - Noun/pronoun/adjective that follows
a LINKING VERB and identifies or describes the subject.
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A. NOUNS and PRONOUNS are called PREDICATE
NOUNS and pronouns. Adjectives are called
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES.
TO FIND A SUBJECT COMPLEMENT:
That walnut desk is an antique.
1.
Find the linking verb
(is)
2. Find the subject
(desk)
3. Ask the magic question by reading from the beginning of
the sentence to the verb and saying who or what (That
walnut desk is what? (antique)
XVII. Quotation Marks
SAMPLE SENTENCES USING QUOTATION MARKS
"We go sledding during winter, : said Sue.
"When does the movie begin?" asked Bob.
"Help!" screamed the mountain climber.
Mom complained, "Your music is too loud."
She yelled, "Turn it down!"
Next she asked, "What did I tell you?"
"Who knows the answer?" the teacher asked. "Raise your hand."
"Why," demanded the teacher, "is no one prepared for the test?"
"We'll never finish on time," said Bob. "We're already an hour
behind."
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DIALOGUE: HOW TO WRITE IT
Enclose the exact words being said with the quotation marks.
EXAMPLE:
Jerry said, “I want to go home now.”
“I want to go home now,” Jerry said, “because it’s getting late.”
“I want to go home.” Jerry stood up. “It’s getting late.”
**DO NOT capitalize the second part of a quoted sentence, as
shown here.
EXAMPLE:
“I wish I could go,” Tiffany said, “but I have to do my homework.”
Start a new paragraph each time a different speaker begins.
Conclude the actual words of a speaker with a comma, question
mark, or exclamation point placed before the concluding
quotation mark. If it is the end of the sentence add
punctuation and then close quotes.
EXAMPLE:
Tom asked, “May Jim and I go to the mall?”
“Have you cleaned your room yet?” asked Mom.
“No,” answered Jim.
Mom replied, “Room first, and then the mall.”
“Alright,” grumbled Tom.
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XVIII. HOW TO USE COMMAS
Rule 1 Use a comma to set off a noun of direct address.
(a person spoken to)
Ex. Louise, come here, please.
Have you gone, Michael?
I want to go, Roy, with your group.
Rule 2
Use a comma to set off introductory words.
Ex. No, I haven’t seen it.
Well, I’ve changed my mind.
Yes, the chimes are new.
Rule 3
Use a comma to set off interrupters in a sentence.
Ex. The answer, I think, is fifty-four.
This Calendar, in fact, is an old one.
However, not all is lost.
These swings, by the way, need to be repaired.
Rule 4
Use a comma after the greeting of a friendly letter.
Ex. Dear Karla,
My dearest friend,
Rule 5
Use a comma after the closing of any letter.
Ex. Sincerely yours,
Love,
Use a comma to set off words or phrases in a series.
EX. Furniture, linens, toys,and dishes were sold there.
We ran a mile, swam a half mile, and biked a mile.
You may go to the zoo, to the park, or to the
carnival.
Rule 6
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Rule 7
Rule 8
Use a comma to clarify (make clear) a sentence.
Ex. In the night time was extremely important.
In the night, time was extremely important.
Use a comma between two or more descriptive
adjectives.
Ex. Bright, sparkling stars twinkled in the dark
night.
Do not place a comma between the last adjective and
the noun or pronoun.
Note: if one adjective is a color or a limiting adjective, no
comma is placed between the two adjectives.
Ex. A white fluffy puppy ran by.
Rule 9
Use a comma to set off an appositive from the
rest of the sentence.
Ex. Ms. Wilson, the bank president, spoke about
loans.
The best student is Gregg, the boy in the last row.
We invited Tracy, our best friend,
Rule 10
Use a comma between a city and state or
country.
Ex. Miami, Florida
London, England
Use a comma to separate the parts of an
address.
Ex. Bill lives at 567 West Lowe Drive, Tulsa,
Oklahoma.
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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If the city and state or country appears in a
sentence, also place a comma after the state or
country.
Ex. Have you been to Richmond, Virginia, in the fall?
Dallas, Texas, is a growing city.
I moved from 23 Dray lane, Las Vegas, Nevada,
last fall.
Rule 11
Rule 12
Use a comma after a month and year or day and
year in a date.
Ex. February, 1980
Jan. 1, 1990
Use a comma after the day of the week if the
day appears with the date.
Ex. Monday, August 3
Friday, Nov.7, 1999
If the month and year, or day and year, appear
in a sentence, also place a comma after the year.
Ex. On June 22, 1898, her grandparents were
married.
Use a comma at the end of most direct
quotations.
Ex. “Your book is falling,” said Millie.
“I know,” replied Harrison.
If the person who is making the statement is
given first, place a comma after the person’s
name + verb that follows it.
Ex. Mr. Kimble said, “Let’s begin.”
Mary asked, “Where are we?”
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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Rule 13
If the quotation is split, place a comma after the
first part of the quotation and also after the
person + verb (or verb + person):
Ex. “I agree,” replied Mark, “that this rocket is
ready.”
se a comma to set off a title following a name.
Ex. Gloria Kole, D.D.S., is opening a new office.
Linn Smith, R.N., works at Summerlin Hospital.
Rule 14
Use a comma to invert a name.
Ex. Smith, Jim
Moore, Clay
His name appeared alphabetically as Green, Bill.
Rule 15
Use a comma after a dependent clause at the
beginning of a sentence.*
Ex. After we ate lunch, we went to a movie.
(Dependent clause) (Independent clause)
If I could ge there, I would be delighted.
(dependent clause) (Independent clause)
If the dependent clause is at the end of a
sentence, no comma is needed.
Ex. We went to a movie after we ate lunch.
I would be delighted if I could be there.
Rule 16
Use a comma before the conjunction that joins
two independent clauses (compound sentence).
Ex. Our outing was fun, but we were glad to return.
(Independent clause) (Independent clause)
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Rule 17
Use a comma after two introductory prepositional
phrases or after a long prepositional phrase when
a subject follows it.
Ex. In the middle of the night, Frank boarded a
plane for Japan.
During the long intermission, everyone chatted.
XVIX. Colons and Semicolons
Semicolon Rule: Use a semicolon to join two independent
clauses in a sentence that are closely related. Do not place
and, but, or or after a semicolon.
First, I washed the dishes and swept the kitchen; then I went
to the store.
This scarf is pretty; I might buy it for my sister.
Colon Rule:
1. Use a colon after the greeting of a business
letter.
Ex. Gentlemen:
Dear Sir:
2. Use a colon in writing the time.
Ex. 9:00 A.M.
11:23 P.M.
3. Use a colon to set off lists.
Ex. Groceries: milk, bread, cookies
The following people must attend the
meeting: Susan, Bill, Mary, Jane, Tom.
4. Use a colon between the chapter and verse(s)
in the Bible.
Ex. John 3:16
Genesis 7:1-11
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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5.
Use a colon after divisions or topics in
writing.
Ex. Commas: Rule 1:
Rule 2: Colons & Semicolons
XX. APPOSITIVES
Mrs. Farmer is my English teacher. She is in room 720.
Appositive: Mrs. Farmer, my English teacher, is in room 720.
Kerri is my older sister. She left immediately.
Appositive: Kerri, my older sister, left immediately.
Or
My older sister, Kerri, left immediately.
XXI. PRONOUNS
A. Demonstrative Pronouns
this, that, these, those
B. Interrogative Pronouns
Who..? Whom..? Whose..? Which..? What…?
C.
Reflexive Pronouns
myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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D.
Personal Pronouns
First Person
(person speaking)
Singular
I, me,
my, mine
Plural
we, our,
ours, us
Second Person
(person spoken to)
you, your,
yours,
you,
yours,
Third Person
(some other person
Or thing)
he, his,
him, she,
her, hers
it, its
they,
their,
theirs,
them
E. Relative Pronouns
Who , whom, whose, which, that
F. Indefinite Pronouns
all
each
another either
any
everybody
anyone everything
anything flew
both
many
more
most
much
nobody
none
no one
one
other
several
somebody
someone
XXII. PHRASES AND CLAUSES
A phrase will NOT contain a subject and a verb.
A clause WILL contain both.
Ex. Phrases:
Sitting in the corner by the desk
In the corner by the desk
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Clauses:
Because he was sitting in the corner
He was sitting in the corner
XXIII. SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX SENTENCES
A. Simple sentences:
Ex. Cats and dogs make good pets.
Julie rides a unicycle around town.
Joey washed the dishes and then dried them.
B.
Compound Sentences:
Ex. The wind grew fierce, and several trees fell.
He grilled hamburgers; she tossed a salad.
Whales must breathe air, or they will drown.
C.
Complex Sentences:
Ex. Amy blushed, after she read the letter.
Because she feared for the safety, she decided to
call her parents.
Australia has summer when we have winter.
XXIV. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Active Voice
Passive Voice
The manager hired us.
We were hired by the
manager.
Mark Twain wrote Tom Sawyer.
Tom Sawyer was written
by mark Twain.
XXV. CAPITALIZATION RULES
RULE 1: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a
sentence.
Example: The chicken was baked in an oven.
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RULE 2: Capitalize the pronoun I.
Example: Should I call you later?
RULE 3: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in most
lines of poetry.
Example:
She always thought a gallant prince would love her
Forsaking life itself to please only her
RULE 4: Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all
important words in any title. Do not capitalize a, an, and, but,
or, nor, or prepositions of four or less letters unless they are
the first or last word of a title. (Memorize this entire rule!)
Examples:
"Silence of the Songbirds"
"Missiles to Earth from a Crater on Mars"
**Be sure to capitalize all verbs in titles.
Example: "You Are My Sunshine"
Be sure to capitalize prepositions of five or more letters in
titles.
Example: The Man Without a Country
RULE 5: Capitalize people's names and their Initial(s).
Examples:
Sharon
Mrs. Mary T. Barkley
RULE 6: Capitalize days, months, holidays, and special days.
Examples:
Tuesday
Thanksgiving
July
Arbor Day
Hanukkah
St. Patrick's Day
Christmas Eve
Sunday
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RULE 7: Capitalize Mother, Dad, and. other titles If you can
Insert the person's name.
Example: Has Dad gone to the store?
(If Mike is the father's name: Has Mike gone to the store?)
You can replace Dad with a name; therefore, you capitalize
Dad.
My mom is nice.
(If Amy is the mother's name: My Amy is nice.)
This doesn't make sense; therefore, you do not capitalize mom.
Capitalize the title If It appears with a name.
Examples:
Uncle Duane
Aunt Fran
Grandma Wilson
Lieutenant Jackson
RULE 8: Capitalize names of organizations.
Examples:
Future Homemakers of America
American Red Cross
Organization of American States
RULE 9: Capitalize the names of Institutions.
Examples:
Morton School
Samaritan Hospital
York College
Maricopa County Jail
Rogich Middle School
Clark County Jail
University Of Nevada Las Vegas
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RULE 10: Capitalize business names.
Examples:
Cross Company
Sock Store, Inc.
Ameriola Airlines
Old Navy
Tillies
The Gap
Hot Topic
Murray Hotel
Beamer Grocery
Posada. Restaurant
RULE 11: Capitalize the names of structures.
Examples:
Washington Tunnel
Leaning Tower of Pisa
London Bridge
Cumberland Expressway
RULE 12: Capitalize the names of specific geographic places.
Examples:
Indian Ocean
North America
Baltic Sea
England
Missouri River
Maryland
Skunk Creek
Fulton County
Fox Hill
Memphis
Mt. Rushmore
Midwest
Mammoth Cave
Dristol Park
Cape Cod
Roanoke Island
Gulf of Mexico
Pocono Mountains
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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RULE 13: Capitalize the names of historical events and
historical documents (papers).
Examples:
American Revolution
Declaration of Independence
Battle of Shiloh
U.S. Constitution
RULE 14: Capitalize the names of languages.
Examples:
English
Chinese
Spanish
French
RULE 15: Capitalize the Roman numerals and the letters of the
first major topics In an outline.
Examples:
I.
A.
B.
II.
A.
B.
C.
Capitalize only the first word in an outline unless the words are
a proper noun.
Examples:
I. Oceans and seas
A. Major oceans
B. Major seas
II. Land forms
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A.
B.
Western hemisphere continents
1.
North America (proper noun)
2. South America (proper noun)
Eastern hemisphere continents.
RULE 16: Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.
Examples:
Harley asked, "How old is your brother?'
"He is five," said Jodi.
***Note: Do not capitalize the word following the quotation
unless It Is a proper noun.
Example:
"He looks older," said Harley.
RULE 17: Capitalize brand names but not the products.
Examples:
Ford van
Sony computer disc
Lucerne ice cream
Bar S hot dogs
RULE 18: Capitalize religions, religious documents, names of
churches, and names for a supreme being.
Examples:
Christian (religion)
Ten Commandments (document)
Moslem (religion)
Bible
Heavenly Father
Palmcroft Baptist Church
God
Talmud (writings of the Jewish religion)
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Note:
Capitalize a religious denomination such as Methodist
or Baptist.
If the name of a specific church is not given, capitalize only
the denomination.
Example: a Baptist church (The name of a church is not given.)
Do not capitalize the terms, gods and goddesses.
RULE 19: Capitalize a proper adjective but not the noun it
modifies.
Examples:
a California beach
a Memorial Day parade
a Payson music festival
an African nation
RULE 20: Capitalize the first word of a greeting and closing of
a letter.
Examples:
My dearest friend,
Sincerely yours,
RULE 21: Capitalize directions when they refer to a region of a
country or the world.
Examples:
Georgia is in the South. (region of the U.S.)
He lives in China which is also called the East.
(region of the world)
DO NOT CAPITALIZE
RULE 1: Do not capitalize the seasons of the year.
spring
summer autumn fall
winter
RULE 2: Do not capitalize school subjects unless they have a
number or name a language.
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Examples:
We like science, spelling, social studies,
geography, and history.
Patrick studies Algebra II, Spanish, and
Biology204 in high school.
If a proper adjective appears with the subject capitalize only
the proper adjective.
Example: American history Greek literature
RULE 3: Do not capitalize north, south, east, west, northeast,
northwest, southeast, or southwest when they are directions.
Example: Go north on Ludlow Street.
Do not capitalize regions of a state, county, or city.
Example:
Are you moving to southern Texas?
Sissy lives in northeastern Anaheim.
RULE 4: Do not capitalize career choices.
Example: Their dad is a teacher. Hannah wants to be a
computer programmer.
RULE 5: Do not capitalize foods.
Example:
fudge
milk
apples
lettuce
beef
lemonade
tacos
cookies
If a proper adjective appears with the food capitalize the
proper adjective but not the food.
Example:
Swiss cheese German pancakes
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE
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RULE 6: Do not capitalize diseases.
Example: measles
cancer
mumps
flu
polio
hepatitis
chicken pox arthritis
XXVI. HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH
PARAGRAPH FORMULA – Use this for format writing. If you
follow the formula correctly, you will never fail.
Sentence #1 – TS
(Topic Sentence)
Sentence #2 – CD
(Concrete Detail)
(For example,……..)
Sentence #3 – CM
(Commentary)
Sentence #4 – CM
(Commentary)
Sentence #5 – CD (A New Concrete Detail)
(In addition,……….)
Sentence #6 – CM
(Commentary)
Sentence #7 – CM
(Commentary)
Sentence #8 – CD (A New Concrete Detail)
(Finally,…………………)
Sentence #9 – CM
(Commentry)
Sentence #10 – CM
(Commentary)
Sentence # 11 - CS
(Concluding Sentence) (The concluding
sentence RESTATES the topic sentence BUT is said/written in
a little different way.)
***********************************************************
(CD) (Concrete Detail) sentences CAN/SHOULD begin with
these words called TRANSITION WORDS:
***********************************************************
SEE NEXT PAGE
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Examples of Transition words (Transition words are always
followed by a comma (,) whenever they begin a sentence)
TRANSITION WORDS TO MAKE A POINT:
First
one is
Specifically
Second
another is
By the way
Third
the other is
However
Besides
for instance
in other words
Then
moreover
to explain
Also
furthermore
to describe
Next
above all
in the first place
Secondly
in addition to
Yet
For example
to begin with
Similarly
as a matter of fact
meanwhile
on the other hand
Afterward
in the meantime
Nevertheless
Consequently
better yet
Otherwise
TRANSITON WORDS TO TERMINATE:
in conclusion
to sum up
to conclude
as a result
as one can see
ini short
Finally
Insummary
for these reasons
i conclude that
***********************************************************
**If you get stuck on a commentary (CM) sentence, start with
“This shows that….” Or, “Being able to….”.
Organizational Chart – TAP And Count
(Always complete an organizational chart before attempting to
write your paper. This will aide you with keeping a focus and
following a logical sequence.)
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Single Paragraph – Skeleton Chart
I want to write about _____________________________________________________
#1 (TS)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#2 (CD)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#3 (CM)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#4 (CM)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#5 (CD)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#6 (CM)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#7 (CM)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#8 (CD)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#9 (CM)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
#10 (CM)_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
#11 (CS)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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TS
Example of a Paragraph – (Skeleton Chart)
My Marvelous Shoes
My green converse shoes are incredible!!!
CD For example, they permit me to travel through time.
CM All I have to do is close my eyes and click my heels together and they
will take me to the past.
CM Last week, I was able to visit the Knights of the Round Table and King
Arthur.
CM I visited with the knights, jousted on my horse, ate large dinners of fresh
fruits and vegetables, and had servants to bring me anything I wanted.
CD In addition, my shoes do work for me.
CM Last week, they graded all of the papers from my English class.
CM They also did my wash, cleaned my house, and went grocery shopping
for me.
CD Finally, the best thing they did, was re-decorate my house while I was at
work.
CM When I came home, not only was the house clean, but all the furniture
was moved around in a better way, and the walls were freshly painted.
CM It is rather amazing how they get everything done in a blink of an eye!
CS My green Converse tennis shoes are the best shoes in the world, and I
would not trade them for anything!
NOW LET’S PUT THIS PARAGRAPH IN PROPER PARAGRAPH
FORM:
***********************************************************
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My Marvelous Shoes
My green converse shoes are incredible! For example, they permit me
to travel through time. All I have to do is close my eyes and click my heels
together and they will take me to the past. Last week, I was able to visit the
Knights of the Round Table and King Arthur. I visited with the knights,
jousted on my horse, ate large dinners of fresh fruits and vegetables, and had
servants to bring me anything I wanted. In addition, my shoes do work for
me. Last week, they graded all of the papers from my English class. They
also did my wash, cleaned my house, and went grocery shopping for me.
Finally, the best thing they did, was re-decorate my house while I was at
work. When I came home, not only was the house clean, but all the furniture
was moved around in a better way, and the walls were freshly painted. It is
rather amazing how they get everything done in a blink of an eye! My green
Converse tennis shoes are the best shoes in the world, and I would not trade
them for anything!
THE MULTIPARAGRAPH ESSAY
FORMAT CHART
ELEVEN-SENTENCE BODY PARAGRAPHS, 125+ WORDS
PARAGRAPH #1 – Introduction
40+ words
3+ sentences
thesis is the last sentence
PARAGRAPH #2 – 1st body paragraph
11 sentences
125+ words
Format:
#1 Topic sentence
#2 CD, starts with For example,
#3 Commentary
#4 Commentary
#5 CD, starts with In addition
#6 Commentary
#7 Commentary
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PARAGRAPH #3 – 2nd
#8 CD, starts with Furthermore
#9 Commentary
#10 Commentary
#11 Concluding sentence
body paragraph
11 sentences
125 + words
Format:
#1 Topic Sentence
#2 CD, starts with For example
#3 Commentary
#4 Commentary
#5 CD, starts with In addition
#6 Commentary
#7 Commentary
#8 CD, starts with Furthermore
#9 Commentary
#10 Commentary
#11 Concluding sentence
PARAGRAPH #4 – 3rd body paragraph
11 sentences
125 + words
Format:
#1 Topic Sentence
#2 CD, starts with For example
#3 Commentary
#4 Commentary
#5 CD, starts with In addition
#6 Commentary
#7 Commentary
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#8
#9
#10
#11
CD, starts with Furthermore
Commentary
Commentary
Concluding sentence
PARAGRAPH #5 – concluding paragraph (includes conclusion)
40+ words, all commentary
no repeats unless names
gives a finished feeling to the whole essay
XXIII. Editing A Paper
Always Edit your paper using the COPS METHOD
CAPITALIZAITON
OVERALL PARAGRAPHS
PUNCTUATION
SPELLING
1st Read the paper and check for capitalization.
2nd Reread the paper and check for paragraphing.
3rd Reread the paper and check for punctuation, period, question
marks, etc.
4th Reread the paper and check for correct spelling of words.
ALWAYS COPS YOUR PAPERS
ONCE YOUR PAPER HAS BEEN COPSED, WRITE ON THE
BOTTOM OF YOUR PAPER:
“I HAVE COPSED MY PAPER"
SIGN YOUR NAME
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Now you are ready to give your paper to another student to
edit it for you.
Skeleton charts are used to transfer the information from the
organizational chart. The skeleton chart is a great place way
to edit your paper. You are able to clearly see if you have
included all components of the paragraph or the essay. It
gives you more space for editing and making corrections. Once
the skeleton is completed and edited, you are ready to write
the final draft.
See next page for Skeleton Chart – Essay
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SKELETON CHART - ESSAY
Paragraph #1 Thesis:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Paragraph #2: first body paragraph
#1 (TS)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#2 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#3 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#4 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#5 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#6 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#7 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#8 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#9 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________
#10 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#11 (CS)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Paragraph #3: second body paragraph
#1 (TS)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#2 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#3 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#4 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#5 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#6 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#7 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#8 (CD)
__________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________
#9 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#10 (CM)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
#11(CS)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Paragraph #4: Concluding paragraph, Last Sentence:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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XXVII. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
1. Alliteration
Alliteration is the use of the same sound or letter at the beginning
of words in a sentence or poem. Alliteration is used for effect in a
poem.
Example: The sparkling sun glanced off the silver sea.
Explanation: The underlined letter s is repeated throughout the
sentence. By using the s sound, the writer reinforces the
shimmering, fluid image of the sea with light reflecting off it.
Example:
Hungry Harry’s hand hovered over a huge
hamburger.
Explanation: The h sound is repeated over and over again. What
can Harry, who is very hungry, want to eat that begins with h? A
huge hamburger!
2. Simile -A simile compares one thing directly to something
unlike it by using the words like or as. (You can remember this
by thinking a simile shows how things are similar.
Example: I used to wrap my dreams around me like a soft
blanket.
Explanation: The simile begins with the word like and
compares the author’s dream to a blanket. The
author is telling you that dreams made him or
her feel warm and safe, the way you feel
wrapped in a soft blanket.
Example: My friend yelled as loud as a train whistle to get my
attention.
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Explanation: The simile uses as to compare the friend’s voice to a
train whistle. The author is telling you that the friend’s voice was
really loud and got his attention, like a train whistle.
3. Metaphor
A metaphor compares one thing to another by stating that one
thing is the other. It does NOT use the words like or as. A
metaphor indirectly suggests a similarity between two things.
Example: Snowflakes, white feathers drifting, slowly falling.
Explanation: The author is comparing snowflakes to feathers. The
author substitutes the word feather for snowflakes. The reader
infers that the snowflake is being compared to a feather because
they are both lightweight.
Example: This house is an icebox this morning.
Explanation: The author is implying that the house is very cold. It
is being compared to an icebox without using the words like or as.
4. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a form of figurative language that uses words
that imitate natural sounds.
Example: Bzzz. Bzzz. Bzzz goes the bee.
Explanation: Bzzz is the sound that a bee makes, so the reader
can “hear” the sound of a bee in the sentence.
Example: The white owl called “Whoooo, whooo” in the night.
Explanation: The writer uses whoooo to imitate the sound an owl
makes.
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5. Appositives
An appositive is a group of words that explains something
in a sentence. An appositive is placed by the word it
explains.
An appositive is set off by commas.
The
exception to this is a one word name.
Example: His mission was to stand in line for tickets. His
mission was no fun.
His mission, one of standing in line for tickets, was no fun.
John Davis is the president of Diet Enterprises. John Davis
presents seminars about weight loss.
John Davis, president of Diet Enterprises, presents
seminars about weight loss.
A cobra is a poisonous snake. A cobra lives in Asia or Africa.
A cobra, a poisonous snake, lives in Asia or Africa.
XXV. Elements of Poetry
rhyme – Words that sound alike
end rhyme – Words at the end of a lone of poetry that rhyme with
each other
internal rhyme – rhyme within the same line of poetry
near rhyme – words close to each other in sound
Example – weather, better
visual rhyme – words with the same letters
Example – again, pain
simile – comparison of two unlike things using like or as
Example – The house is as cold as an ice box
The car rode like a luxury liner at sea.
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Metaphor – comparison of two unlike things NOT using like or as
Example – The house is an ice box.
The car is a luxury liner.
Alliteration – words that begin with the same letter.
Example – The big brawny boy bit into the burger.
Assonance – repetition of consonant sounds within a word.
Illusion – not being real, a mirage.
Verse- one line of poetry.
Stanza – a group of lies in a poem grouped together.
Hyperbole – extreme exaggeration
personification – giving human qualities to something not human.
Allusion – a reference to something well known.
Onomatopoeia – words created to mimic sounds.
Example – The Bzz of a bee.
The drip, drip, drip of water.
Rhyme scheme – aabb, abab, abcabc
refrain – repetition of lines in a poem
hyperbole - hy·per·bo·le - deliberate and obvious exaggeration
used for effect
EXAMPLE: “I could eat a million of these”
personification – giving human qualities to something not human.
Repetition – repeating words and phrases
blank verse – iambic pentameter, 5 feet of iambic pentameter
rhythm
free verse – no particular rhyme or rhythm
XXVII. Literary Terms
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Foreshadowing - A suggestion or hint in a story. It is put there by
the author to indicate an event to come. At times this "hint"
maybe so subtle that it is difficult to recognize until the "event"
has occurred.
Flashback - To go back to an earlier time.
Imagery - This term refers to word pictures-groups of words
that create specific pictures in the mind. These images are not
restricted to visual images. Imagery refers to all the senses sight sound, taste, smell, and touch. In the story "After the
Battle" by Joseph A. Altsheler, the author creates images of touch
and smell in this way: "There was no wind. The night had brought
no coolness. The thick and heavy atmosphere hung close to the
earth and coiled around and embraced everything. Through it came
the faint gun powdery vapor that crept into the throats and
nostrils..."
Exposition - the beginning of a story and the author tells you what
the story is all about. The author shows us what the story is all
about. The part of the story that helps the reader understand the
background or situation in which the story is set. It is intended to
make clear or explain something that might be difficult to
understand.
Rising action - events that build interest to the climax of the
story Rising actions always is the part of the action that happens
before the climax.
Climax or turning point - the high point of the story. This is not in
the middle of the story, but found toward the end. From this point
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on the main character is going to live or die. Everything is falling in
place.
Resolution - denouement - the end of the story. Everything
resolves itself, all problems are solved.
Characterization - This is how the author creates people for a
story. Character is revealed by what the author says about the
character; how the character speaks, thinks, and acts; and how
other characters act toward the character and what they say
about the character.
A. character - person, animal, robot, some being that corries
the action forward in the story.
B. static character - a character that does not change, they
stay the same.
C. dynamic character - a character that does change in a
story, a character that has learned more about
himself/herself during the story.
Point of view - through whose eyes the story is told, 1st person,
3rd person
Genre - type of literature, horror, mysteries, thrillers, historical,
science fiction, biography, autobiography, etc.
Theme - a little understanding, a lesson learned, this is not always
obvious.
Mood - how the story makes you feel. A mood can change in the
story. The music often helps to set the mood of a movie. Mood is
the feeling that the author wants the reader to experience. The
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way words are put together determine the kinds of feelings the
reader feels fear, humor, sadness, hate, anger, etc. In "The
Monkey's Pas" the narrator says, "The cold white of the winter
moon cast a slant of light on the far wall, capturing the shadow of
the hunched old woman as she peered expectantly toward the
graveyard." This sentence was intended to create a mood of
loneliness, depression, misery, etc.
Plot - the storyline, what happens in the story, the sequence of
events. The play is the action of the story that moves from the
opening situation to the problem and on through to a resolution.
The plot usually proceeds this way: (1) a tranquil situation involving
a main character is related; (2) a conflict develops; (3)
complications arise from the main character's attempts to find a
solution to the conflict; (4) the complications eventually result in a
climax; (5) the climax is followed by a resolution to the conflict
returning the situation to a state of relative calm.
A. subplot - (below) a subplot is a secondary little story going
on in itself within the main plot of the story.
B. parallel episode - another thing happening in a story and
goes up and down like a main plot.
Protagonist - the hero or good guy during a story. In real life, the
heroes also have faults. They are the person you want to see
succeed.
Antagonist - the bad guy or villain in the story. The antagonist has
some good qualities; they are a mixture of good and bad. This is
the term that refers to the force, person, or obstacle that stand
in the way of the main character is he/she attempts to solve the
problem or conflict in the story.
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Setting - The setting is the time and place in which the story
occurs. The time or place may be either stated or suggested. The
setting provides a background for the action and can also help
shape events. For example; London's "Love of Life" takes place
within the Arctic Circle in northern Canada, hundreds of miles
from the nearest outpost of civilization. A man who has injured his
ankle, has been deserted by his partner and winter is coming on.
Questions that help analyze the setting are:
1. When does the story occur?
2. Where does it occur?
3. Why is the main character in this particular setting?
4. How does the setting affect the main character?
5. How does the setting help create tension?
6. How does the setting help determine the action?
Suspense - Suspense is the tension created in the reader by the
action of the story. This is done when the author hints that
something new is about to happen. For example: The narrator in
"The Monkey’s Paw" says "But on rare occasions, when all the pivots
and wheels in the Great Clock of Fate are synchronized to permit
it, then, we get exactly what we want. And believe me, friend to
grant our deepest wish can be one of Fate's cruelest jokes." After
this, it would be difficult to imagine a person who would not want
to know more about this "cruelest" of jokes.
Symbol (symbolism, symbolic) - Something in a story which stands
for something else. A symbol usually is some real object that
stands for an abstract meaning. In "The Necklace" by Guy de
Maupassant, the diamond necklace is a symbol for the beauty and
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glamour of the world Madame Loisel (Marsha in the adaptation)
yearns for.
Theme - A brief generalized meaning of the story stated (ideally)
in one sentence. A good way to approach identification of theme is
to ask the question: "The author is trying to show that..." For
instance: In "The Last Leaf" O. Henry was trying to show that love
for another can be stronger than love for self. Some themes,
however, are difficult to state briefly or precisely and need to be
discussed.
Tone - The attitude the author has toward the story subject as
reflected in the story. Ambrose Bierce's tone (attitude) toward
war, in his short story "Chickamauga" is abhorrence. In this story
the author describes, through the eyes of a deaf-mute child, the
horrors of war.
Active Voice - if the subject is doing the action.
Passive Voice - The subject is not doing the action
to place
lay
laid
laid
to recline
lie
lay
lain
Conflict - what moves the story forward. Something adds to the
interest of the story. The conflict is the problem between the
opposing forces in the story. The main character wants something
and something else is standing in the way.
There are 5 types of conflict:
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1. Man against man [one character has a problem with one
or more other characters.]
2. Man against Society [A character has trouble deciding
what action to take. This type of conflict deals with right and
wrong. For example: A character is hungry. He has no money.
He cannot find work to make money, but he must eat. He
believes it is wrong to steal.. He must decide whether to
break into a grocery story and steal food or go hungry.]
3. Man against Society [A character has a problem with the
law, school, accepted behavior, etc.]
4. Man against Nature [A character struggles with the
elements. In "love of Life" by jack London, the man wants to
live, but Nature in the form of the barren arctic tundra
stands in his way. To survive he must overcome all that
Nature puts in his way; an injured ankle, hunger, cold,
distance, wolves, etc.]
5. Man against Fate (the God's the Supernatural) [A
character is faced with uncontrollable circumstances.]
Flat line story - A story is flat when nothing interesting in the
story takes place.
Complication - Complication refers to the difficult circumstances
that come about through the character's attempts to find
solutions to his/her problem.
Dialogue - This term refers to the exact words of conversation
taking place between characters. Dialogue is one of the most
common ways an author reveals character. The words a character
uses also serve to relate the plot to the reader.
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Falling Action - The action of a story is said to increase in tension
to a climax. Falling action is the part of the story that occurs
after the climax.
Irony - In literature an implication of meaning where there is a
striking contrast between what the statement says and what the
statement means. A simple example of irony is when a character
calls a fat person skinny. Another example is in "The Necklace"; M.
Loisel (Marsha in the adaptation) sacrifices her youth to pay for a
diamond necklace she has lost, but the irony of this is that the
necklace was worth only a small amount.
Metaphor - A metaphor is an implied comparison between two
things to illustrate a point of similarity. Almost everyday, we use
metaphors in our speech. For instance: When we speak of someone
who has a habit of bragging, we might say, "Oh, he's just a big bag
of wind." (OR) when describing someone who keeps saying the
same thing over and over again, we might say "She's a broken
record." (AND) in the adaptation of "The Monkey's Paw" the
narrator describes fate as a clock: "But, on rare occasions, when all
the pivots and wheels in the Great Clock of Fate are synchronized
to permit it, then, we get exactly what we want."
Personification - This is a metaphor where human characteristics
are given to inanimate or abstract ideas. In "The last leaf" the
author gives pneumonia the characteristic of a man. "In
November, a cold, unseen stranger whom the doctors called
Pneumonia stalked about the colony, touching one here and there
with his icy finger. Over on the east side this ravager strode
boldly, smiting his victims by scores, but his feet trod slowly
through the maze of the narrow and moss-grown places."
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Point of view - From whose point of view is the story told? The
two most commonly used by authors are the first person and the
third person.
1. First Person: If the author tells the story from the point
of view of one of the characters, we call this first person
point of view. The adaptation of "The Monkey's Paw" is
written in first person, when the narrator is speaking,
personal pronouns are used (I, me, my):
During supper the monkey's paw was more or less forgotten,
and afterward my three hosts coaxed me into tell them more
of my adventures in a world oceans away from their own. I
was still weary though from much travel and before long, bid
my friends good night and left for home.
2. Third Person: if the author tells the story from the
point of view of someone outside the story, we call this third,
person, point of view. The original of the "The Monkey's Paw"
is written in third person. The pronouns I, me and my are not
used by the narrator. The same paragraph as above read this
way:
Mr. White dropped it back in his pocket, and placing chairs,
motioned his friend to the table. In the business of supper
the tailsman was partly forgotten, and afterward the three
sat listening in an enthralled fashion to a second installment
of the soldier's adventures in India.
Protagonist - This is the main character in a story. When
discussing conflict, the main character is referred to as the
protagonist when he/she is trying to overcome an opposing
obstacle, person or force.
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