Download IPC Final Exam Review

IPC Final Exam Review
Written By Chris Ragsdale
Lewis Dot Structures
Hydrogen
Sulfur
Ionic & Covalent Bonds
Ionic bonds form between a nonmetal and a metal and require gaining and/or
giving electrons. Covalent Bonds occur between two nonmetals and require
electrons to be shared.
Structural Formula
 one line = a pair of electrons shared between the atoms that it connects
 double bonding is when two pairs of elements are shared
Carbon Chloride (CCl4)
Ionic Structural Formulas
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)
Strontium Chloride (SrCl2)
Covalent Structural Formulas
Nitrogen Gas (N2)
Methane (CH4)
Ring Diagrams
Lithium
Silver
Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic
Ion
Formul
a
Ammonium
NH4
+1
Carbonate
CO3
-2
Chlorate
ClO3
-1
Hydroxide
OH
-1
Valence Number
Nitrate
NO3
-1
Sulfite
SO3
-2
Sulfate
So4
-2
Phosphate
Po4
-3
Naming Covalent Compounds
 State the name of the first element
 State the name of the second element with the prefix –ide
 If there is more than one atom of an element add the following prefixes
according to how many of that atom there are
Prefix
Number of Atoms
Mono-
1
Di-
2
Tri-
3
Tetra-
4
Penta-
5
Hexa-
6
Hepta-
7
Octa-
8
Nona-
9
Deca-
10
Naming Ionic Compounds
 the metal always goes first while the nonmetal always goes second
 the nonmetal receives the prefix –ide, -ite, or –ate at the end of the name
 Subscripts are added at the end of each element according to what the valence
number is for the other element after dropping the signs
 A subscript of one is never added
Hydrogen & Oxygen
Hydrogen and Oxygen always form covalent bonds.
Same Subscript Rule
If the subscripts in a compound are all the same then the subscripts may be
omitted from the formula.
Law of Conservation of Matter
Although matter may change in form, or state, matter cannot be created or
destroyed. First suggested by Lavoisier in the 18th century.
Chemical Equations
Chemical Equation - used to represent a chemical reaction
Reactants - the reacting substances
Products - the substances that are produced
Word Equation - using word to express a chemical equation
Precipitate - a solid that has separated out of a solution
Coefficients - multipliers
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis - a reaction in which two or more elements form a compound
Decomposition - a reaction in which an element is broken down into two or more
compounds
Single Replacement - a reaction in which one element reacts with one compound
Double Replacement - a reaction in which the metals present in two compounds
change places to form two new compounds
Equations with Catalyi
I. Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2 + [energy]
This is the process by which plants receive unusable energy from the sunlight and
carbon dioxide and six molecules of water from the soil and turn it into usable
chemical energy, or oxygen and glucose as well as energy.
II. Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2  [Energy] 6CO2 + 6H2O
This is the process of oxidizing food molecules like glucose to carbon dioxide and
water.
III. Lab Equations
H2O2 catalase H2O + O2
H2O2 MnO2  H2O + O2
IV. Catalytic Converter
2CO + O2 Pt 2CO2
The Catalytic Converter does away with most of the harmful byproducts that are
produced by automobiles.
Writing Chemical Equations Rules
 Drop all subscripts when crossing over to the other side
 Water should always be written as HOH
 Reactants yield products
 Big numbers are coefficients
 Criss-Cross Method
 Don’t forget to balance all equations using coefficients
 Put polyatomic ions in parentheses
 Always double check balancing
Catalysts
Substances that speed up a reaction.
Practice
Balance, complete, and write the word equation.
a) Al2O3 + HNO3
b) HgNO3 + Hcl
c) NiSO4 + Na2CO3
d) Pb(NO3)2 + Hcl
e) Cr2O3 + H2SO4
f) Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4
g) CuSO4 + H2S
h) FeCl3 + Ca(OH)2
i) AgNO3 + Na2CrO4
j) Al(OH)3 + Hcl
Acids
 Contain and release H+ ions/replaces hydrogen
 Taste sour
 Turn litmus red
 Release hydrogen ions in water soluble solutions

Corrosive
HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
H2CO3
Hydrochloric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Nitric Acid
Carbonic Acid
Organic Acids
 Contain carbon
 Contain carboxyl group (-COOH group)
 Weaker than other acids
 Come from living things
HCOOH
CH3COOH
C7H6O3
C11H11O6
Formic Acid (from ants)
Acetic Acid/vinegar
Salicylic Acid
Acetylsalicylic Acid (aspirin)
Bases
 Contain and release OH- ions
 Most are cleaning products
 Taste bitter
 Feel slippery
 Turn litmus blue
 Release hydroxide ions in water solution
NaOH
KOH
NH4OH
Sodium Hydroxide
Potassium Hydroxide
Ammonium Hydroxide
Neutralization
 Acid + base (same strength) → a salt + water
 NOTE: a salt is a product of any metal with any nonmetal
 Common Salts:
NaCl
MgCl2
NaHCO3
CaCl2
AgBr
KNO3
Sodium Chloride
Magnesium Chloride
Sodium Bicarbonate
Calcium Chloride
Silver Bromide
Potassium Nitrate
Carbon Compounds
Fuels
Proteins/Amino Acids
Alcohols
Sugars
Lipids
Fuels
 Hydrocarbon compounds
 Contain ONLY hydrogen and carbon
 Used fro energy
 Named according to the number of carbons which is denoted by a certain
prefix below and the name is ended with –ane
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
Pent- 5
Hex- 6
Hept- 7
Oct- 8
Non- 9
Dec- 10
Proteins/Amino Acids
 Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen
 Proteins are building blocks
 Build muscles
 Nitrogen is the calling card of proteins (if it has nitrogen then it’s a protein)
 Your body can make 12 out of the 20 amino acids that it needs
Amino Acids
Glycine (Simple Amino Acid)
Alcohols
 A variation on hydrocarbon compounds
 In alcohols, one carbon atom is replaced by at least one –OH group
 Use suffix –ol in names
Methanol
CH3OH
(deadly/blinding)
Ethanol
CH3CH2OH
(What people drink)
Isopropanol
(Rubbing alcohol)
(CH3)2COOH
Sugars
 Used for energy
 Follow the patter: CxHyOz
 Carbohydrates are forms of stored, complex sugars
 Glucose – in blood and in foods
 Fructose – in fruits and is sweeter
 Sucrose – table sugar (glucose + fructose)
Glucose (simple sugar) C6H12O6
Lipids
 Fats (essential for normal life process)
 All contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Your body makes all lipids is need
 Cholesterol is important lipid
Motion & Distance
 Motion Occurs when an object changes its position
 Reference points help you determine if an object has moved
 How far and object has moved
 D=SxT
Displacement
 Distance and direction of an objects change in position from the starting
point
 Distance from ending point to starting point
Speed
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Distance an object travels per unit of time
S = D/T
Any change over time is called a rate
Constant speed is when an object is not slowing down or speeding up
Changing Speed is when the speed of an object is constantly changing
Average Speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time of
travel
Instantaneous Speed is the speed at a given point in time
Velocity
 Includes the speed of an object and the direction of its motion
 V = DPM/t
 V=AxT
Acceleration
 Rate of change of velocity
 A = [final velocity – initial velocity] / t
 When the velocity of an object changed, the object is accelerating
 Positive acceleration = acceleration = speed increasing
 negative acceleration = deceleration = speed decreasing
 unit for acceleration can be written m/s2 OR m/s/s
Speed of Sound & Light
Speed of Sound = 345 m/s
Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m/s
Motion Graphs
 distance-time – shows speed
 if the line is straight then the speed is not changing
 if the line is curvy then the speed is changing
 if a line if horizontal then the object is not moving/rest
 displacement-time – shows how far you are getting away from your
starting point in what amount of time; velocity
 Velocity-time – shows what?
 If a line is horizontal then it has a constant velocity
Unit Factoring
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write out your fraction you want to change
write another fraction next to it which will have the unit you want to get rid of
opposite to the unit in the original fraction and on the other side of the
fraction write the unit you want to change to
across multiply and eliminate the variable on both ends of the fraction
The Law of Gravitation
Any two masses exert and attractive force on each other. The attraction depends
on the mass of the objects and the distance between them.
Gravitational Acceleration
 Net Force = Mass of Objects X Acceleration due to Gravity
 On earth, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s
 When an objects is only influenced by the force of gravity it is said to be in free
fall
 All objects fall with the same acceleration because heavier objects have a
greater inertia, or resistance to change in velocity, and smaller objects have
less inertia

Weight
 Gravitational force exerted on an object
 Gravitational Force = Mass X Acceleration Due to Gravity
Centripetal Force
 Centripetal Acceleration - acceleration towards the center of a circular or
curved path
 Centripetal Force - a balanced force that causes and object to accelerate
towards the center of a circular or curved path
Reaction Time
Use this formula to the find the reaction time of something or someone:
The STD Triangle
Motion Graphs
Projectiles
 Any object that is thrown, hit, or sent roughly in a horizontal direction and
falls due to the influence of gravity
 Fall forward due to its velocity or inertia and downward due to gravity
Free-Fall
 State of falling due to gravity
 Gain 9.8 m/s of speed for every second of their fall (with no friction)
 Objects can stop accelerating if they hit enough air molecules fast enough to
balance the acceleration due to gravity (AKA terminal velocity)
Orbital Motion
 Combo of object’s forward velocity or inertia and the pull of gravity
 object will orbit if its forward velocity can overcome gravity
 Space shuttle must maintain 8000 m/s to orbit
 Satellites are objects that orbit a greater body
Static Friction
Force of contact between two objects. The contact must be broken for the objects
to move.
Kinetic Friction
1. Sliding Friction
2. Rolling Friction
3. Fluid
occurs when two objects slide over each other
Depends on weigh and types of surfaces
occurs when two objects roll over each other
Not that much friction in this situation
all gases and liquids are fluids
Provides least resistance to motion
Effects of Friction
 Brings all objects to state of rest
 Always opposed motion
 Necessary for traction and certain types of motion
 Always produces heat
 Can produce fire and/or sparks
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
First Law - Law of Inertia; the tendency of an object to resist any change in its
motion
Second Law - net force acting on object causes an object to accelerate in the
direction of the net force; motion of an object changes only if unbalanced force
acts on it
Third Law - when one object exerts a force on another object, the second exerts a
force on the first that is equal is size and opposite in direction; To every action
force there is an equal in opposite reaction force
Force Diagrams
1. Forces Together
When two forces act on an object in the same direction.
The net force is equal to the sum of the two forces
2. Forces Oppose
When two forces act on an object in the opposite direction.
The net force is equal to the larger force minus the smaller force
3. Forces
When two forces act on an object to make a 90 degree angle.
The net force is equal to the square root of force A squared plus force B
squared.
Energy
 All around you
 You feel, hear, and see it
 All organisms need it for growth and movement
 Energy - the ability to do work
 Supernova - capable of destroying solar system
Mechanical Energy
 Energy of motion
 Ex. Waterfall, wind, vehicles, blood traveling, sound
Heat Energy
 Internal motion of atoms
 The faster the molecules move, the more heat energy is produced
 Ex. Friction, changes in state of matter
Chemical Energy
 Exists in bonds that hold atoms together
 When bonds are broken, chemical energy is released
 Ex. Sports, digesting food, fossil fuels, fire (a chemical change)
Electromagnetic Energy
 Source is moving electric charges
 Ex. Power lines carrying electricity, electric motors
 Light is also this form (x-rays, radio waves, laser light)
Nuclear Energy
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When nucleus of atom split, nuclear energy is released
Most concentrated form
Fission (split atoms) and fusion (fused atoms)v
Kinetic Energy
 also known as energy of motion
 energy an object has due to its mass and velocity
 velocity has the greatest impact on kinetic energy because velocity is squared
in the formula
 the faster it moves, the more kin
 KE = ½ (mass)(velocity)2
 Units - kg m2/s2 = Newton x meter = Joules
Potential Energy
 also known as energy of position of rest energy of position or rest
 is energy that an object has due to either its mass or a combo of its mass and
height from the ground
 a form of storage energy
 Can be mechanical and other forms
 GPE is dependent on height and weight
 GPE = weight x height = mass x gravity x height
 Units - newtons x meters = joules
Energy Conversions
 Most common conversion involves changing kinetic to potential or vice-versa
 All forms of energy can be converted to other forms

Einstein said: if matter is destroyed, energy is created, if energy is destroyed,
matter is created; total amount of mass and energy is conserved
Energy Conversion Examples
Object
Electric Motor
Gas Motor
Toaster
Light Bulb
Gas Stove
Lamp
Kerosene Lantern
Starting
Electric
Chemical
Electric
Electric
Chemical
Electric
Chemical
Transformation
Chemical -- Mechanical
Heat -- Light
Chemical -- Heat
Heat -- Mechanical
Final
Mechanical
Mechanical
Heat
Light
Heat
Light
Light
Example(s)
Your Body
Rubbing Rocks Together (friction, heat, sparks)
Fuel produces heat when ignited
Combustion chamber in car?
Mechanical -- Heat
Swing transfer heat to poles and air
Laws of Conservation
The Law of Conservation of Energy - says that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but it does change from one form of storage energy; NO energy
transformation is 100% effect thanks to friction
The Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy - says that the sum of kinetic
and gravitational potential energy of a system is constant (assuming there is no
friction
Common Energy Transformations
I. A pendulum - any object that swings back and forth freely while being acted
upon by gravity
II. Roller Coaster
III. A Diver’s Fall
Fission, Fusion, and Weapons
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hydrogen bombs are fusion bombs
Uranium and plutonium bombs are fission bombs
Nuclear fusion requires 100,000,000°C
All known material melt and below 4000°C
Magnetic fields can be used to compress plasmas and produce fusion
temperatures
At 350,000,000°C fusion reactions are self sustaining
In fusion 657 million tons of hydrogen are converted into 653 million tons of
helium and 4 million tons of energy are given off each second
In an exploding atomic bomb temperatures are four to five times the
temperature of the center of the sun
Most atomic bombs are fission bonds
Nagasaki bomb was a 239Pu
Hiroshima bomb was 235U Bomb
Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion occurs in stars under extremely high temperatures and pressures
Stage one:
Stage two:
Stage three:
Summary: six hydrogen bombs are used and two are left over; for hydrogen
nuclei are converted into one helium 4 nucleus; masses before and after do not
agree so some of the mass has been converted into energy
Neutrinos and Positrons
Neutrino - “little neutral one”; carry energy but very small; 90% of mass in
universe
Positron - a positive electron, antimatter
Top 5 Sources of Electricity in the U.S.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Coal
Nuclear Power
Natural Gas
Hydroelectric
Petroleum
Critical Mass
The amount of fissionable material that is required so that each fission reaction
produces approximately one more fission reaction.
Photovoltaic Cell
Convert solar energy into electricity.
Alternate Fuels
Hydrogen Gas - produces only water vapor when it burns and releases no
pollution
Biomass - renewable organic matter that can be burned to create energy
Energy Superlatives
Most of our electric energy in the United States comes from Coal.
Most of our energy in general in the United States comes from nonrenewable
resources.
Scientific Work
Done when a force is exerted on an object and the object moves a certain distance
in the direction of the force; force applied and distance moved must be in the
same direction.
Work = Force x Distance
Work is measured in Joules.
Power
Rate at which work is done.
Power = Work / Time
Work is measured in Watts
Watts = (Force x Distance) / Time
Kilowatt Hour - number of thousands of watts per hour
746 Watts = 1 Horsepower
Mercury Barometer
Consists of 32in. Glass tubing that is closed at one end…glass tube is first filled
with mercury and then inverted into a dish of mercury…the mercury column falls
but normally stops when its height reaches 30in. (the maximum amount of
mercury that the air pressing down on the dish can support)…When the mercury
in the tube moves down a partial vacuum is created in the 2in. Of space above it…
when air pressure increases the mercury in the tube rises and vice versa
Soda Straws and Air Pressure
Pressure Class Notes
 Force exerted over a certain area
 Can created by solid, liquid, or gas
 Pressure = Force / Area
 Liquid Pressure = Height x Density
 Under Water, pressure increase by one atmosphere every 32 feet of water
 1 normal cubic meter of air has mass of 1.2 kg/12 N
Units of Pressure
 Pounds per square inch (psi)
 Pascals (pa)
 Atmospheric Pressure in measured in bars or pascals


1 Pascal = 1 Newton/1 Meter2
1 Bar = 100,000 Pascals
Coulomb’s Law & The Electric Force
 The electric force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the two particles
 Electric force can be attractive for repulsive
 Electrical forces can be shielded by various materials unlike the gravitational
force
 For two charged particles or objects that are much smaller and the distance
between them, the force between the two varies as the product of their
charges and inversely as the square of the separation distance
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Coulomb Force Between Two Particles = (proportionality constant) x (charge
of first particle x charge of second particle/distance between them squared
Protons and electrons have the same amount of electrical charge even though
their masses are different
Electric in gravitational forces can act between bodies that are not in contact
with one another
Gravitational and electrical forces create fields of their influence
Electrical fields have magnitude in direction
Gravitational fields have magnitude and extend in all directions
Objects can have GPE and EPE
Units for electrical potential energy are volts
Atmospheric Pressure
 In space there is a gas density of about 1 molecule per cubic centimeter
 Hydrogen – most plentiful element in universe
 50% of atmosphere – below 5.6 km
 75% of atmosphere – below 11 km
 90% of atmosphere – below 18 km
 99% of atmosphere – below 30 km
Buoyancy of Air
 In water, immersed objects are buoyed upwards because pressure acting
against the bottom of the object exceeds the pressure acting on the top
 Archimedes’ Principle – an object surrounded by air is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the air displaced
 An object will rise only so long as it displaces a weight of fluid greater than
its own weight
Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation
 Newton thought that an object with less mass curves towards an object
with more mass because it was attracted to the larger object

Einstein believed that the smaller object curved towards the larger because
the surface on which it moves curves.
Black Holes
 If a star your on would collapse to ½ of its radius, you would weigh 4X as
much; to 1/10 of its radius, you would weight 100X as much
 When large stars reach the end of their life, they collapses until the star
reaches an indefinite density; gravitation near the stars is so great that not
even light can escape it
 “wormhole” – an enormous distortion of space and time; opens out again
in some other part of the universe or another universe; could open up the
possibility of time and travel
 No way to see black and worm holes