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Advanced Placement Biology
Semester 1 AND 2 Final Exam Review
Semester 1:
Unit 1 Test: Biochemistry and Statistics
Atomic Structure: Draw the atoms (with protons, neutrons, and e-) for carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen. How does the atomic structure of the atom affect an atom’s bonding behavior?
Chemical bonds: Compare ionic, polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, and hydrogen bonds. Use the drawings to
explain electronegativity.
Water properties are due to hydrogen bonding which are the result of polar covalent bonds. Why does water
stick to other water molecules?
What is TACT? How does it explain how water gets to the top of a plant?
Describe the role of guard cells in regulating transpiration rates. How do stomata open and close as
environmental conditions change?
Lab: Alcohol and Water: Compare the polarity of water and alcohol. How does this explain why more water
drops fit on a penny than alcohol?
Lab: Transpiration: What environmental factors can affect transpiration rates? Calculate tranpiration rates.
Use example below.
Windy Conditions
No Wind
Mass Before (Day 1)
150 g
200 g
Mass After (Day 2)
125 g
137 g
Mass Lost
% Mass Lost
Transpiration Rate (% Mass Lost per day)
Statistics: If given a 2 data sets, can you reject/fail to reject a null hypothesis? Calculate: mean, standard
deviation, calculated t, degrees of freedom; estimate. Example below.
alcohol
water
12
22
14
18
15
19
Unit 2: Cell Transport:
POGIL: Cell Membranes: Draw and describe the structure and function of a lipid. Compare fats and
phospholipids. Why are phospholipids useful in a cell membrane? Use the idea: hydrophilic, hydrophobic,
polar, nonpolar, bilayer. Explain selective permeability. Compare molecules that can get in through the cell
membrane with those that need an integral protein.
Modeling Activity: Diffusion: Explain why some molecules can move by passive transport. Use entropy to
explain how molecules tend towards disorder, and how organism counteract this to maintain homeostasis.
Explain how cells benefit from making molecules like hemoglobin that cannot leave a cell but can bind to
molecules that they need like oxygen.
Lab: Model Cells in Model Environments: Predict and explain the results of the experiment below of dialysis
bags filled with sugar water solution and placed in distilled water. Calculate percent change. Make microscope
drawings of those changes (Do a before “Microscopic Drawing” and an after “Microscopic Drawing”). Show
both solutes and solvents in the solution. Example:
A cell with sugar
water inside and
distilled water
outside
Mass Day
4
Mass Day
6
10.5
grams
14 grams
Increase in
Mass
(Final –
Initial)
% Change in Mass
(Increase/Initial)*100
Rate (%
change in
mass per
time)
Calculating Water Potential; Review your 2 sets of practice problems. 1: Calculate water potential in the
following scenario. Make a before and after microscope view of the cell. Animal Cell's salt concentration:
0.3M. Environment's salt concentration: 0.2M. Calculate water potential in the cell and outside. Explain the
movement of water in the cell using math. Assume pressure at start is 0 both inside and outside of the cell,
and temperature is 25C. Compare how the results would change if the cell was a plant cell. When would the
plant cell’s pressure cause no more change in mass of the cell.Terms to use: hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic,
equilibrium, diffusion, osmosis, solute concentration, solute potential, pressure potential, water potential
Lab: Potato and Yams. Use the data to answer the following questions. Graph the data (collected at 25C). Use
the x intercept to calculate solute potential, total potential. Draw a “microscopic” drawing of the cell in a 0.5
M sucrose solution. Data, percent change: 0 M: 27%, 0.2 M: 15%, 0.4 M: 6%, 0.6 M: -12%, 0.8 M: -25%, 1.0 M:
-32% Label solutes and solvents. Predict by explaining what will happen to the cell after 100 hours in a 0.5 M
sucrose solution. What will move? How will it move?
Modeling AND POGIL: Cell Size: Explain how surface area to volume ratio influences the shape and size of cells
AND organisms. Use examples to show what happens when a cell gets big, AND how large animals increase
their surface area to volume ratio. How does a cell’s need to transport material affect the size of the cell?
Explain how surface-to-volume ratio influences the plasma membrane. Explain why a high surface-to-volume
ratio facilitates exchange of materials between a cell and its environment.
Modeling Passive and Active Transport: Why can some molecules move passively by facilitated diffusion.
Compare hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic. Compare a glucose 4 transporter to the Na+/K+ pump, noticing
energy demands of each. Compare an aquaporin to a glucose 4 transporter. Why are they different? Use the
glucose/Na+ symporter to explain the benefit of cells expending ATP to run the Na+/K+ pump. Compare
endocytosis to facilitated diffusion. Explain the role of proteins in each (surface receptors (ligands are a type of
protein) to integral proteins).
Unit 3 Exam:
Free Energy POGIL: Explain the Gibbs Free Energy equation. A reaction that increases entropy is/is not (choose
one) spontaneous? Explain why. Given a delta G less than 0, will the reaction release or absorb energy?
Explain why.
Metabolism: Compare anabolism and catabolism. Give an example of each. Explain how anabolic and catabolic
reactions differ in their transfer of energy. What is a metabolic pathway and how are enzymes involved? What
is the 1st law of thermodynamics? Give some examples from nature and class. What is the 2nd law of
thermodynamics? Give some examples from nature and class.
Protein Structure (3.6): How is a protein polymerized? What makes 1 protein different than another? Compare
primary and tertiary structure. Why do some amino acids’ R groups interact with each other but others don’t?
Choose 3 amino acids to compare/contrast. What can cause R groups to no longer interact?
Sickle Cell Poster: Compare Hemoglobin A vs Hemoglobin S. Why is Hemoglobin S different and what impact
does this difference have on people with sickle cell anemia? Explain the role of genetics in causing change to
proteins.
Modeling Activity: Protein Structure: Explain how proteins fold. Explain why denaturation cannot be undone.
Compare the egg before and after heating. What has happened to the protein?
Enzyme Structure and Function: How do enzymes work? Why are enzymes substrate specific? Use tertiary
structure of a protein to explain. What environmental factors can influence the shape of an enzyme? Explain
how. Explain what the optimal environment is given the graph below. Research each of these three enzymes
and explain how their function matches their optimal pH.
Penny Flipase Modeling Activity: Explain the role of denaturation, coenzymes, and competitive inhibitors in
influencing enzymatic reaction rates. Calculate rate for time 0-5 and 10-20 for the 3 trends on the graph
below. Explain what’s happening at the molecular level during these two time periods for these 3 different
environments.
Acids and Bases (2.6): What does an acid/base do to an enzyme? How? Draw 4 molecules in solution: NaOH,
HCl, vinegar, and ammonia. Explain how each caused a pH change in the solution. Explain how pH is measured.
The Spit Lab: Part 1: Describe what a serial dilution is and what the value of it is. Explain how the indicator
iodine works to indicate the presence of starch. Use the equation for the line of the known amylase
concentrations to determine the unknown amylase concentration of a student’s spit where the student’s spit
digested 275mm2 of starch.
The Spit Lab Part 2: Factors Affecting Enzyme Function: What factors influence enzyme shape? How can this
be measured? Use amylase, iodine, amylose, and maltose in your explanation.
Unit 4: Cell Communication: REVIEW TOPICS: All questions must be answered and turned in on December
15th in order to be allowed to do the test make-up.
POGIL Activity: Cell Communication: How do cells, in general, communicate? How are external signals able to
affect changes within a cell? Explain factors that cause a response. Compare different methods organisms
have for communicating between cells. Explain the pros/cons of each method. Use examples. Explain why one
cell is a target for one ligand. Define terms: paracrine, autocrine, juxtacrine, endocrine, ligand, receptor
Signal Transduction Pathway: Concept 34.2 and 34.6: What are the 4 steps of the Signal Transduction
Pathway? Compare the parts of the pathway that are extracellular with those that are intracellular. Why is the
receptor said to be ligand specific. Refer to specific ideas from Unit 3 on Protein Structure.
Insulin/Glucagon Model: Concept 34.8: How is a signal transduction pathway passed by body cells that have
been stimulated by insulin/glucagon? In your explanation, use the following terms: insulin, glucagon,
hyperglycemic, hypoglycemic, insulin receptor, glut4 transporter, glycogen synthase, glycogen phosphorylase,
glucose, glycogen, facilitated diffusion, pancreas, homeostasis, blood, liver cell
Diabetes Drawings Handout: Control of Blood Glucose Levels: Explain the role of genetics, diet, and exercise in
causing Type I and Type II diabetes. Compare a person’s glycogen, glucose, and enzymes in a person without
diabetes, with Type I diabetes, and with Type II diabetes. Use drawings in your comparisons. Describe
treatments for Type I and Type II.
Neuron Stop Motion Movies:
 Define and draw the parts of the neuron: cell body, dendrites, axon, synapse.
 Describe the role of active transport in creating the resting membrane potential of a neuron. Describe
the role of and describe how the Na+/K+ pump works. In your description, use ALL of the following
terms: Na+, K+, ATP, ADP, P, Na+/K+ pump, membrane potential, -70mV



How does a neuron send a signal from one end to another end of the cell? In your description, use ALL
of the following terms: Na+, K+, neurotransmitter, neurotransmitter/ligand gated ion channel, Na+
voltage gated channel, K+ voltage gated channel, action potential, -70mV, -55mV, +30mV
How does a neuron send a signal to another neuron? In your explanation, use ALL of the following
terms: vesicle, exocytosis, Ca2+, neurotransmitter, Ca2+ voltage gated channel, -70mV, -55mV, +30mV
Identify the parts of the graph and what is happening at different points on the graph.
Neuron Function Handout: Compare Figure 4 and 5 below. Explain what is happening in each, comparing each
protein (A-G). Label each protein as either: ligand gated ion channel, voltage gated Na+ channel, or voltage
gated K+ channel. Explain the movement of ions by facilitated diffusion through the different ion channels.
Virus Life Cycle Handout: Why do viruses hurt us? Compare the life cycle of a bacteriophage, influenza virus,
and HIV. Use terms: cell membrane, receptor, lytic cycle, latent cycle, viral DNA, host DNA, viral replication
POGIL Activity: Immunity: Compare the initial and secondary exposure to an antigen. How do cells
communicate via antibodies and antigens? Understand the role of the following in the adaptive immune
response: antigen, antibody, killer T cell, helper T cell, B cell, memory cell, macrophage, perforin, lysosome.
Explain why adaptive immunity is learned in an individual’s life. Use the graph in your explanation, comparing
what’s happening to B cells in the first star compared to the second.
Lab: ELISA: How can scientists determine if an organism is producing an antibody? Explain how an ELISA works.
Use a drawing to explain.
Concept 34.10: Autoimmune Disorders: How do immune cells “know” which cells should be attacked and
which should not? What happens when a T cell does not know which cells to attack? Compare two
autoimmune disorders (see list p.659 and research on the internet (1 paragraph should suffice). What’s the
same, and what’s different?
Unit 5: Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration
Energy “IN” Matter Worksheet: Explain how energy is stored in a molecule.
Concept 3.4: Carbohydrates: Draw the structure of a carbohydrate. Sketch and compare glucose, sucrose, and
cellulose. Compare a monosaccharide, a disaccharide, and a polysaccharide. Why does a lipid have more
potential energy than a carbohydrate? Explain using your understanding of electronegativity.
Photosynthesis Notes: What is the general formula for photosynthesis? Where does it happen? How does it
explain where the mass of a plant comes from? Why do plants need light, air, water, and soil (remember, soil
is not needed for photosynthesis). How do photosystems transfer energy to plants? Inputs/outputs? What is
the role of chlorophyll, a photon, and water? For the electron transport chain: know where in the cell, what is
the input/output, how energy is transferred, the role of the phospholipid bilayer, integral proton pumps, and
ATP synthase. Why do we breathe oxygen?
POGIL Activity: Photosynthesis: Note location of each of the 2 reactions of photosynthesis: light reactions and
the Calvin Cycle. Compare the reactants and products of each. Compare the role of chloroplasts, mesophyll
cells, stomata, xylem, thylakoid, thylakoid space, stroma, and thylakoid membrane
Lab: Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration in Mung Beans: How do different environmental factors affect
photosynthesis and cell respiration? How can this be measured?
Modeling Activity: Harvesting Light: Why is chlorophyll an affective molecule in absorbing light? What does it
mean to “absorb” a photon? Why are plants green?
Cell Respiration Notes: How do chemicals transfer potential energy? Why does an organism bother with so
many steps in oxidizing sugar? Know what, in general, happens during glycolysis, Krebs, and electron transport
chain. Why do we breathe oxygen?
POGIL Activity: Cell Respiration: Note location of each of the 3 reactions of cell respiration: glycolysis, Krebs,
electron transport chain. Compare the reactants and products of each.
Modeling Activity: Cell Respiration: How is potential energy transferred from glucose to ATP? Identify and
draw the structures of the plant that help the plant perform photosynthesis and cell respiration. Describe how
the energy from light gets transferred to sugar and ATP. Use your drawings to show how the potential energy
of light has been used to produce sugar, a high potential energy chemical, and ATP. Connect the molecular,
organelle, and organismal processes. Show how the plant is a system of parts that work together to
accomplish the task of photosynthesis and cell respiration.
Semester 2:
Unit 6: DNA:
Nucleic Acids: What are the parts of a nucleotide? Compare RNA and DNA. How does DNA carry information?
Terms: phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose, ribose), nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G,U), antiparallel. Who were Watson,
Crick, and Rosalind Franklin, and how did they contribute to our understanding of DNA’s structure?
How does information in a gene result in a protein being made? Describe the steps and know how to
transcribe RNA and translate to an amino acid sequence. Terms: tRNA, mRNA, ribosome, RNA polymerase,
nucleus, cytoplasm, codon, anticodon, amino acid, polypeptide
POGIL: The Central Dogma: Transcription and Translation: Explain the steps in transcription and translation.
Decode the following gene to determine the amino acid sequence: ATTTTCCCGAGACGAT. If a protein is 3
million amino acids long, how many nucleotides long must be the corresponding gene, at minimum? Why
would a prokaryote transcribe and translate faster than a eukaryote?
Modeling Gene Expression: pHET: Compare the concept of genes to traits, DNA, RNA, proteins, and
chromosomes. Why do some sections of DNA encode different traits than others? Why might one cell make
more of one protein than another? How is this process regulated? Terms: transcription factor
Compare different types of mutations. What is the difference in their effect on an organism? What could
cause a mutation to be bad/good/or neither? Terms: frameshift, deletion, addition, insertion. Cause a
frameshift mutation in the following sequence and compare the protein that is built: ATTTTCCCGAGACGAT
Lab: Gel Electrophoresis (Concept 20.2): How does gel electrophoresis help us study mutations? Explain the
steps involved and the role of the following: restriction enzymes, mutations, electricity, agarose gel, stain.
Given the following “DNA fingerprint”, can you explain what it means, including how it was produced and
what each fragment tells you? Given that the bottom of the figure is where the DNA started, explain why
there are different bands and how you know that the top bands are the smallest.
Unit 7: Inheritance:
DNA Replication: Describe how: DNA is made semiconservatively. Describe how the leading strand is made
differently than the lagging strand. What are the roles of the different enzymes in Replication? Define
helicase, DNA polymerase, ligase, Okazaki fragments, lagging strand, leading strand. What problems do the
limitations of the enzymes pose (ie Polymerase only makes DNA 5’3’)? Draw a section of DNA and show how
the lagging strand “catches up”. Label the 5’ and 3’ ends of the DNA.
Mitosis: What is the relationship between a chromosome, a gene, and DNA? Why do cells divide? Why do
chromosomes replicate? What are the steps of mitosis? Draw and label the parts: nucleus, chromatin,
chromosome, sister chromatid, homologous pair, cytokinesis
Meiosis: What happens to a cell during meiosis? Compare mitosis and meiosis. Why bother doing meiosis?
Draw meosis and label: meiosis I, meiosis II, DNA replication, gamete, haploid, diploid, crossing over, tetrad,
homologous pair, independent assortment, sister chromatid. When is genetic diversity increased during
meiosis? How? What is the advantage to this? Compare the advantages and disadvantages of sexual vs
asexual reproduction.
Meiosis POGIL: Compare cells at the beginning and the end of meiosis I and II. How does the amount of DNA
change as meiosis progresses? Compare independent assortment and crossing over. What is a recombinant
chromosome? What is a tetrad? Calculate the number of possible gametes due to independent assortment
with 3 homologous pairs, 4 homologous pairs, and 5 homologous pairs.
Inheritance Patterns: What did Mendel teach us? Explain why some traits are dominant to others. Explain how
variation is increased due to independent assortment. Compare the following inheritance patterns:
incomplete dominance, codominance, x linked traits. Why do some diseases show in boys more often than
girls? If a father has male patterned baldness (an x linked recessive disease), what is the probability that his
son will inherit the trait? his grandson? Use probability laws to solve the following punnett squares predicting
the outcomes of crosses where many traits are involved. Parents with the following genotype: AABbCcdd x
aaBbCcDD. What frequency of the offspring will be dominant for all 4 traits? Recessive for all 4 traits? Use the
internet or the Inheritance Patterns Problem Sets to show an example of each of the following inheritance
patterns: incomplete dominance, blood types, and codominance
Chromosomes and Linked Genes: What did Morgan tell us that Mendel couldn’t? How do chromosomes
explain Mendel’s observed 3:1 ratio? or 9:3:3:1 ratio? or 1:1:1:1. How do linked genes complicate Mendel’s
findings? Calculate the recombination frequency given the data set below. Explain why neither 1:1:1:1 OR
1:1:0:0 ratios were observed. Construct a gene map using the following recombination frequencies: A-B 29%,
A-D 15%, A-C 32%, B-D 14%, B-C 3%
Chromosomes and Karyotypes: Explain how sex is determined. Explain how mistakes in meiosis can lead to
chromosomal errors. Give an example of a monosomy and of a trisomy. Draw meiosis that would lead to
either the monosomy or the trisomy.
Chronic Myeloid Leukemia: Chromosomal Errors and Loss of Gene Regulation: How can a translocation lead to
dysregulation of the mitotic cell cycle? What solutions are possible to correct this error? What is the
difference between a cure and a treatment?
Unit 8 Evolution Test Review:
EvoDots Modeling: Explain how heritability, selection, and drift affect the change in frequency of an allele in a
population.
Natural Selection Explain the evolution of natural selection in action using TWO of the following examples:
rock pocket mice; Galapagos finches; mosquitoes and DDT; agriculture and animal husbandry (wolves to dogs,
mustard to broccoli). Use Mr. Jones’s “formula” for explaining evolution by natural selection. What are the
different types of evidence for evolution? Terms: homologous structures, analogous structures, vestigial
structures, convergent evolution vs adaptive radiation.
Hardy-Weinberg POGIL and Modeling Lab: Calculate changes in a gene pool using the Hardy-Weinberg
equation: individuals showing a recessive phenotype represent 12% of a population of 1 million. How many
individuals of each phenotype and genotype do you expect given HW equilibirium? What are the 5 criteria
that are required for a population to NOT evolve? Describe how each criteria can cause evolution.
Activity: What is a species? Why is a species sometimes difficult to define? Explain the importance of gene
flow to creating a species? How does reproductive isolation lead to a new species? How do different types of
selection explain how new species arise? How do other factors (genetic drift) also lead to new species? How
does hybrid inviability help measure speciation? How is the process of evolution evidence for evolution?
POGIL: Phylogenetic Trees: Explain how phylogenetic trees show evolutionary relationships. Use data to build
a phylogenetic tree. Explain why trees are based on homologous features (shared derived features) rather
than analogous features (convergent evolution). Given the following data, build a phylogenetic tree and
describe who is most closely related to who and how you know:
% difference in
hemoglobin
sequence
rat
chipmunk
moose
cow
rat
chipmunk
moose
cow
x
4
9
9
4
x
9
9
9
9
x
2
9
9
2
x
Lab: Bacterial Transformation: How can species acquire new traits? How do new traits give species a selective
advantage? How can selective pressure increase the frequency of a trait in a population? decrease? Explain
the role of a plasmid in giving bacteria new traits. What would happen to the presence of a trait if a gene was
inserted within another gene (ie there was an insertion of one gene within another)?
Unit 9: Ecology
Interactions: Compare different types of interactions: predator/prey, symbiosis, mimicry, competition. Use the
graph below to explain how interactions affect population growth. Use terms.
Population Growth: Understand factors that cause exponential growth. Explain the variables in the
exponential growth equation. Calculate population growth given rmax=.156 and an initial population of
10,000. What will the population be in year 1, 2, 3, 4, 5? Understand factors that cause logistic growth. Explain
the variables in the logistic growth equation. Calculate population growth given rmax=.156 and an initial
population of 10,000 with a carrying capacity of 20,000. What will the population be in year 1, 2, 3, 4, 5?
Explain the different periods of a logistic growth curve, particularly noticing why populations may continue to
increase though at a slower rate. What might cause growth to become negative? Give examples.
Adaptations: How do life history characteristics help us predict growth rates: r strategists vs K strategists.
Explain factors that regulate population growth: density dependent vs independent. Use examples from
Concept 54.1, for example.
Energy and Matter in Ecosystems: How does the 2nd law of thermodynamics affect ecosystems? Why are
energy transfers inefficient? Predict the biomass of tertiary consumers if the biomass of producers is
4,000,000 kg. How does the 1st law of thermodynamics affect ecosystems? Why is the cycling of matter
significant for ecosystems? Explain the carbon, water, and nitrogen cycles, emphasizing the role of each
SPECIFICALLY in living organisms: how it gets in us, how it is used in us, and how we get rid of excess.
Lab: Succession vs Invasive Species: How does disturbance lead to succession? Why do ecosystems tend
towards a climax community? What factors can stop a system from reaching its climax community? How do
scientists explain why species are more abundant or entirely absent from some parts of a disturbed
ecosystem. Explain methods for collecting and analyzing data. Terms: interspecific v intraspecific, competition,
predation, symbiosis, mimicry