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Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol:5, p.686-694, 1981-82
Current Contents, #38, p.5-13, September 20, 1982
Since 1816 the John Scott and Other
Awarsls
Have
Recognized
“Useful”
Philadelphia
Scientific
Dfssover$es-lames
Black and
Benjamin
Rubfn Head a fM
of
Recent
Distinguished
Recipients
Number
38
September
20, 1982
$4,000 to the City of Philadelphia. He
probably chose Philadelphia because he
was a great admirer of Benjamin Frank-
If you were to ask the average person
to name a scientific award, you would
doubtless hear the Nobel Prize named.
Besides the Nobel, though, most people
would be hard pressed to name many
more. In a forthcoming essay on “nonNobel awards,” I will discuss several
science awards that are well known to
many scientists but are not, perhaps, as
famous as they should be.
When I first contemplated
this essay I
had the immediate objective of calling to
your attention the work of several award
committees on which I have served. The
granting of awards is an important part
of the reward system of science, but it is
not generally known how pervasive a
phenomenon
it has become. Awards in
science come in all sizes and shapes and
it would be impossible to name and
discuss them all in a reasonable amount
of space. A brief discussion of Philadelphia-based
science
awards
follows.
I hope it will prove to be an interesting sampling. It also provides me the opportunity to promote our city during its
300th anniversary celebration. 1
Over 100 science awards are given by
local and national organizations based in
Philadelphia.z
Many of them have formidable traditions of their own. One
such award is the John Scott Award. It is
certainly
one of the oldest science
awards in the US.
John Scott, an Edinburgh
chemist,
founded the award in 1816 by willing
lin. To date about 500 people have
received the award, which Scott intended to go to “ingenious men and
women who make useful inventions. ”
Scott’s endowment was to be invested to
create
a fund for honoraria.
Each
award now includes an honorarium
of
about $5,000 and is given annually by the
Philadelphia Board of Directors of City
Trusts.s
The John Scott Award Advisory Committee consists of Chairman William A.
Meehan,
president,
Board of Directors of City Trusts; Randall M. Whaley,
president, University City Science Center; Francis Plowman, former vice president, Scott Paper Co.; Ruth J. Armour,
secretary,
Board of Directors of City
Trusts; C. Marshall Dann, patent attorney;
Eugene Garfield,
president,
ISI”; Charles Price, emeritus professor
of chemistry, University of Pennsylvania; Jonathan E. Rhoads, professor of
surgery, University of Pennsylvania; Sidney Weinhouse, director, Fels Research
Institute, Temple University School of
Medicine; and Percy A. Wells, former
director, Eastern Regional US Department of Agriculture Laboratory.
The committee
welcomes carefully
documented nominations. The award is
not restricted to Philadelphians,
or even
to Americans.
Citizens of many coun-
686
tries have been honored, The list of recipients includes such names as Marie
Curie, Orville Wright, Thomas Edison,
Guglielmo Marconi, Nikola Tesla, Edwin H. Land, Vannevar Bush, Alexander Fleming, Glenn T. Seaborg, John
Bardeen, Jonas Salk, and ISI’S neighbor
R. Buckminster Fuller.
Many other Scott Award recipients
are not as well known. But they certainly
fulfilled Scott’s dictum that the award be
given to the makers of useful inventions.
In 1922, for example, Elwood Haynes received the award for developing stainless
steel. Inventor Robert Temple got the
award in 1931 for making a dough mixing
and kneading device. Paul M. Zoll was
the recipient in 1967 for developing the
pacemakers
Better known to Current Contentsa
(CC@ ) readers
is Oliver H. Lowry,
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, the citation laureate. He received
the Scott Award in 1963 for a method for
isolating,
preparing,
weighing,
and
chemically studying single nerve cells
and subcellular particles.d I have already
commented
in detail about his famous
paper on protein determinations
which
he himself discussed
in a Citation
C[assic.b A more recent recipient,
in
1978, was Bruce N. Ames, University of
California,
Berkeley,
for his test for
mutagenicity.
The 1981 corecipient
of the Scott
Award was Sir James Whyte Black. He
was given this recognition
for work
which led to the development of two important drugs. Black was elected to the
Royal Society in 1976, and since 1978
has been director
of therapeutic
research at Wellcome Research Laboratories, UK. He was born in Scotland in
1924 and has lectured at the University
of St. Andrews and at the University of
Glasgow. He has also been head of the
department of pharmacology at Universit y College London, and deputy director of research at SmithKline Corp.3
687
Hlactc was nonorea ror tne lYo4 alscovery of propranolol,
a drug used to
treat angina, arrhythmia, and hypertension. T (p. 393-4) It has also been shown
useful in preventing
migraine
headaches
and in prolonging the lives of
heart attack patients.g
Marketed in the US by Ayerst Laboratories as Inderal, propranolol is one of a
family of drugs known as beta blockers.
According to a recent review of the subject, beta blockers are so known because they block the absorption of hormones by sites in the nervous system
called beta-receptors.
Blocking these
receptors causes the heart to slow down
so that it uses less oxygen. It also lowers
the blood pressure. 10
The idea of beta blockers was conceived in 1906 when H.H. Dale found
that involuntary
responses of various
organs were inhibited by certain afkaloids. This led R.P. Ahlquist and others
to investigate different types of receptor
cells. However, it was not until 1958 that
researchers
at Eli Lilly Laboratories
were able to block some of the beta responses to isoprenaline,
a chemical involved in respiration. 10
Though beta blockers are not new,
Black and colleagues were the first to
recognize their real clinical potential. to
They theorized that anginal pain, which
results from lack of oxygen to the heart
as it beats faster, might be reduced by
blocking the stimulants
that increase
heart rate.
Working with chemist J.S. Stephenson, Black discovered the first clinically
useful beta blocker, called pronethalol.
But to be effective, pronethalol had to
be used in high doses, and these doses
seemed to cause cancer in mice. So the
researchers went on to develop proprano1o1, a drug ten times stronger than
pronethalol. 10
Propranolol
does have some side effects. It can cause low blood pressure,
fatigue, faintness, bizarre dreams, occa-
sional depression,
and gastrointestinal
problems. But not many patients experience these side effects, and the effects
can usually be avoided by taking lower
dosages.1~
In addition to those who have benefited from this drug, there are also millions
of others who suffer from chronic duodenal ulcer. They should feel, as I do,
personally grateful to Black for his other
major discovery. His research on H2 antagonists
laid the groundwork
for
cimetidine. Cimetidine is the anti-ulcer
drug marketed
worldwide
by SmithKline. In the US it goes under the trade
name Tagamet. 1I
Gastric and duodenal ulcers may be
caused by excess secretion of gastric
acid, or, in some patients, by the inability of the mucosa to absorb nonmal
amounts of acid, The secretion of gastric
acid is influenced by the hormone histamine. Histamine causes the release of
chemicals when it interacts with points
along cell walls known as H-receptors.
According to a reminiscence by William
A.M. Duncan and Michael E. Parsons,
two of Black’s colleagues, Black theorized that there are really two types of
H-receptors. H, -receptors cause allergic
reactions and cold symptoms such as
runny eyes and sore throat. Antihistamines suppress those symptoms.
But
they do not suppress the release of
gastric acid, which theoretically occurs
when histamine
binds with the second type of H-receptor,
called the
H2-receptor. 12
In 1964, a team of scientists
at
SmithKline,
led by Black, began to
search for a way to block that histamine-H2 reaction. They wanted to make
a “key” that would fit into the receptor
“lock” even better than histamine did,
but would not cause gastric acid secretion.lz
amide, was not potent enough. In 1971
the team produced metiamide, which is
strong enough to be effective in humans.
In late 1972, as Black left SmithKline,
metiamide turned out to adversely affect
laboratory animals. So a new compound
had to be found. Cimetidine was made at
SmithKline late in 1972, first marketed
in the UK in 1976, and approved by the
Food and Drug Administration
for US
use nine months later. While Black did
not directly participate in the synthesis
of cimetidine, his basic research laid the
essential groundwork. 12
Cimetidine is still not perfect. There
have been reports that it can cause impotence or low sperm count. 13 Ironically, more recent reports indicate it may
also help prevent
cancer. 14 More
research needs to be done on cimetidine, but there is no doubt that it or
other H2 antagonists are the most successful methods now available for combating ulcers.
Black’s original paper on H2-receptors
has accrued
over 1,000 citations. 15
Based on Science Citation Index@ (SCF )
data, onfy about 300 papers have ever
achieved this distinction, and only 17
were published between 1972 and 1980.
Many of Black’s other papers have been
well cited, from about 50 timesl+lq to
over 100 times,z@zd
Both propranolol and cimetidine are
now the subject of intensely active fields
of research. Tables 1 and 2 list the titles
of the most active research fronts identified in the 1982 ISI/BIOMED’w
online
file. The literature on these compounds
is enormous.
In 1981, the John Scott Award Committee also recognized another inventive, large-scale contribution
to health.
It selected Benjamin A. Rubin, the inventor of the bifurcated
needle. The
World Health Organization used it in its
Black’s team tested about 700 compounds. It didn’t find an effective H2 antagonist until 1970. This drug, burim-
global campaign to eradicate smallpox.zs
Rubin began working on a way to apply smallpox vaccine in 1961, when he
688
Table 1: fSI/BIOMED
on propranolol.
research
.. .
front specialties
Researeh Front Name
Code Number
79-0932
79-1331
‘“
Long-term
propranolol therapy
Plasma concentrations of pr~
pranolol
79-19s0
80-0312
80-1809
8C-2205
80-2234
W-2461
81-1185
81-2078
and hypertension
Propranolol in chronic
schizophrenia
Beta-adrenergic
receptor blocklng
therapy by propranolol in myncardiaf infarction
Propranolol beta-blockhg
activity in
thyrotoxicosis and hyperthyroid
treatment
Effects of propranolol on CNS betaadrenergic receptors during .mtihypertensive therapy
Propranolol as a beta-adrenergic
receptor antagonist in tryptamineinduced behavioral changes in
rodents
Pharmacokinetics
of propranolol
Propranolol, chlorpromazine
and
beta-adrenergic
blocking drugs in
schizophrenia
Propranolol
Table 2: ISI/BIOMED
on cimetidlne.
Cnde Number
‘“
research
Research
I
front specialties
Frnm Name
79-0204
Cimetidlne effects on pro factin
secretion
79-0538 Cimetidine in the treatment of
duodenal ulcer
80-(?563 Cfinical evaluation of cimetidine on
gastrointestinal
ulcers
fu3-0+64 Cimetidine effects on pituitary and
gastric secretion
80-1416 Effects of cimetidine and pancreatic
enzymes foflowing pancreaticreplacement therapy
80-1701 Cfinical aapects of cimetidine
80-1984 Pharmacology of cimetidhe in treatment of gastrointestinal
bleeding
81-0265 Effects of histamine antagonists,
cimetidine and ranitidine on
H-receptors
81-0347 Effects of cimetidlne
81-0417 T-ceU-response to hstamine
81-0S46 Cirnetidhe for the treatment of
gastroesophageal
reffux
81-0677 Management of peptic ulcers with
cimetidlne and other drugs
81-1007 Cfinical pharmacokinetics
of
cimetidine
81-1369 Cimetidine and cytopenia
81-1X)7 Dnig interactions with cimetidhe
81-2292 Effects of cimetidlne on calcitonin
and calcium transport
689
. .
...
.
..
.
...
wltn
I exme
couaoorarea
Keaamg
Machines
Company
of Pennsylvania,
now a division of RockweU International. A new method of freeze-drying
vaccine had made the earlier method,
using capillary tubes, obsolete, because
capillary
tubes wasted
vaccine.
So
Rubin tried to design a needle that
would hold less vaccine and be easier to
use. He ground down the eyes of sewing
needles to make pronged forks. These
prongs held exactly 1 mg of fluid vaccine. Later, Rubin sharpened the needle
so that it could be used to scar as well as
puncture the skin, and thus use much
less vaccine than older techniques.zb Using Rubin’s modified sewing needle as a
prototype,
Reading Textile Machines
began mass production.
The simplicity
of the device also allowed a vaccinator
to be trained in about 15 minutes. It
greatly increased the vaccination
success rate. 26
Rubin, born in 1917, has followed a
career which encompasses
radiology,
genetics,
endocrinology,
chemistry,
pathology, and microbiology. A prol~lc
author in his many fields, Rubin has published over 135 papers on subjects including gene mutation, 27influenza, 28radiation microbiology,zg
steroids,~
immunology and cancer,Jl rabies virus,3z
the separation of viral components
in
zero gravity, 33 and protein synthesis inhibitors.3’t He is now manager of biological product development at Wyeth Laboratories, Radnor, Pennsylvania.
The John Scott Award is not, of
course, the only prestigious
scienttilc
award based in Philadelphia.
Phdadelphia is not only a large city; it was the
original capital of the US. So not surprisingly it has a long tradition of science.
There are many other awards but space
doesn’t permit me to list them all, Indeed, most of the organizations
listed
below administer
more awards than
those that we have the space to name.
The following brief overview should give
an impression of the variety of individuals and fields recognized in this city.
Phdadelphla’s tradition of excellence
in the biomedical sciences was demonstrated recently when I described the
Wistar Institute.ss Considering the fact
that there are five medical schools in
Philadelphia,
it’s no surprise that there
are many prizes in biomedicine. In 1958,
for example, the American Colfege of
Physicians (ACP), located in Philadelphia since 1923, established the annual
ACP Award, with a gold medal, for medical research. The 1982 award went to
Daniel Nathans, Johns Hopkins University. Nathans was corecipient of the 1978
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Meditine.Jb He was also among the f ,000
most-cited contemporary
scientists.g7
The American
Society of Cytology
(ASC), based in Philadelphia since 1962,
also sponsors several awards. One is
named after George Papanicolaou,
inventor of the “Pap smear” method to
detect
uterine
cancer.
This annual
award includes a bronze medal and a
$750 honorarium.
In 1979, the award
went to Torbjom O. Caspersson for his
work in cellular physics.~ Caspersson,
Karolinska Institute,
Stockholm,
also
appeared in our study of 1,000 mostcited contemporary
scientists. s7
In 1972, Caspersson received another
yearly ASC award, the Guest Lectureship Award on Basic Cell Research in
Cytology. Other 1,000 most-cited
authors who received it are Paul Eston
Lacy ( 1981), Baruj Benacerraf
( 1980),
Joseph Louis Melnick ( 1978), Emmanuel
Farber
( 1977), Robert
Alan Good
(1974). Don Wayne Fawcett (1971),
Zanvil A. Cohn ( 1970), and Harris Busch
( 1968).s7 The award carries a $500
honorarium.
The American Philosophical
Society
(ApS). founded by Franklin and others
in 1743, has a number of awards in the
life sciences as well as other fields. One
of them is for research in neurobiology.
690
The award is named after its founder,
Karl Spencer Lashley, the neurobiologist. It was established in 1957, the year
before his death. Among the recipients
is Nobelist Roger Wolcott Sperry. He
received the Lashley Award in 1976.s9
Included with this annual award is an
honorarium of $2,000.
The APS also administers the John F.
Lewis Prize for “some truth which the
Council of the Society shall deem worthy
of the award. ”sQ It was established in
1935 with a $10,000 donation by Lewis’s
wife, in her husbands
memory. This
$300 annual award is not restricted to
science. The 1979 award, for example,
went to Roland Mushat Frye, University
of Pennsylvania, for a paper on Milton’s
influence on the visual arts.qo But since
the award was established in 1935, it has
been bestowed on authors of papers
dealing with spectroscopy, ql paleontology.42 population biology and economics,~s hummingbirds, A4 the placenta, ~s
and the lunar surface. ~bThe 1977 winner
was Choh Hao Li, Hormone Research
Laboratory,
University
of California,
This pharmacologist,
San Francisco.
also among the 1,000 most-cited scientists,37 was honored for a paper on
pituitary hormones.’rT
Yet another APS award falls into the
natural sciences category.
John Hyacinth de Magellan, descendant of Ferdinand Magellan, donated to the APS
funds for an award for the most useful invention in navigation,
astronomy,
or
natural philosophy, Today the award is
called the Magellanic Premium, and includes a gold medal.jQ It is bestowed irregularly,
The most recent selection
neatly combines the fields of navigation
and the life sciences. It was given in 1980
to Martin Lindauer, University of Wiirzburg, Federal Republic of Germany, for
his studies on animal orientation
and
flight guidance, ~~
The natural sciences are well represented by the awards of the Academy of
card. L.S. B. Leakey, noted for his landmark work in human paleontology,
received it in 1964. Appropriately enough,
the award has also gone to an astronaut
turned geologist, Harrison Schmitt. He
is the only scientist so far to walk on the
moon, and is now a member of the US
Senate.
Exploration is also the field for which
the Geographical
Society of Philadelphia gives honors. Its Elisha Kent Kane
Gold Medal was established
in 1900.
This medaf is named after the Philadelphia native who in the nineteenth century explored the Arctic while on an unsuccessful expedition to rescue another
exploration team. Kane spent two years
marooned on Greenland before he was
rescued in 1855. Kane Medal recipients
have included Arctic explorer Robert E.
Peary (1902); aviator Richard E. Byrd
(1926); William R. Anderson
(1959),
commander
of the nuclear submarine
Nauti/us; Jacques-Yves Cousteau ( 1961);
John H. Glenn, Jr. (1%2), another
astronaut turned senator; and astronaut
M. Scott Carpenter ( 1968).54 The medal
is awarded irregularly.
Physical sciences are well covered by
Philadelphia-based
awards. The Franklin Institute sponsors many of them. The
Franklin Medal, for instance, is a gold
medal given annually to physical science
or technology workers who have done
the most to advance or apply physicaf
knowledge. Stephen W. Hawking, the
well-known
British astrophysicist,
received the award in 1981 for his revolutionary work on cosmology, relativity,
and black holes, 55
Natural Sciences.
The academy was
founded in Philadelphia
in 1812. The
Joseph Leidy Medal is given every three
years, for publication or exploration in
natural science.@ Leidy (1823-1891) was
a physician noted for his work on parasitology and paleontology. The award inchrdes a bronze medal and a $500 honorarium. The Leidy Medal was given in
1979 to Edward O. Wilson, Harvard
for his research
on the
University,
classification of ants. Wilson, of course,
is better known to the public as the
founder of the controversial field of sociobiology.~ Other recipients have been
Henry A. Pilsbry (1928), known for research on shellfish, sl and Ernst Mayr
(1946),
noted
for
his
work
on
evolution. 52
The academy also has an award for
research in geology and paleontology.
It’s called the Hayden Memorial Geological Award. A bronze medal and $500
comes with it. It was founded in 1888 by
Emma W. Hayden, in honor of her husband, who was an early director of the
American
Geological Survey. One of
the earliest recipients of the award was
Thomas Huxley, in 1893. The most recent recipient is Daniel Isaac Axelrod,
University of California, Davis. He got
the award in 1979. He too is known for
hw research on evolution.ss This prize is
awarded every three years.
The academy’s Gold Medal, though
not specifically for science, is another
noteworthy
natural science award. It
was founded in 1980 to honor artists who
deal with natural sciences subjects. It
has been given to both Ansel Adams and
Roger Tory Peterson.@
The Academy
of Natural Sciences
also presents an occasional award for exploration in the natural sciences. This
prize, the Richard Hopper Day Memorial Medal, was established in 1960 by
Margaret Day Dilks, in honor of her
grandfather.ag One of the first recipients
was famed deep-sea diver Jacques Pic-
Another
sciences
Franklin
award,
the
Institute
John
Price
physicaf
Wetherill
Medal,
is a gold medaf bestowed in recognition of new physics discoveries, or
for new combinations of older principles
and methods. In 1981, the award went to
five IBM researchers for their work on
the physics of transistors. The recipients
were Frank Fang, Afan Fowler, Web-
691
abstracting
and mdextng.
Keclplents
deliver the Miles Conrad Lecture. The
annual award is named after my close
friend and colleague. Miles was also the
first president of NFAIS. The 1980 lecture, by Carlos A. Cuadra, Cuadra Associates,
Inc.,
considered
how and
whether
publishers
may survive the
technology explosion of the 1980s.58 The
1981 lecture, by Russell J. Rowlett, Jr,,
Chemical Abstracts Service, dealt with
the changing role of the abstract. sg
Rowlett retires this year and will be
missed by all his friends, The 1982 lecture, by Saul Hemer, Hemer and Co,,
dealt with the business and science aspects of abstracting and indexing services.~ My association with Herner goes
back to 1951 when we were both affiliated with Johns Hopkins University.
I am certain that most award committees, including the ones I serve on, are
glad to receive suggestions
for candidates, especially those who have not
been adequately recognized in the past.
Too often suggestions are received naming scientists who have been widely and
amply recognized for their accomplishments. As our studies have repeatedly
stressed, the world of science is large
and blessed with an incredible number
of brilliant people. The democracy of
science demands that more of them be
recognized publicly. In Philadelphia,
at
least, we are trying to be a little bit more
systematic about it.
ster Howard, Frank Stem, and Philip
Stiles. Another
Franklin
award, the
Albert A. Michelson Medal, goes to
contributors
to the field of optics. The
1982 Michelson Medal was given to Hermann P. Haken, University of Stuttgart,
Federal Republic of Germany, for his
work in quantum
optics and laser
theory .55
Theoretical and applied mathematics
are also recognized
by Philadelphiabased awards. The Society for Industrial
and Applied
Mathematics
(SIAM),
founded in 1952, sponsors several such
awards. sb The Norbert Weiner Prize was
established in 1967 for contributions
to
applied
mathematics,
It is awarded
every five years and carries an honoranum of S300. It is cosponsored
by the
American Mathematical
Society, Providence, Rhode Island. Three of the four
recipients—Richard
Ernest
Bellman,
University of Southern California; Peter
David Lax, New York University; and
Tosio Kate, University of California,
Berkeley—appeared
on our list of mostcited mathematicians.
Three recipients
of the John von Neumann
Lecture
Award also appeared on our list, That
yearly award was established in 1960 to
recognize a lecturer who shows how
pure mathematics contributes to applied
math. The most-cited math list recipients were Lars Valerian Ahlfors ( 1960),
and
Garrett
Birkhoff
Lax (1968),
(1981).s7
Naturally, I’m happy to report that information science is represented.
The
National Federation of Abstracting and
Information Services (NFAIS), founded
in Philadelphia in 1958, offers the Miles
Conrad Memorial Award to recognize
outstanding contributors
to the field of
*****
My thanks to Sue Klingler, Thomas
Marcinko,
Dorothy Silver, and Amy
Stone for their help in the preparation of
this essay.
0,%2tsl
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