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Link Layer: MAC and Summary 11/30/2009 1 Admin. Exam 2 Covers network and link layers Format similar to exam 1; see samples of exam 2 from past offerings 2 Recap: Link Layer Services Framing o encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer and error detection/correction (e.g., CRC) Multiplexing/demultiplexing o frame headers to identify src, dest • different from IP address (ARP) ! Flow control Link media access control (MAC) Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes 3 Recap: MAC Protocols Goals efficient, fair, decentralized, simple Three broad classes: channel partitioning divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slot, frequency, code) Non-partitioning random access • allow collisions “taking-turns” • a token coordinates shared access to avoid collisions 4 Recap: Channel Partitioning TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access Used mostly in wireless broadcast channels (cellular, satellite, etc) Unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set partitioning All users share same frequency, but each user m has its own “chipping” sequence (i.e., code) cm to encode data • e.g. cm = 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 5 Recap: CDMA Each user uses its own code cm Assume original data are represented by 1 and -1 Encoded signal = (original data) modulated by (chipping sequence) assume cm = 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 if data is d, send d cm, • if data d is 1, send cm • if data d is -1 send -cm Decoding: inner-product (summation of bit-by-bit product) of encoded signal and chipping sequence if inner-product > 0, the data is 1; else -1 If codes are orthogonal, multiple users can “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with minimal interference 6 Recap: Channel Partitioning Two codes Ci and Cj are orthogonal, if c j ci 0 , where we use “.” to denote inner product, e.g. C1: 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 C2: 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 ----------------------------------------C1 . C2 = 1 +(-1) + 1 + (-1) +1 + 1+ (-1)+(-1)=0 If codes are orthogonal, multiple users can “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with minimal interference 7 Outline Recap Non-partitioning MAC protocols Random access Taking turns (we will not cover in class) 8 Random Access Protocols When a node has packets to send transmit at full channel data rate R no a priori coordination among nodes Two or more transmitting nodes -> “collision” Random access MAC protocol specifies: how to detect collisions how to recover from collisions Examples of random access MAC protocols: slotted ALOHA and pure ALOHA CSMA and CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA 9 Slotted Aloha [Norm Abramson] Time is divided into equal size slots (= pkt trans. time) Node with new arriving pkt: transmit at beginning of next slot If collision: retransmit pkt in future slots with probability p, until successful. Success (S), Collision (C), Empty (E) slots 10 Slotted Aloha Efficiency Q: What is the fraction of successful slots? suppose n stations have packets to send suppose each transmits in a slot with probability p - prob. of succ. by a specific node: p (1-p)(n-1) - prob. of succ. by any one of the N nodes S(p) = n * Prob (only one transmits) = n p (1-p)(n-1) 11 Goodput vs. Offered Load Slotted Aloha 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 G = offered load = np when p n < 1, as p (or n) increases probability of empty slots reduces probability of collision is still low, thus goodput increases when p n > 1, as p (or n) increases, probability of empty slots does not reduce much, but probability of collision increases, thus goodput decreases goodput is optimal when p n = 1 12 Maximum Efficiency vs. n 0.4 1/e = 0.37 maximum efficiency 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 At best: channel use for useful transmissions 37% of time! 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 2 7 12 17 n 13 Pure (unslotted) Aloha Unslotted Aloha: simpler, no clock synchronization Whenever pkt needs transmission: send without awaiting for the beginning of slot Collision probability increases: pkt sent at t0 collide with other pkts sent in [t0-1, t0+1] 14 Pure Aloha (cont.) Assume a node transmit with probability p in one unit of time P(success by a given node) = P(node transmits) * P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] * P(no other node transmits in [t0, t0+1] = p . (1-p)n-1 . (1-p)n-1 = p . (1-p)2(n-1) P(success by any of N nodes) = n p . (1-p)2(n-1) - Bound: 1/(2e) = .18 15 Goodput vs. Offered Load protocol constrains effective channel throughput! 0.4 0.3 Slotted Aloha 0.2 0.1 Pure Aloha 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 G = offered load = Np 16 Dynamics of (Slotted) Aloha In reality, the number of stations backlogged is changing we need to study the dynamics when using a fixed transmission probability p Assume we have a total of m stations (the machines on a LAN): n of them are currently backlogged, each tries with a (fixed) probability p the remaining m-n stations are not backlogged. They may start to generate packets with a probability pa, where pa is much smaller than p 17 Model n backlogged each transmits with prob. p m-n: unbacklogged each transmits with prob. pa 18 Dynamics of Aloha: Effects of Fixed Probability desirable stable point dep. and arrival rate of backlogged stations 0 successful transmission rate at offered load np + (m-n)pa - assume a total of m stations - pa << p - success rate is the departure rate, the rate the backlog is reducing new arrival rate: (m-n) pa undesirable stable point offered load = 1 Lesson: if we fix p, but n varies, we may have an undesirable stable point m n: number of backlogged stations 19 Summary of Problems of Aloha Protocols Problems slotted Aloha has better efficiency than pure Aloha but clock synchronization is hard to achieve Aloha protocols have low efficiency due to waste of collision or empty slots • when offered load is optimal (p = 1/N), the goodput is about 37% • when the offered load is not optimal, the goodput is even lower undesirable steady state at a fixed transmission rate, when the number of backlogged stations varies Thus problems to be addressed: approximate slotted Aloha without clock synchronization reduce the penalty of collision or empty slots infer optimal transmission rate 20 CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access CSMA: listen before transmit Objective: approximate slotted Aloha (compared with pure Aloha) If backlogged, wait until channel sensed idle, then transmit pkt with prob. p human analogy: don’t interrupt others ! 21 CSMA Collisions propagation delay means two nodes may not hear each other’s transmission A B C D t0 time collisions can still occur: spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet Collision: entire packet transmission time wasted; still not very efficient! 22 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) Human analogy: the polite conversationalist CSMA/CD: observations: • collisions can be detected within short time • if colliding transmissions are aborted, we can reduce channel wastage carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA collision detection: • easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, received signals • difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shuts off while transmitting 23 CSMA/CD: Collision Detection spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet C D A t0 t0 time B time A B C B detects collision, aborts D D detects collision, aborts instead of wasting the whole packet transmission time, abort after detection. 24 Efficiency of CSMA/CD Given collision detection, instead of wasting the whole packet transmission time (a slot), we waste only the time needed to detect collision. P/C P: packet size, e.g. 1000 bits C: link capacity, e.g. 10Mbps Use a contention slot of 2 T, where T is one-way propagation delay (why 2 T ?) When the transmission probability p is approximately optimal (p = 1/N), we try approximately e times before each successful transmission 25 Efficiency of CSMA/CD The efficiency (the percentage of useful time) is approximately P C P e 2T C 1 1 5PT 1 15 a , where a TC P C The value of a plays a fundamental role in the efficiency of CSMA/CD protocols. Question: you want to increase the capacity of a link layer technology (e.g., , 10 Mbps Ethernet to 100 Mbps), but still want to maintain the same efficiency, what can you do? 26 Summary of Problems to be Addressed Approximate slotted Aloha Reduce the penalty of collision or empty slots Infer optimal transmission rate 27 The Basic MAC Mechanisms of Ethernet get a packet from upper layer; K := 0; n := 0; // K: control wait time; n: no. of collisions repeat: wait for K * 512 bit-time; while (network busy) wait; wait for 96 bit-time after detecting no signal; transmit and detect collision; if detect collision stop and transmit a 48-bit jam signal; n ++; m:= min(n, 10), where n is the number of collisions choose K randomly from {0, 1, 2, …, 2m-1}. if n < 16 goto repeat else give up 28 Ethernet’s Exponential Backoff: Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load compared with CSMA, 1/2m can be considered as p not a static p---adjusted using exponential backoff • first collision: choose K from {0,1}; delay is K x 512 bit transmission times • after second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3}… • after ten or more collisions, choose K from {0,1,2,3,4,…,1023} 29 Ethernet “Dominant” LAN technology: First widely used LAN technology Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch 30 Ethernet Frame Structure Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame 8 6 6 2 46-1500 (including padding) 4 Preamble: 8 bytes 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 (why the preamble?) Source and dest. addresses: 6 bytes Type: indicates the higher layer protocol, mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk CRC: CRC-32 checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped 31 Physical Layer 32 Internet Bandwidth Growth Source: TeleGeograph Research What Determines Transmission Rate? Service: transmit a bit stream from a sender to a receiver sender input bit stream Encoding receiver channel Decoding output bit stream Question to be addressed: how much can we send through the channel ? Basic Theory: Channel Capacity The maximum number of bits that can be transmitted per second (bps) by a physical media is: W log 2 (1 ) S N where W is the frequency range, S/N is the signal noise ratio. We assume Gaussian noise. Fourier Transform Suppose the period of a data unit is f (=1/T), then the data unit can be represented as the sum of many harmonics (sin(), cos()) with frequencies f, 2f, 3f, 4f, … A reasonably behaved periodic function g(t), with minimal period T, can be constructed as the sum of a series of sines and cosines: n 1 n 1 g (t ) 12 c an sin( 2nft ) bn cos( 2nft ) f 1/ T T 2 c T g (t )dt 0 T 2 an T g (t ) sin( 2nft )dt 0 T bn T2 g (t ) cos( 2nft )dt 0 char “b” rmsn an bn Signal Attenuation W log 2 (1 NS ) The quality of signal will degrade when it travels loss, frequency passing Frequency Dependent Attenuation The received signal will be distorted even when there is no interference and the transmitted signal is “perfect” square waveform Example: Voltageattenuation magnitude ratios of Category 5 cable. For example, 500 feet of cable attenuates a 10-MHz, 1-V signal to 0.32 V, which corresponds to about –9.90 dB (= 20 log 1/0.32) Example V.34 (33.6kbps Dialup Modem) channel sender modem input bit stream 3Khz Modem bandwidth Modulation (add white noise) (digit->analog) telephone network Analog to Digital quantization for transmitting through the digital telephone backbone ISP modem ISP demodulation output bit stream Example: W=3000Hz, S/N 4000 max bandwidth 3000 log 2 (1 4000) 36kbps Example: ADSL Spectrum allocation: divided into a total of 256 downstream and 32 upstream tones, where each tone is a standard 4kHz voice channel During initial negotiation, a tone is used only if the S/N is above 6 db (4) down 256 * 4000 log 2 (1 4) 2.4 Mbps up 32 * 4000 log 2 (1 4) 297kbps Course Summary The Internet is a general-purpose, large-scale, distributed computer network Major design features packet switching for simplicity and efficiency hour-glass architecture end-to-end principle distributed system considering social/economical structures resource allocation principle and framework (e.g., optimization framework and AIMD) stable, adaptive control (e.g., sliding window self clocking, CSMA/CD/Expo) hierarchical, distributed routing Evolution Driven by Technology, Infrastructure, Policy, Applications, and Understanding: technology • e.g., wireless/optical communication technologies and device miniaturization (sensors) infrastructure • e.g., cloud computing applications • e.g., content distribution, game, tele presence, sensing, grid computing, VoIP, IPTV understanding • e.g., resource sharing principle, routing principles, mechanism design, and optimal stochastic control (randomized access) Many Issues How to make it faster How to make it more efficient How to make it more reliable/robust/secure 44 Faster 45 The Wire: Fiber A look at a fiber A graded index fiber How it works? The Wire: Fiber Wide spectrum at low loss: ~0.3db/km (c.f. copper ~190db/km @100Mhz), 30-100km without repeater Bandwidth of a single fiber theoretical: 100-200Tbps http://www.trnmag.com/Stories/080101/ Study_shows_fiber_has_room_to_grow_ 080101.html Lightweight: 33 tons of copper to transmit the same amount of information carried by ¼ pound of optical fiber Advantages of Fibers How to Do Switching? Optical-Electrical-Optical Optical switch: optical micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) Optical path One optical switch http://www.qwest.com/largebusiness/enterprisesolutions/networkMaps/preloader.swf Example: MEMS Optical Switch Using mirrors, e.g. Lambda Router Implications Fine-grained switching may not be feasible What is the architecture of optical networks: packet switching, circuit switching, or others? More Efficient 52 Problem: Inefficient Interactions Large deployment of highly adaptive, multipoint applications An iterative process between two sets of adaptation: ISP: traffic engineering to change routing to shift traffic away from higher utilized links • current traffic pattern new routing matrix App: direct traffic to better performing end points • current routing matrix new traffic pattern ISP Traffic Engineering+ App Latency Optimizer - red: App adjust alone; fixed ISP routing - blue: ISP traffic engineering adapt alone; fixed App communications ISP optimizer interacts poorly with App. The Fundamental Problem Traditional Internet architectural feedback to application efficiency is limited: routing (hidden) rate control through coarse-grained TCP congestion feedback To achieve better efficiency, needs explicit communications between network resource providers and applications P4P Framework – Design Goals Performance improvement Scalability and extensibility: support diverse ISP objectives and applications scenarios in large networks Privacy preservation Ease of implementation Open standard: any ISP, provider, applications can easily implement it Current Status P4P-WG Next step wider integration IETF standard • AT&T • Bezeq Intl • BitTorrent • CacheLogic • Cisco Systems • Grid Networks • Joost • LimeWire • Manatt • Oversi • Pando Networks • PeerApp • Telefonica Group • VeriSign • Verizon • Vuze • Univ of Washington • Yale University • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Abacast AHT Intl Akamai Alcatel Lucent CableLabs Cablevision Comcast Cox Comm Juniper Networks Microsoft MPAA NBC Universal Nokia RawFlow Solid State Networks Thomson Time Warner Cable Turner Broadcasting Reliability Is the Internet Reliable? A key design objective of the “Internet” (i.e., packet-switched networks) is robustness Does the Internet infrastructure achieve the target reliability objective of a highly reliable system (99.999%)? Perspective 911 Phone service (1993 NRIC report +) 29 minutes per year per line 99.994% availability Std. Phone service (various sources) 53+ minutes per line per year 99.99+% availability …what about the Internet? Various studies: about 99.5% Need to reduce down time by 500 times to achieve five nines; 50 times to match phone service Unreachable Networks: 10 days Internet Disaster Recovery Response Why slow response? the cable repairing is slow: not until 21 days after quake BGP is not designed to create business relationship Objective a meta-BGP to facilitate discovery and creation of BGP business relationship 63 Backup Slides 64 The P4P Framework Data plane control plane P4P server: a portal for each network service provider A P4P server provides multiple interfaces so that others can interact • each provider decides the interfaces it provides The Virtual Topology Interface An interface to guide peer selection An interface as an optimization decomposition interface guidance through “virtual costs” The Virtual Topology Interface: Network PID: set of Points of Presence (PoP) E: set of links connecting PoPs ce: the link capacity of link e Ie(i, j): indicator if link e is on the route from PoP i to PoP j be: amount of background traffic on link e The Virtual Topology Interface: App Assume K applications running inside the ISP Let Tk be the set of acceptable demands for app k tk in Tk specifies traffic demand tkij from each pair of source-destination PoPs (i,j) The Virtual Topology Interface Consider an example: ISP wants to minimize utilization of the highest utilized link the utilization of the highest utilized link is called the Maximum Link Utilization (MLU) min max (be t I (i, j )) / ce eE i j k s.t. k : t T k k k ij e ISP MLU: Transformation min s.t. e : be t I (i, j ) ce k k ij e i j k : t T k k ISP MLU: Dual Introducing pe (≥ 0) for the inequality of each link e D(pe ) mink k pe (be t ce ) k e ;k :t T e To make the dual finite, need p c e e e 1 k ISP MLU: Dual Then the dual is k D(pe ) min p ( b t ) e e e k k k :t T pebe min pt k k e e k e t T k e e k pebe min pt k k e k e k t T k e e e k pebe min p t ij ij k k t T i j where pij is the sum of pe along the path from PoP i to PoP j ISP MLU Dual : Interpretation D(pe ) pebe min pt k k e k t T i j k ij ij Each App k chooses tk in Tk to minimize weighted sum of tij The interface between an App and the ISP is the “shadow prices” {pij} Topology with Costs (Illustration) PID1 70 PID2 30 10 PID6 PID5 60 20 PID3 Each PID has: • IP “prefix” PID4 Each link has •“Price” Prices are directional ISP Update At update m+1, calculates pe (m 1) [ pe (m 1) (m) (m)]S : step size : supergradi ent of D({p e }) []S : projection to set S S : {p e : pe ce 1; pe 0} e App Operations Each app. optimizes its own performance, then picks ISP-friendly peering For example, selects where is tolerance, say 80%. Example: Multihoming Multihoming ISP 1 User ISP 2 ISP K Internet A common way of connecting to Internet Smart routing Intelligently distribute traffic among multiple external links Improve performance Improve reliability Reduce cost Interdomain Topo PID1 70 Cost? PID2 30 Provider1 20 Cost? 10 PID6 PID3 Cost? PID5 60 PID4 Provider 3 Provider 2 Integrating Cost Min with P4P min s.t. e E0 : be t I (i, j ) ce k i j k ij e e Ee : be t I (i, j ) ve k i j k k ij e k : t T k Field Test: Traffic within Verizon Average Hop Each Bit Traverses Why less than 1: many transfers are in the same metro-area; also same metro-area peers are utilized more by tit-for-tat. App Perspective: App Rates