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Distributed Hash Tables
Parallel and Distributed Computing
Spring 2011
[email protected]
1
Distributed Hash Tables
• Academic answer to p2p
• Goals
– Guaranteed lookup success
– Provable bounds on search time
– Provable scalability
• Makes some things harder
– Fuzzy queries / full-text search / etc.
• Hot Topic in networking since introduction in
~2000/2001
2
DHT: Overview
• Abstraction: a distributed “hash-table” (DHT) data
structure supports two operations:
– put(id, item);
– item = get(id);
• Implementation: nodes in system form a distributed
data structure
– Can be Ring, Tree, Hypercube, Skip List, Butterfly Network,
...
3
What Is a DHT?
• A building block used to locate key-based objects over
millions of hosts on the internet
• Inspired from traditional hash table:
– key = Hash(name)
– put(key, value)
– get(key) -> value
• Challenges
– Decentralized: no central authority
– Scalable: low network traffic overhead
– Efficient: find items quickly (latency)
– Dynamic: nodes fail, new nodes join
– General-purpose: flexible naming
4
The Lookup Problem
N1
Put (Key=“title”
Value=file data…)
Publisher
N2
Internet
N4
N5
N3
?
Client
Get(key=“title”)
N6
5
DHTs: Main Idea
N2
N1
Publisher
N4
Key=H(audio data)
Value={artist,
album
title,
track title}
N6
N7
N3
Client
Lookup(H(audio data))
N8
N9
6
DHT: Overview (2)
• Structured Overlay Routing:
– Join: On startup, contact a “bootstrap” node and integrate
yourself into the distributed data structure; get a node id
– Publish: Route publication for file id toward a close node id
along the data structure
– Search: Route a query for file id toward a close node id.
Data structure guarantees that query will meet the
publication.
– Fetch: Two options:
• Publication contains actual file => fetch from where query stops
• Publication says “I have file X” => query tells you 128.2.1.3 has X,
use IP routing to get X from 128.2.1.3
7
From Hash Tables to
Distributed Hash Tables
Challenge: Scalably distributing the index space:
– Scalability issue with hash tables: Add new entry => move
many items
– Solution: consistent hashing (Karger 97)
Consistent hashing:
– Circular ID space with a distance metric
– Objects and nodes mapped onto the same space
– A key is stored at its successor: node with next higher ID
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DHT: Consistent Hashing
Key 5
Node 105
K5
N105
K20
Circular ID space
N90
K80
A key is stored at its successor: node with next higher ID
9
N32
What Is a DHT?
• Distributed Hash Table:
key = Hash(data)
lookup(key) -> IP address
put(key, value)
get( key) -> value
• API supports a wide range of applications
– DHT imposes no structure/meaning on keys
• Key/value pairs are persistent and global
– Can store keys in other DHT values
– And thus build complex data structures
10
Approaches
• Different strategies
– Chord: constructing a distributed hash table
– CAN: Routing in a d-dimensional space
– Many more…
• Commonalities
– Each peer maintains a small part of the index
information (routing table)
– Searches performed by directed message forwarding
• Differences
– Performance and qualitative criteria
11
DHT: Example - Chord
• Associate to each node and file a unique id in an unidimensional space (a Ring)
– E.g., pick from the range [0...2m-1]
– Usually the hash of the file or IP address
• Properties:
– Routing table size is O(log N) , where N is the total number
of nodes
– Guarantees that a file is found in O(log N) hops
12
Example 1: Distributed Hash Tables
(Chord)
• Hashing of search keys AND peer addresses on binary keys of length m
– Key identifier = SHA-1(key); Node identifier = SHA-1(IP address)
– SHA-1 distributes both uniformly
– e.g. m=8, key(“yellow-submarine.mp3")=17, key(192.178.0.1)=3
• Data keys are stored at next larger node key
p
peer with hashed identifier p,
data with hashed identifier k
k stored at node p such that p is
the smallest node ID larger than k
k
predecessor
m=8
stored
32 keys
at
p2
p3
Search possibilities?
1. every peer knows every other
O(n) routing table size
2. peers know successor
O(n) search cost
13
DHT: Chord Basic Lookup
N120
N10
“Where is key 80?”
N105
“N90 has K80”
K80
N90
N60
14
N32
DHT: Chord “Finger Table”
1/4
1/2
1/8
1/16
1/32
1/64
1/128
N80
• Entry i in the finger table of node n is the first node that succeeds or equals
n + 2i
• In other words, the ith finger points 1/2n-i way around the ring
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DHT: Chord Join
• Assume an identifier space [0..8]
• Node n1 joins
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 2
1
1 3
1
2 5
1
0
1
7
6
2
5
3
4
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DHT: Chord Join
• Node n2 joins
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 2
2
1 3
1
2 5
1
0
1
7
6
2
Succ. Table
5
3
4
17
i id+2i succ
0 3
1
1 4
1
2 6
1
DHT: Chord Join
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 1
1
1 2
2
2 4
0
• Nodes n0, n6 join
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 2
2
1 3
6
2 5
6
0
1
7
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 7
0
1 0
0
2 2
2
6
2
Succ. Table
5
3
4
18
i id+2i succ
0 3
6
1 4
6
2 6
6
DHT: Chord Join
Succ. Table
i
i id+2
0 1
1 2
2 4
• Nodes:
n0, n1, n2, n6
• Items:
f7
0
i id+2i succ
0 7
0
1 0
0
2 2
2
Succ. Table
1
7
Succ. Table
6
i id+2i succ
0 2
2
1 3
6
2 5
6
2
Succ. Table
5
3
4
19
Items
f7
succ
1
2
0
i id+2i succ
0 3
6
1 4
6
2 6
6
DHT: Chord Routing
Succ. Table
• Upon receiving a query for
item id, a node:
• Checks whether stores the
item locally
• If not, forwards the query to
the largest successor in its
successor table that does not
exceed id
Succ. Table
i id+2i succ
0 7
0
1 0
0
2 2
2
i
i id+2
0 1
1 2
2 4
0
Succ. Table
1
7
i id+2i succ
0 2
2
1 3
6
2 5
6
query(7)
6
2
Succ. Table
5
3
4
20
Items
f7
succ
1
2
0
i id+2i succ
0 3
6
1 4
6
2 6
6
DHT: Chord Summary
• Routing table size?
–Log N fingers
• Routing time?
–Each hop expects to 1/2 the distance to the
desired id => expect O(log N) hops.
21
Load Balancing in Chord
Network size n=10^4
5 10^5 keys
22
Length of Search Paths
Network size n=2^12
100 2^12 keys
Path length ½ Log2(n)
23
Chord Discussion
• Performance
–
–
–
–
–
–
Search latency: O(log n) (with high probability, provable)
Message Bandwidth: O(log n) (selective routing)
Storage cost: O(log n) (routing table)
Update cost: low (like search)
Node join/leave cost: O(Log2 n)
Resilience to failures: replication to successor nodes
• Qualitative Criteria
– search predicates: equality of keys only
– global knowledge: key hashing, network origin
– peer autonomy: nodes have by virtue of their address a specific role in
the network
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Example 2: Topological Routing (CAN)
• Based on hashing of keys into a d-dimensional space (a torus)
– Each peer is responsible for keys of a subvolume of the space (a zone)
– Each peer stores the addresses of peers responsible for the neighboring
zones for routing
– Search requests are greedily forwarded to the peers in the closest zones
• Assignment of peers to zones depends on a random selection made by the peer
25
Network Search and Join
Node 7 joins the network by choosing a coordinate in the volume of 1
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CAN Refinements
• Multiple Realities
– We can have r different coordinate spaces
– Nodes hold a zone in each of them
– Creates r replicas of the (key, value) pairs
– Increases robustness
– Reduces path length as search can be continued in the reality where
the target is closest
• Overloading zones
– Different peers are responsible for the same zone
– Splits are only performed if a maximum occupancy (e.g. 4) is reached
– Nodes know all other nodes in the same zone
– But only one of the neighbors
27
CAN Path Length
28
Increasing Dimensions and Realities
29
CAN Discussion
• Performance
– Search latency: O(d n1/d), depends on choice of d (with high
probability, provable)
– Message Bandwidth: O(d n1/d), (selective routing)
– Storage cost: O(d) (routing table)
– Update cost: low (like search)
– Node join/leave cost: O(d n1/d)
– Resilience to failures: realities and overloading
• Qualitative Criteria
– search predicates: spatial distance of multidimensional keys
– global knowledge: key hashing, network origin
– peer autonomy: nodes can decide on their position in the key space
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Comparison of some P2P Solutions
Search
Paradigm
Overlay
maintenance
costs
Search Cost
TTL
2*  i 0 C *(C  1)i
Gnutella
Breadth-first O(1)
on search
graph
Chord
Implicit
binary search
trees
O(log n)
O(log n)
CAN
d-dimensional
space
O(d)
O(d n1/d)
DHT Applications
Not only for sharing music anymore…
– Global file systems [OceanStore, CFS, PAST, Pastiche,
UsenetDHT]
– Naming services [Chord-DNS, Twine, SFR]
– DB query processing [PIER, Wisc]
– Internet-scale data structures [PHT, Cone, SkipGraphs]
– Communication services [i3, MCAN, Bayeux]
– Event notification [Scribe, Herald]
– File sharing [OverNet]
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DHT: Discussion
• Pros:
– Guaranteed Lookup
– O(log N) per node state and search scope
• Cons:
– No one uses them? (only one file sharing app)
– Supporting non-exact match search is hard
33
When are p2p / DHTs useful?
• Caching and “soft-state” data
– Works well! BitTorrent, KaZaA, etc., all use peers
as caches for hot data
• Finding read-only data
– Limited flooding finds hay
– DHTs find needles
• BUT
34
A Peer-to-peer Google?
• Complex intersection queries (“the” + “who”)
– Billions of hits for each term alone
• Sophisticated ranking
– Must compare many results before returning a subset to
user
• Very, very hard for a DHT / p2p system
– Need high inter-node bandwidth
– (This is exactly what Google does - massive clusters)
35
Writable, persistent p2p
• Do you trust your data to 100,000 monkeys?
• Node availability hurts
– Ex: Store 5 copies of data on different nodes
– When someone goes away, you must replicate the data
they held
– Hard drives are *huge*, but cable modem upload
bandwidth is tiny - perhaps 10 Gbytes/day
– Takes many days to upload contents of 200GB hard drive.
Very expensive leave/replication situation!
36
Research Trends: A Superficial History
Based on Articles in IPTPS
• In the early ‘00s (2002-2004):
– DHT-related applications, optimizations,
reevaluations… (more than 50% of IPTPS papers!)
– System characterization
– Anonymization
• 2005-…
– BitTorrent: improvements, alternatives, gaming it
– Security, incentives
• More recently:
– Live streaming
– P2P TV (IPTV)
– Games over P2P
37
What’s Missing?
• Very important lessons learned
– …but did we move beyond vertically-integrated
applications?
• Can we distribute complex services on top of p2p
overlays?
38
P2P: Summary
• Many different styles; remember pros and cons of
each
– centralized, flooding, swarming, unstructured and
structured routing
• Lessons learned:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
39
Single points of failure are very bad
Flooding messages to everyone is bad
Underlying network topology is important
Not all nodes are equal
Need incentives to discourage freeloading
Privacy and security are important
Structure can provide theoretical bounds and guarantees