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Biological Theories • Predispose to crime (not simply “cause”) – “Crime” is a social definition – Malum in se / mala prohibita – Not all maladaptive behaviors are illegal • Behavior is affected by ... – Inherited characteristics – Inherited characteristics, affected by environment – Environment effects on health (injury, pollution, diet…) • General agreement that biology and environment interact to affect behavior • Instructor feels that sociologists have tended to ignore biological (and psychological) factors – As we learn more about the human organism, more and more winds up being explained by chemistry Body Type (“somatotypes”) • Sheldon linked physique and temperament – Endomorph: Soft physique, relaxed and comfortseeking temperament – Mesomorph: Muscled physique, active and assertive temperament – Ectomorph: Lean, frail physique, introverted temperament • Gluecks found correlation between mesomorph somatotype and aggressive/antisocial/uninhibited behavior Family studies - Goring • Examined relationship between heredity, environment and length/frequency of imprisonment – Heredity imprisonment? – Environment imprisonment? • Findings – Environmental factors not correlated with imprisonment • Poverty, broken homes, nationality, birth order – Biological factors are correlated with imprisonment • Physical size (smaller, worse off) • Mental inferiority • Criminal family members Criticisms of Goring and family studies • Failure to adequately measure environmental variables • Current data does not suggest that crime “runs rampant” in families • Difficult to control for environmental effects within families, as all are usually exposed to similar circumstances Twin studies • Difficult to control environmental variables – So, control heredity • Fraternal twins: different eggs, different DNA – Can inherit different biological factors • Identical twins: one egg, same DNA – Biological factors the same • Look for similarities and differences in behavior – Similarities between identical twins can be hereditary or environmental; differences cannot be hereditary – If behavior of sets of identical twins is more alike than behavior of sets of fraternal twins, heredity may be important Studies of identical twins - Christiansen • 6,000 pairs of male twins – Male identical twins: 67 pairs where at least one was registered as a criminal. • In 36% of these pairs (n = 24) both were criminals – Male fraternal twins: 114 pairs where at least one was registered as a criminal • In 12% of these pairs (n=14) both were criminals – Higher concordance for serious crimes • Issue: Could higher concordance of behavior for identical twins be due to a more similar environment? Twins reared apart • Similar environments might make identical twins act alike, so study identical twins reared apart • Grove (32 pairs separated shortly after birth); Christiansen (8 pairs). – Both found evidence that antisocial behavior can be inherited • Walters - 1992 meta-analysis of 14 twin studies – Considered sample size, quality of research design – Support for hereditary basis to criminality • May be difficult to control for environmental effects Adoption Studies • Attempt to control for environmental effects • Hutchings and Mednick Boys not delinquent 69% Bio. father Not criminal Bio. father 31% criminal Boys delinquent 51% 49% • Biological fathers appear to influence boys’ criminality • Further analysis by Mednick – Number of court convictions of biological parents (not adoptive parents) influences youth criminality, but only for property crimes – Other influencers: • Socioeconomic status of biological and adoptive parents • Personality disorders of biological parents • Number of placements before adoption • Criminality of biological and adoptive fathers interacts • Issues with adoption studies – Low sample sizes – Recent studies found link between heredity and behavior only for minor and property crime (far more frequent than violent crime) – Adoptive parents often more law-abiding than general population Brain chemistry • Neurotransmitters – Chemicals that transmit electrical impulses in the brain – Levels affected by medication, diet, drug use, stress – Imbalance may promote aggressive or compulsive behavior • Violence, drug use • Hormones – Testosterone: Documented role in animal aggression, effects found in human research • Issues – Causal order: Aggression may be the cause (not the effect) of high levels of hormones – Booth and Osgood study • Association between testosterone and adult deviancy • BUT – effect of high levels mediated by social integration High levels lack of social integration aggression Central nervous system (CNS) • Brain and spinal cord • Cerebral cortex - outer portion of the brain Four lobes (frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital) Frontal and temporal lobes control goal-directed behavior, impulses and emotions CNS and criminal behavior • Some evidence that abnormalities in the lobes may be associated with violent and sexual offending – Frontal dysfunction may be associated with violent offending – Temporal dysfunction may be associated with sexual offending – Violent sexual offenders may have both dysfunctions • Issues – Research methodology - no sampling (with a hammer, everything’s a nail) – Precise path to offending is unknown Autonomic nervous system (ANS) • Controls involuntary functions: Blood pressure, heart activity, intestinal activity, hormone levels • “Fight/flight” situations: ANS prepares body to respond – Blood from stomach to muscles – Increases respiration – Stimulates sweat (increases electrical conductivity of skin) ANS - continued • Anxiety (e.g., conditioned fear of being punished for telling a lie) is basis for lie detection • Anxiety may be the primary socializing agent for children – They behave properly to avoid anxiety of punishment • Hypothesis that defective response can interfere with socialization – Antisocial persons might be more difficult to “condition”, so they are less likely to fear punishment Non-hereditary (environmental) biological factors: Drugs and alcohol • Alcohol in lower doses increases aggressive behavior, especially in males • Marijuana may reduce but does not increase aggression • Opiates may reduce aggression – Chronic use may increase aggression – Withdrawal from opiates may also increase aggression • Methamphetamine, PCP and LSD may increase aggression – May be especially true for those predisposed to violence – Police anecdotes about extreme violence and strength displayed by persons high on Meth and PCP • No direct evidence of effect of cocaine on violence – Association between violence and areas where rock cocaine is used (inner cities) – Note - “rock” cocaine is much more concentrated Other environmental biological factors • Lead in diet may affect brain functions – May cause hyperactivity and antisocial behavior in children • Head injury with brain damage may cause violent behavior – Decrease cognitive and social skills – Headaches and irritability – Damage frontal and temporal lobes, increasing anxiety, anger and hostility • Delivery complications correlated with violent offending – Particularly when parents had psychiatric problems