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Chapter 43 I. What are the Causes of Behavior? A. two levels of causation 1. proximate causation a. immediate basis of behavior (“how”) b. includes learned behaviors; anatomy and physiology 2. ultimate causation a. evolutionary basis of behavior (“why”) b. includes innate and instinctive behaviors B. behavioral ecology 1. impact of behavior on an organism’s life 2. uses both kinds of causation and many variables are involved 3. habitat selection a. why do animals live where they do? b. how is habitat chosen – genetics or learning? 4. foraging behavior a. why do animals forage where they do? b. generalists vs. specialists • opportunists vs. extreme specialists c. efficiency of foraging • maximize gain and minimize expenditure Fig. 43.13 Foraging for food II. Biological Clocks A. B. III. innate mechanisms that allow an org. to perceive lapse & flow of time biorhythms (cycles) 1. behaviors associated with biol. clocks 2. annual a. yearly cycles, usually based on the seasons b. most fundamental life activities are annual cycles 3. lunar a. based on phases of moon causing the tides b. Important for intertidal organisms 4. circadian a. daily, day-night cycles b. diurnal vs. nocturnal vs. crepuscular c. can be influenced by photoperiod (day-length) 5. organ, physiological, hormonal, cellular cycles Orientation and Navigation A. navigation 1. directional sense that allows orgs. to make way back to territory 2. compass sense (general direction) vs. map sense (specific location) • often coupled to biol. clocks time-direction mechanism B. orientation • navigation around env. obstacles C. migration 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. seasonal movement of a sp. from one geographic location to another vast distances between breeding & non-breeding (wintering) grounds high E and risk occurs in many species some sp. only migrate if conditions are very harsh navigation cues a. b. c. d. e. f. sun (day migrators) stars (night migrators) General Cues earth's magnetic field geographical cues (mountains, rivers, etc.) memory, experience (learning), biorhythms group cohesion (ind. working together) Specific Cues 8. migration is triggered by: 1. 2. physiological cues (esp., changing hormone levels) changing photoperiod and env. temperature • migratory sp. get “restless” just prior to migration 9. combination of genetics and experience Fig. 43.6 Starling migratory experiment, showing the combined effect of genetics and learning IV. Animal Communication A. any behavior produced by one org. and received by another response B. enhances survival and reproduction reproductive enabling device C. direct vs. indirect • enhancing one’s own reproductive success vs. enhancing success of offspring D. modes of communication 1. each has advantages and disadvantages 2. visual a. color, posture, shape, movement b. graded displays Fig. 43.9 Male baboon displaying a full visual threat display. Fig. 43.10 Fireflies using visual communication. Each number represents the male flash pattern of a different species. The patterns are a behavioral reproductive isolating mechanism. 3. vocal a. b. c. The repertoire of a songbird frequency, amplitude, duration seismic communication • produced in some way other than vocal apparatus vocal repertoire • sp. full range of vocal comm. Fig. 43.8 Vocal communication in vervet monkeys. The monkeys give different alarm calls according to whether a troop member sights an eagle or leopard. 4. chemical a. b. c. pheromones most basic of all comm. forms can produce stereotyped behaviors • always performed in same way 5. tactile • V. touch or very close proximity Social Behavior A. B. behavior of orgs. in groups agonistic behavior 1. behaviors used to resolve conflict 2. intraspecific vs. interspecific 3. territoriality • behaviors associated with defending territory C. fighting • usually ritualized o not to death Fig. 43.15 Ritualized competition among elk Fig. 43.7 Chemical communication with a pheromone. A male cheetah spraying urine to mark his territory. C. cooperation • D. species or individuals work together for mutual benefit mating behavior 1. may include sexual dimorphism • 2. visual and/or behavioral differences between males and females often involves species-specific courtship rituals and displays • males advertise/display for females females choose mates o female-choice Fig. 43.14 Sexual dimorphism in Hamadryas baboons. The male is silver-white and twice the size of the brown females. Female warblers prefer males with large song repertoires. 3. 4. several modes of communication used social dominance hierarchies often play a role • males compete among themselves for dominance and position o winners have greatest access to females mate with females male competition Female choice and male dominance among baboons. E. symbiosis 1. two or more species living closely together 2. mutualism • both organisms benefit from relationship 3. commensalism • one organism benefits, the other is unaffected 4. parasitism a. one organism benefits, the other is harmed b. host vs. parasite c. endoparasites vs. ectoparasites F. altruism 1. any action that benefits another individual at one’s own expense 2. kin selection • tendency to help relatives at one’s own expense 3. reciprocal altruism • “I’ll scratch your back, if you scratch mine” VI. Sociobiology (E.O. Wilson) A. applies evolutionary principles to study of social behavior B. adaptive basis for animals to live together in groups 1. group foraging 2. group protection (“selfish herd” effect) 3. increased vigilance 4. reproductive coordination