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Ch. 2 Communication & Culture
Culture-Fundamentals
• Culture: the “language, values, beliefs , traditions, and
customs people share and learn.” Samovar & Porter (2007)
• In-groups: those groups with which we identify
• Outgroups: those we view as different (Tajfel & Turner
1992)
• Social Identity: the part of the self-concept based on
membership in groups
• Co-Culture: perception of membership in a group that is
part of an encompassing culture (age-teens, seniors;
activity- college student, biker; etc.) Co-cultures can be
fulfilling if not stigmatized.
• Defined: the process occurring when members of 2 or
more cultures or co-cultures exchange messages influenced
by different cultural perceptions & symbol systems, both
verbal & nonverbal. (Samovar, et al 2007)
• Not all differences are important , and many can deal with
differences as they arise.
• Think in terms of degrees of cultural significance
(Lustig & Koester. 2005)
• It takes significant impact on the exchange before we say
culture has made a difference.
• Salience= how much weight we attach to a person or phenomenon.
(Some differences are very subtle.)
Interpersonal & Intercultural Communication
• Interpersonal communication = one dimension &
intercultural communication = another dimension in
some exchanges, and can be independent of each other.
Think in terms of “degrees of difference”. (p. 40 fig. 2.2)
• However, other exchanges have elements of both types of
communication (global business deals, etc.)
• When we try to establish a relationship & understand
transcending cultural differences, we can say it’s a “third
culture”: a unique relationship shared by 2 or more people.
(Casmir, 1991)
Generalizing Cultural Differences
• It’s important to realize that no generalization
applies to all members of a group.
• Most people in the world have more similarities
than differences.
• At times, greater differences exist within cultures
than between them. (Formality, cultural style)
• Think in terms of degrees of cultural significance.
• How much does culture matter in each exchange?
5 Cultural Values & Norms
• These are beliefs and unwritten rules about the “proper”
way to communicate.
1) High-vs. low-context messages= nonverbal cues are
highly valued in high-context cultures, while talk is
valued in low-context ones.
2 ) Collectivism vs. individualism= group harmony for an
in-group matters more than any individual’s success.
Identity is for relationships, not what you do.
Conforming and blending vs. being unique and
independent or assertive. “We” vs. “Me”
3) Power Distance= the degree to which members
of a society accept unequal distribution of power.
Cultural Values & Norms cont.
• Low power cultures believe in minimizing differences
between social classes; one person is as good as another;
it’s okay to challenge authority. (Canada, U.S.A., Israel)
• High power cultures are the opposite; it’s seen in key
relationships, like parent/child (don’t ask “why?”) and at
work (not expected to give opinions, they’re dutiful,
respectful, & submissive). Power comes with age.
• KNOW power distance values when communicating or
working with another culture if you want fewer problems.
Uncertainty Avoidance
• Defined: degree to which members of a culture feel threatened by
ambiguous situations & how much they try to avoid them.
• high uncertainty avoidance=predictable patterns used in family, work,
friendships, & romance relationships; high concern for security &
rules, intolerant of deviance (Samovar & Porter, 2004)
• low uncertainty avoidance=patterns not as expected; more tolerance
of differences; change possibly expected; more innovations in
products & ideas.
• Education of cultural influence helps. It’s all relative, and flexibility is
important in intercultural exchanges.
• When low UA person interacts w/ a high UA person, both may be
uncomfortable, unfairly judging each other, so knowing cultural
conditioning does affect style helps understanding and makes you a
better communicator.
Achievement vs. Nurturing
• Achievement cultures: highly value material success and
the task at hand; a “hard” culture; success-oriented; ie.
Japan, Switzerland, Germany (Hofstede, 2003)
• Nurturing cultures: regard the support of relationships as
an equally important goal; a “soft” culture; ie.
Scandanavian countries, Spain, France (Hofstede, 2003)
• Men’s & women’s roles may differ in an achievement
culture, but the same cooperation is expected of both in a
nurturing culture.
• When these styles mix, it’s not so much a melting pot
these days, but a salad bowl, w/many ingredients or
persons retaining much of their own identity.
Codes and Cultures
Languages use different verbal & nonverbal codes and
decode them differently.
• Verbal codes : affect identity and communication style
– Identity: Huge Impact on self-concept if your language is not the
majority, approved one.
• You may sense you’re in an out-group & 1) feel pressure to
assimilate the majority, “better” language, (esp. for success) ,
OR 2) Refuse & maintain loyalty to your ethnic tongue.
• Names reflect cultural values, shaping how members relate to
each other. (When identifying self, diff. cultures may place
name at beginning (Europeans, U.S.) OR at end, after stating
what the original culture values more first) –lineage, family,
etc. (Asian, Sanskrit)
• Labels members of a co-culture use to define themselves help
define their sense of identity (“politically correct” enters into it
today)
Codes & Cultures, cont.
• Nonverbal Codes: Despite similarities, the meanings of
some gestures varies in different cultures.
• Differences can damage relationships or result in other
harm w/o communicators realizing what went wrong.
• Misunderstanding gestures, personal space zones , and
patterns of eye contact can lead to discomfort or much
trouble, even death.
1. Expected distances need to be understood, and eye
contact patterns must be respected. Think of the
implications for diplomacy!
Codes, cont. –Decoding Differences
Potential decoding errors & misunderstanding in…
• Translation- ideas/words rarely translate exactly.
• Attributional variations- interpreting another’s behavior
– We tend to stick to the first interpretation (attribution), which may be
incorrect.
– County to country : we tend to use the style expected in our own
country
– Even within same country, dialects/accents affect a listener’s evaluation.
• Patterns of thought– Your culture’s logic affects your thinking. How we are taught to reason/
think affects how we interpret messages. (Gudykunst & Kim, 2002)
– Individualistic societies tend to see either/or, very rational, relying on
facts, figures, & experts
– Collectivistic ones tend to be more intuitive, looking at the big picture,
accepting ideas, people, and things can be both right & wrong, & good
and bad can exist at the same time. Not as concerned with blaming, but
fixing.
– It’s a matter of degree.
Codes (cont.) : Developing Intercultural Competence
• The same qualities for general communication competency are useful
for intercultural comm. competency, but important ingredients are:
• Motivation & Attitude - desire to reach out & cultural ways of
thinking help (culture-general)
• Tolerance for Ambiguity - acceptance of need & ability to live w/
uncertainty in intercultural situations (culture-general)
• Open-mindedness- appreciates people as individuals, not just
members of a group, avoiding ethnocentrism, prejudice, and
stereotyping. (culture-general)
• Knowledge & Skill- enough knowledge of best approaches & ability
to adapt style to norms/rules of the other culture (Kim, 1996), as well
as mindfulness (Ting-Toomey, 1999) awareness of how your and the
other’s behavior affect the communication. Culture specific; Acquire
information & training.
• 3 strategies help: passive observation, active strategies, selfdisclosure