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Fall of the Roman Republic 1 The empire expands 2 Wealth and Slaves flood into Rome 5 The unemployed mob cause increased corruption & military commanders become too influential as the army becomes dependent on the spoils of war 3 Senators buy up vast properties 4 Smallholders move to Rome to try and find work Characteristics of the Period • Increasing factionalism in Senate between Populares and Optimates • Rise of popular tribunes and use by generals • Rise of client armies and powerful generals.” The rise of the professional army was probably the most important of the problems besetting the Republic with which the Senate failed to deal “ Goldsworthy • Increasing violence in the streets and forum • Undermining of Cursus Honorum. Use of non traditional paths to power • Use of amicitae to overpower Senate Problems and Solutions Wars of Expansion • • • • Punic Wars Jugurtha Mithridates Brought great wealth but raised the importance of army and generals to the most powerful position. • The path to power lay, not with the Cursus Honorum but the ability to raise an army. 88-83 Sulla in East against Mithradates; Rome controlled by Marius and Cinna. Italians evenly distributed throughout tribes; map Clear division in state. Senate not functional. 83-80 Sulla returns to Italy; marches on Rome and restores senatorial control.* Proscriptions follow Sulla becomes dictator for restructuring the constitution. New constitution favors Senate. Proscriptions escalate level of state violence. 80-79 Sulla resigns, retires and dies 78-77 Lepidus challenges Sullan order, but defeated Pressure is building to restore "popular" power. 78-70 Pirates active and threaten eastern Mediterranean; Roman renegade Sertorius active in Spain; Spartacus revolts in Italy Pressure at many points. Pompeius sells himself as the man to restore order. 70 Pompeius** and Crassus, competitors ally against Senate, are elected consuls and restore traditional tribunician powers. 67-62 Pompeius given special comman (extraordinary) to deal with pirates; extended to conclude war with Mithradates and organize east. 63 Cicero consul; 62 Pompey returns to Italy and disbands army. Did not want to be seen as another Sulla, but without army loses leverage and cannot get settlement for soldiers 60 Caesar consul; forms "triumvirate" ("gang of three") ; Caesar, Pompeius and Crassus were frustrated with the Senate and needed settlement of their affairs. Gain it through control of assemblies, soldiers and equestrian order. Gives him imperium throughout the Mediterranean and 50 miles inland, virtual control of Empire Legacy of Sulla /rise of Pompey 82-77BC • Sulla’s march on Rome; “ momentous event in history” Scullard • ‘The most enduring legacy of Sulla’s his methods” Brunt • Extra Ordinary Commands; • Raised his own ‘private’ army to aid Sulla at 23, gained propraetorian imperium and first triumph. • Granted propraetorian command against Lepidus. Given proconsular command against Sertorius. • Lex Gabinia ( pirates) • Lex Manilia ( Mithridates) Significance of Pompey • In Sulla’s lifetime, due to Pompey’s insubordination • After his death, to the revolt of Lepidus and the Senates nomination of Pompey to proconsular Imperium • To the unleashing of the tribunate and the restoration of the veto ( 77 Consulship) • To the partial restoration of the courts to equite control • To the unprecedented and limitless Imperium, granted through the Lex Gabinia and Lex Manilia • To the formation of the First Triumvirate, a combined effort of private influences to secure private ambitions, against the Senate’s will. • Ironically by his death at Pharsalus he facilitated the transfer of control from Senate to Dictator Rise of Caesar 78-60BC Suo Anno • CURATOR OF THE APPIAN WAY • AEDILE- BREADS AND CIRCUSES • PRAETOR- CATILINE CONSPIRACY • PROPRAETOR • CONSULSHIP 60 BC Catiline Conspiracy a metaphor for a dying republic • Catiline was yet another example of a Roman ambitious to seek power through unconstitutional means • It showed the factional nature of the Senate ie Caesar and Crassus vs Cicero and Cato- Populares vs Optimates • Aroused the Senates suspicions of Caaser’s motives • Revealed Caesar’s powerful rhetorical ability and its affect on a vascillating Senate. • The public outcry over Caesar’s accused complicity showed the Senate how much mass popularity Caesar had acquired • The Senates understanding of the urban discontent is revealed in the subsequent law providing for the distribution of cheap corn, presented in the Asssembly by Cato!!!!!!!!!! • The Optimates had adopted a Populare policy in order to appease the people. On a more personel level Cato no doubt( galled by his sisters affair with Ceasar) would hope that this policy would undermine Caesar’s popularity with the urban masses. • Allowed Cicero to be hailed as “Pater Patria” and led to his appeal of Concordia Ordinum ( Agreement of good men) Three Men ,Three Paths to Power; Triumvirate 60- 56-52BC • Crassus wanted to make a contract with then Asian tax collectors as he had financial interests at stake. Cicero supported this as it would help relations between the knights and the senate, which he thought was fundamentally important, but the proposal was rejected. • Pompey wished for land to be provided for his veterans and to have the eastern settlement ratified in one go, instead of every one of his actions be debated. • Caesar wished to gain a large pro-consular command instead of being in charge of forests in some insignificant part of the empire, which was the optimates plan. Historians • “ Conspiracy against the state by its three leading citizens” Livy • AN UNOFFICIAL AMICITAE • “ He Caesar entered the city and immediately adopted a policy which deceived everyone except Cato. This was to effect a reconciliation between Pompey and Crassus, the two most powerful men in Rome. Caesar brought these men together, making them friends instead of enemies and used their united power for the strengthening of himself.” Plutarch Caesar’s Consulship-illegal or irreverent? • Despite Bibulus’s attempts Caesar passed laws granting land to Caesar’s veterens, tax concessions to Crassus, and agrarian bills for the relief of the poor • Due to the intransigence of the Senate, Pompey put his soldiers in Rome and thus left Caesar open to the accusation of illegality. Bibulus also post dated ill omens, rendering any laws invalid Other significant players • Cato- the conscience of Rome- “ fly in the ointment”- killed himself, rather than live on Caesar’s mercy • Catiline- anbitious Roman ,ready to march on Rome when frustrated in his attempts to gain consulships • Clodius and Milo Escalation of violence created the Senate’s need for Pompey as Sheriff • Curio- tribune and negotiator in the countdown to Civil War Caesar and Gaul? 58-49 BC • Allowed Caesar to gain the dignitas to equal Pompey • Was close enough to Rome to manipulate politics( Something that Antony failed to do) • 10 years later, conquered all of Gaul, made Rome and himself wealthy, and had at his back an invincible army ready to follow him anywhere Slide to Civil War51-49BC • Offer and Counter Offer • The lynchpin of the Civil War was the Senate’s desire to prosecute Caesar for his supposed illegalities in the Consulship of 59BC. This could only happen if he relinquished his proconsulship and thus his immunity from prosecution • As long as he held legions the Senate could not prosecute • Their only choice was to declare the Senatus Consultum Ultimum Who was to blame? • • • • • • Caesar? Pompey? The Senate? Broader deep seated problems of the Empire? All of the above? .”On broader grounds it may be confidently said that the civil war was not of Caesar's making.....Caesar in 49 like Sulla in 83 was offered the choice between self defense and political extinction......therefore the 22 extremist senators who insisted on Caesar's recall were in fact insisting on Civil War. To them the feud with Caesar had become a higher object than the welfare of the State." Cary Shared to Sole Power49-44BC • 49 BC Caesar is elected dictator and, during 11-day term, passes emergency legislation. • Caesar gives up the dictatorship, elected to second consulship with Publius Servilius Isauricus • 47Caesar again appointed dictator, this time for one year in absentia. Antony, his Master of the Horse, maintains order in Italy • 46Caesar elected consul for the third time, serving with Lepidus. Completes some reform including the calendar • 45Caesar serves as his fourth consulship (without a colleague). On March 17, Caesar victorious at Munda; after administrative reforms, he returns to Rome in October. The Senate votes extravagant decrees in his honor, including dictatorship for life and divine worship • 44On February 15, Caesar appears at the Lupercalia as dictator perpetuus (for life), in the dress of the ancient kings of Rome; Assassins/Liberators • • Cassius, Trebonius, Casca, Decimus Brutus, Marcus Brutus “There were various reasons which affected each and all of them and impelled them to lay hands on the man. Some of them had hopes of becoming leaders themselves in his place if he were out of the way, others were angered over what had happened to them in war, embittered over the loss of relatives, property or offices of state.” Nicholas of Damascus • “Jealousy of Caesar’s onward progress and hatred of his being esteemed above others” Cassius Dio “When Caesar made himself responsible for all important decisions, he fostered a dangerous atmosphere… those he had disappointed, frustrated… could easily focus their anger directly on Caesar; and it was Caesars friends, who nurtured the highest expectations, who felt this deprivation most keenly “ Relative Deprivation • Power Vacuum and Contenders 44BC • OCTAVIAN- Caesar’s name, client and armies • ANTONY- Experience ,Caesar’s lieutenant, Consul and army loyalty • LEPIDUS- master of Horse, in control of many legions 2nd Triumvirate 43BC Lex Titius • The triumviri rei publicae constituendae ('board of three to reconstitute the state') accepted the powers of a dictator and took several measures • the execution of 4,700 opponents (e.g. Cicero); • land bills to give farms to Caesar's veterans (the inhabitants of eighteen cities were sent away from their homes without any compensation); • war against Caesar's murderers, who were defeated at Philippi; • measures against the Senate, including the appointment of all magistrates Significance of Cicero • Career highlighted the power of rhetoric and its influence in the Senate and Courts. Prosecution of Verres was a precedent limiting provincial corruption • Gained prestige as Pater Patria for his role as Consul during Catiline Conspiracy • Creater of Concordia Ordinum • Acted as powerbroker between Pompey and Senate, Octavian and Senate. Inadvertantly created the adversarial environment which led to two civil wars. • Penned the Philippics which assisted in Antony’s downfall but led to his own death in the proscriptions • Left an invaluable legacy of written sources of the time in his speeches and private letters Octavian/Antony; 43-33BC Changing Power Ratios OCTAVIAN MORAL REMEDIES- ROLE OF THE PERFECT FAMILY WITH LIVIA BUIDING REFORN IN ROME CANCELLED WAR TAXES WATER SUPPLY SURRENDER POWERS SENATE RESPECT RESTORED ELECTIONS FOR MINOR MAGISTRATES PROPAGANDA AGAINST ANTONY DEMONISE CLEOPATRA ANTONY TOO MUCH TIME AWAY FROM ROME RISKY AND EXPENSIVE CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PARTHIANS LOSES RESPECT OF ARMY APPARENT INFATUATION WITH CLEOPATRA DIVORCES OCTAVIA DONATIONS OF ALEXANDRIA TRIUMPH 31 BC Battle of Actium; Civil War or Foreign Conquest • The forces of Antony and Cleopatra, camped near the swampy lowlands of Cape Actium, had been depleted by malaria before the battle even began--severely reducing the contingent of oarsmen. Supply lines had been cut, further weakening morale and support. Faced with a bleak situation that worsened every day, Antony burned those ships he could no longer man and prepared with Cleopatra to withdraw southward from the gulf with as much of his force as possible. • Antony’s flight nullified any remaining loyalty they may have had for him and his soldiers surrendered • Octavian had used a combination of political ,diplomatic, and economic methods to present himself as the legitimate heir. It was his friend Agrippa who ultimately gave him the military success to inherit the Empire Why did the Roman Republic Fall • The Roman Republic was ruled by a Constitution which relied on a balance of three elements; The Senate; the Magistrates; the Assemblies. • When the balance was upset either by ambitious magistrates, armies or tribunes then civil war was the result • The Senate proved ineffectual in preventing this. Saying it in a nutshell • " For Caesar publicly declared that only two things were needed to rule, soldiers and money, and armies could only be held together with money… since the Roman citizen force had inevitably changed into an army of professional soldiers, the imperator with his veterans took the political place of the patron and his clients. What some had feared and others aspired to, for decades, was fully realized in the person of Caesar; the conqueror of Gaul whom the old powers refused to recognize overwhelmed all resistance and, on the strength of an authority based solely on the loyalty of his soldiers, was reaching for the government of the Empire." • Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman