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Reviewing for Science 2009 EOG What is Science Science is a way of learning about the natural world. Scientific theories are attempts to explain a pattern observed repeatedly in the natural world. These theories are based on observations and experimentation. Scientific Laws describe a repeated pattern in the natural world. Branches of Science Life Science- the study of living systems and the way in which these systems interact. Earth Science- they study of the Earth’s systems and the systems of space Physical Science- the study of matter and energy Scientific Method The Hypothesis- a possible explanation based on what you know and what you observed. Analyzing Hypotheses- What other explanations fit with what you have observed Making a prediction- what do you expect to happen next Testing the hypothesis- experimentation Organizing findings- charting, and analyzing results of observations and experimentations. Drawing conclusions- what have you learned from the process Laboratory Safety The Water Cycle • Precipitation: rain, snow, sleet, hail, • Surface Runoff- rain water that runs off the • • • • • earth’s surface and returns to the rivers, lakes and oceans. Ground Water- the water that in infiltrated deep into the earth’s surface Ocean-reserve of water that covers ¾ of the earth’s surface Transpiration- the sweating of plants and release of of water by plants back into the atmosphere. Evaporation- the heating up of water forming gas to return water back into the atmosphere. Condensation- the cooling of water vapors forming clouds in the atmosphere. Location of Water • • • • • • Location of water Oceans Glaciers Ground water Freshwater lakes Saline Lakes and Island seas *Soil water *Atmosphere *Streams and Cannels Total Supply (%) 97.2% 2.15% 0.62% 0.009% 0.008% 0.005% 0.001% 0.0001% As you can see, humans only have access to about 2% of the total water supply on the earth. Part of that 2% has been polluted and is unsuitable for drinking. Streams • • • • • • • • • • Types of Streams Meandering Streams: streams with many curves Braided Streams: streams with many channels and islands ***************************** Drainage Basins: the area of the earth from which streams drain water Divides separate drainage basins Canyon formation: uplift changes the elevation of streambed. Stream Deposition: Deltas and Alluvial Fans Deltas form when the streams empties into a body of water and Alluvial Fans are formed with streams empties on to areas of flat land Floodplain: the area of land on either side of the stream that is underwater during a flood Lakes and Wetlands • Types of Lakes • Natural Lakes: are formed when areas of the earth that are • • • • formed by nature such as glaciers depressions, crustal movements and the fallen tops of erupted volcanoes capture water. Human Made Lakes: are formed when human made structures such as dams capture water. Swamps: are low lying areas near rivers where water is supplied constantly and is slow moving. Usually are homes to trees. Marshes: form near lakes with gently sloping shorelines or a river’s flood plain. Usually is home to grasses or soft bodied plants. Usually does not house trees. Bogs: forms in old glacier depressions and rain is its only source of water. Home to such plants as the pitcher plants and Venus’ flytraps Water Pollution • Point Source Pollutants: When pollution comes from an exact point such as a drainage ditch or a drain pipe and enters into the water cycle • Non-point Source Pollutants: When pollution enters the water cycle from large areas such as lawns, construction sites, farm fields and roads. Oceans • The ocean covers ¾ of the Earth’s surface. • The ocean provides 70% of the Earth’s oxygen • The ocean provides food, medicines, and salt for the people of the Earth Composition of the Ocean’s water • Salinity: the most abundant element in ocean water is dissolved salts (Sodium and Chloride ions) • Salts in the ocean stays balanced even though rivers, streams and volcano constantly add new supplies daily. • Dissolved gases of sea water include oxygen, carbon dioxide and nirogen. Surface Currents and gulf streams • Powerful Winds create surface currents • Surface currents usually move only the top few hundred meters of • • • • • • seawater. The Gulf Stream flows from Florida northeastward toward NC. Because it originates near the equator it is usually warm. Currents on the west coasts usually carry cold water. Density currents form when more dense sea water (cold/salty) sinks beneath less dense seawater (warm/less salty) A density current exits in the Mediterranean Sea Upwelling is a current in the ocean that brings deep, cold water to the ocean surface. This occurs when strong winds causes surface waters to move away from the coast. El Nino occur when winds blowing water from the coast of Peru slacken and the pacific is warmed and upwelling is reduced. Waves • Ocean waves have four parts • The Crest is the top part of the wave, when the water is at it • • • • • highest point. The trough is the bottom part of the wave, when the water is at its lowest point. Wavelength is the space between one crest to the next crest or one trough to the next trough. Wave height the space from the resting position or surface level to the crest. The ocean waves does not move the actual water. The water stays pretty much in the same place. Breakers: when the energy of the wave reaches the shore it changes the shape of the wave. Friction of the ocean floor causes the wave to slow down at the bottom of the wave and the top of the wave spills over because it is now moving faster than the bottom of the wave. Tides • Tides are caused by the gravitational attractions between the moon, sun and the Earth. • Spring Tide occur when the Moon, the Sun and the Earth are aligned. • Neap tides occur when the moon, sun and the Earth form a right angle. Ocean ecosystems • Plankton very small/one celled organisms that float in the ocean • • • • • currents Phytoplankton-plant life/Zooplankton-animals Nekton- organisms that actively swim in the ocean current Benthos-organisms that live on the ocean floor. Most live in the shallow waters of the continental shelf. Producers-organisms that produce their own food. Surface producers-produce food through photosynthesis Deep water producers produce food through chemosynthesis Consumers- organisms that depend on producers to survive Decomposers- organisms that digest dead producers and/or consumers. The Sea Floor • Continental Shelf- gradual sloping end of the continent • • • • that extends into the ocean from 10km-350km. Continental Slope- extends from the end of the continental shelf to the sea floor Oceanic trench- deep area at the end of the continental slope Abyssal Plain- flat areas on the sea floor that are from 400 m to 600 m below the ocean surface. Can be very large areas of geography. Mid-Ocean Ridge- continuous underwater ridge where new sea floor forms. Sea Floor Spread- when two crustal plates separate releasing hot magna creating new sea floor. Subduction Zone- when one crustal plate sinks beneath another Resources from the Ocean • Petroleum • Natural gas deposits • Phosphorite-used to make fertilizer • Limestone- used to make cement • Sulfur • Iron • Copper • Zinc • Silver Bacteria, Protists and Fungi Bacteria lives almost everywhere, air, in food, in water, on things, under the ground, in and on you Bacteria have three basic shapesspheres, rods and spirals Some bacterial have gelatin like capsule that protect them, some have an outer “slime layer” Reproduction and obtaining food and energy Bacterial usually reproduce by fission by dividing a cell into two new cells. An asexual reproduction. Some bacterial make their own food, (photosynthesis) Most get it from their environment. Most break down dead organisms, others live as parasites of living organisms. Two Kingdoms: Eubacteria & Archaebacteria The two kingdoms are classified by their cell shape and structure, types of food obtain and ways to obtain their food, the waste they produce. Good and Bad Bacteria Some bacteria are helpful, others are harmful. Good bacterial remove dead material on the surface of the Earth, recycle nutrients, remove environmental pollutants, Help make the foods we eat, help make the products we use. Bad Bacteria are pathogen that cause disease. Some produce toxins or poisonous substance. Protist Protists are a one or many celled organism that lives in moist or wet surroundings. Some are plant like and make their own food, others are animal like can’t make their own food, and can move around. Protists can reproduce sexually and asexually. Plant, Animal and Fungus Protists *Plant-like Protists-make their own food *Algae-Red, Green, and Brown. Thus called based on the pigmentation their produce. • Animal-like Protists-do not make their own food. • Protozoan classified by their movement. • Ciliates-move by cilia, short thread like structures. • Flagellates-moved through a watery environment by whipping their long flagella. • Psedopods-move by the use of temporary extensions of their cytoplasm. (false feet) • Fungus-like Protists-can not make their own food. • Slime, molds, mildew • Eats dead and decaying plants, animals and bacteria Fungi Fungus breaks down decaying matter and then consumes it. Both sexual and asexual reproduction Club Fungi-A club shaped structure called a basidium- a mushroom Sac Fungi-a sac like structure called asus-yeast, molds, morels and truffles Zygote Fungi-Fuzzy black mold-produce round spore cases called sporangium-molds found on fruit, bread, Lichens-a thread like fungus growing with a green alga or a cyan bacterium-they get their food from the alga or the cyan bacterium. Importance of Fungi Can destroy agricultural plants Can cause disease in humans and animals (ringworms, athlete’s feet) Some fungi can help humans because their naturally make antibiotics such as penicillium. Break down organic material, food scraps, dead plants and animals Immunity-Active and Passive First line of defense for the human body is the skin, respiratory, digestive and circulatory systems against pathogens. Skin-prevents many pathogens from entering the body Respiratory system-hair like structures called cilia and mucus like your nose traps and disposes most pathogens that do enter the body. Digestive system-saliva, enzymes, hydrochloric acid and mucus kill bacteria Circulatory System-white blood cells destroy pathogens that have invaded your body Active or Passive When your body make some of its own antibodies to fight off pathogens this is called active immunity. When antibodies enter your body that has been produced in another animal that is called passive immunity Some antibodies remain active in your body long after they have over come the pathogen, to prevent your body from being invaded again in the future. Vaccination is a form of antigens that gives you immunity against a pathogen, it prevents sickness does not cure the sickness. Infectious diseases Microorganism-can attack the human body the same way that they ruin foods and wines. Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria, certain viruses, protists, or fungi. Examples-malaria, sleeping sickness, ringworm, colds, influenza, AIDS, strep throat, measles, mumps, small pox even swelling of the brain and lung disease. Many diseases that are caused by pathogens can be treated with medicines An infectious disease can be spread from one organism to another through direct contact. Biological vectors are sources that can spread pathogens from one organism to another. These can include: rats, birds, cats, dogs, mosquitoes, fleas, flies and humans Noninfectious Disease Disease that are not caused by pathogens such as allergies, diabetes, asthma, cancer and heart disease. Can not spread from one organism to another. Many are chronic which means they can last for a long time. How Noninfectious diseases affect the body Allergy is an overly strong reaction of the immune system to foreign substance. Diabetes improper levels of insulin produced by the pancreas. Insulin regulates how much glucose (sugar) passes through the blood stream. Cancer uncontrolled cell growth